TYPES OF STRESSES

Only two basic stresses exist namely (1) normal stress and (2) shear stress. Other stresses either
are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of these, e.g., bending stress is a
combination of tensile, compressive, and shear stresses. torsional stress as encountered in the
twisting of the shaft is a shearing stress.

Normal stresses:

We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to the areas concerned,
then these are termed normal stresses. The normal stresses are generally denoted by a Greek
letter (ζ) or (σ). This is also known as the uniaxial state of stress because the stresses act only in
one direction.

Tensile or compressive Stresses:

The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive whether the stresses act out of the area
or into the area.

Shear stresses
Let us consider now the situation, where the cross–sectional area of a block of material is subject
to a distribution of forces that are parallel, rather than normal, to the area concerned. Such forces
are associated with the shearing of the material and are referred to as shear forces. The resulting
stress is known as shear stress.

units :
the basic units of stress in s.i units i.e. (international system) are n / m 2 (or pa) mpa
= 106 pa gpa = 109 pa kpa = 103 pa sometimes n / mm 2 units are also used, because
this is an equivalent to mpa. while us customary unit is pound per square inch psi.
Example 1.1
Calculate the diameter of a steel rod (in millimeters) to carry a tensile load of 90KN, if the stress
is not to exceed 100 MPa.
Data.
Force, F = 90kN = 90,000N
Stress, σ =100MPa = 100 N/mm2
π 2
Area of the cross-section, A = ×d , where d is the diameter of the rod
4
force , F
Stress (σ) =
Area , A
90,000
90,000 × 4
100 = π 2 = 2
×d π ×d
4

Diameter, d =
√ 90,000× 4
100 × π
= 33.85 mm

Example 2.
A cylindrical block of concrete is 40 cm long and circular cross-sectional area 20 cm diameter. It
carries a total compressive load of 70 kN, and this load contract 0.02 cm. Estimate the average
compressive stress over a normal cross-section and the compressive strain.
Data
Length, L =40 cm = 0.4 m
Diameter, d = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Compressive force, F = 70kN = 70,000N
Contraction, δ = 0.02cm = 0.0002m or 0.20 x 10−3 m
70 kN
π 2 π 2
Cross-sectional area = ×d = ×0.2 0.001571 m2
4 4

Average compressive stress, σc =

F 70000
40 cm =
A 0.001571
= 44,557,606 N/m or 44MN/m2

Average compressive strain, ϵc =

δ 0.0002
= 0.0005
L 0.4
70 kN

Definition of strain
When a system of forces acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. The measure of this
change in shape is called strain. When a body is under stress it undergoes strain according to the
configuration of the stress applied. Thus, direct stresses cause change in length, torsional or
shearing stresses caused twisting and bearing causes indentation in the bearing surface. Strain is
denoted by a Greek letter ϵ (epsilon) and given by the equation.

Where, δ is change in length and L is the original length.

δ
ϵ= ,
L

By definition strain is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension value. Hence,
strain is a dimension less quantity and has no units. The conventional away of expressing strain
is to relate it to s particular dimension to the original value of the dimension.
 increase∈lenght δ
Thus, Tensile Strain ϵ = =
original lenght L

Original Length L δ

Strained length = L + δ

Compressive strain, ε=
Increases∈lenght δ
=
original lenght L

Original length =L

Strain Length L - δ decrees in length

Area strain, ϵ =
change∈ area δ
=
original area A
Bulk or volumetric strain, ϵ = angular displacement caused by shearing strain
Bulk modulus (K): It is defined as the ratio of uniform stress intensity to the volumetric strain. It
is denoted by the symbol K.
Shear Strain
The distortion produced by shear stress on an element or rectangular block is shown in the
figure. The shear strain or „slide‟ is expressed by angle ϕ and it can be defined as the change in
the right angle. It is measured in radians and is dimensionless in nature.

Fig. cc
Torsional strain, ϵ = angular displacement caused by torsional strain
Poisson’s Ratio (μ)
The ratio lateral strain to longitudinal strain produced by a single stress is known as Poisson’s
ratio. Symbol used for poison’s ratio is nu or 1/ m.
Example 3.
Determine the increase in length of steel tie rod 3m long and 15 mm
diameter when subjected to tensile load of 120kN. Assuming Young
Modulus = 205kN/mm2.
Data
Length L= 3m = 3000mm
Diameter, D= 15mm = 15mm
Force, F =120kN =120 x 103 N
E =205kN/mm2 = 205 x103N/mm2
Solution
π
Cross-Sectional area, A = x (15)2 =176.7 mm2
4
F ×L
Young Modulus, E =
δ×A
3
F ×L 120 10 × 3000
Therefore, extension, δ = = = 9.939 mm
EA 3
205× 10 ×176.7
Example 4.
A prismatic bar with rectangular cross-section of 20 mm x 40 mm and 28 m long is subjected to
an axial tensile force of 80 kN as shown in Fig. 3. The measured elongation of the bar is 1.2 mm.
calculate the tensile stress and strain in the bar.

80kN 80kN 40mm

28 m 20 mm

Data
Length, L = 28 m 28 x 103 mm
Cross-sectional Area = 20 mm x 40mm= 800 mm2
force, F 80 kN 80 x 103N
Elongation 1.2 mm
Solution

Tensile Stress, σl =
F 80000
A
= 800 = 100 N/mm2

δ 1.2
Tensile strain,ϵl = = = 429 x 10-6
L 28000

Example 5.
Determine both the compressive stress in the shaft and bearing stress at the base of the column
shown below due to an axial load of 30MN.

30MN

Shaft =0.8m square

xx

Contact surface = 1.5 m square

yy

Base

Data
Square Sectional area of shaft = 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64 m2
Square Sectional area of bearing = 1.5 x1.5 = 2.25 m2
Axial force, F =30 MN = 30 x 106N
solution
6
30 x 10
Compressive stress (σc) in the shaft = = 46,875kN/m2
0.64
6
30 x 10
Compressive stress (σc) in the bearing = = 13,333kN/m2
2.25
HOOK’S LAW AND YOUNG’S MODULUSOR MUDULUS OF ELASTICITY
The values of the stress and the corresponding strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram
of the materials tested. A stress-strain diagram foe mild steel under tensile test is shown in Fig. 9.
The various properties of the material are discussed below.

Young’s modulus is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic material and is the quantity used to
characterize materials. It is defined as the ration of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in
the range of stress in which Hook’s law holds. In solid mechanics, the slop of the stress-strain
curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. The tangent modulus of the initial, linear
portion of a stress-strain curve is called young’s modulus, also is known as the tensile modulus.
It can be experimentally determined from the slop of stress-stain curve created during tensile
tests conducted on a sample of the materials. In anisotropic materials, young’s modulus may
have different value depending on the direction of the applied force with respect to the materials
structure.

It is also commonly called the elastic modulus (E) or modulus of elasticity, because young’s
modulus is the common elastic modulus used, but there are other elastic modulus measure too,
such as the bulk modulus and shear modulus.

Young’s modulus is the region of stress, which has units of pressure to strain which is
dimensionless, therefore, young’s modulus has units of pressure. The SI unit of modulus of
elasticity (E) is the pascal (Pa or N/m2). The practical units used are mega pascals (MPa or
N/mm2) or giga pascals (GPa or kN/mm2).

Young’s modulus E can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the tensile strain in the
elastic (initial, liner) portion of the stress-strain curve.

Tensile stress
E=
Tensile strain
 F
σ A FL
E = ε = ∆L = 0
A∆L
LO

Where,

E Is the Young’s Modulus.

F is the applied force on the object

A is the cross-sectional area of the object

∆L change in length or amount in the object

Lo the original length the object

EA∆L
Now F=
LO

E A / L0 = k i.e a constant and

∆L = x

Then the Hook’s law can be from derive this formula, which describe the stiffness of an ideal
spring: F= -kx

Modulus of Rigidity

For elastic materials it is found that shear stress is proportional to the shear strain within elastic
limit. The ratio is called modulus rigidity. It is denoted by the symbol „G‟ or „C‟.

Bulk modulus (K):

It is defined as the ratio of uniform stress intensity to the volumetric strain. It is denoted by the
symbol K.

Relation between elastic constants:

Elastic constants: These are the relations that determine the deformations produced by a given
stress system acting on a particular material. These factors are constant within elastic limit, and
known as modulus of elasticity E, modulus of rigidity G, Bulk modulus K and Poisson’s ratio μ.
 Fig. 10: Stress – strain diagram for mild steel

A typical tensile test curve for the mild steel has been shown in fig.10

Stress -Strain curve or diagram

A stress- stain curve is a graphical representation of the behavior of a material

when subjected to a load or force. The two characteristics that are plotted are stress
on the y-axis and strain on the x-axis.

Important points on the graph

(A) So it is obvious from the graph that the strain is proportional to strain or elongation is
proportional to the load giving a straight line relationship. This law of proportionality is valid up
to a point A. This point is known as the limit of proportionality or the proportionality limit.
(B) For a short period past the point A, the material may still be elastic in the sense that the
deformations are completely recovered when the load is removed. The limiting point B is termed
as Elastic Limit.
(C) and (D) – Above and beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not
totally recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or permanent set when load is
removed. These two points are termed as upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress at
the yield point is called the yield strength.
A study of a stress – strain diagrams indicates that the yield point is so near the proportional limit
that for most purpose the two may be taken as one. However, it is much easier to locate the
former. For material which do not possess a well define yield points, in order to find the yield
point or yield strength, an offset method is applied. In this method a line is drawn parallel to the
straight-line portion of initial stress diagram by offsetting this by an amount equal to 0.2% of the
strain as indicated below and this happens especially for the low carbon steel.

Fig. 11: Proof stress-strain curve

(E) A further increase in the load will cause noticeable deformation in the whole volume of the
metal. The maximum load which the specimen can withstand without failure is called the load at
the ultimate strength. The highest point E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength of
a material. su = Stress which the specimen can with stand without failure & is known as Ultimate
Strength or Tensile Strength. Su is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area
of the bar.
(F) Above point E, the bar begins to forms neck. The load falling from the maximum until
fracture occurs at F. Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area of the specimen begins to reduce
rapidly over a relatively small length of the bar and is said to form a neck. This necking takes
place whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar finally occurs at point F.
Nominal stress – Strain OR Conventional Stress – Strain diagrams:
Stresses are generally computed on the basis of the original area of the specimen; such stresses
are often referred to as conventional or nominal stresses.
True stress – Strain Diagram:
when a material is subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or expansion always takes
place. Therefore, dividing the applied force by the corresponding actual area of the specimen at
the same instant gives the so-called true stress.
Percentage Elongation: 'd ':
The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by its elongation and by the reduction
in area at the cross section where fracture occurs. It is the ratio of the extension in length of the
specimen after fracture to its initial gauge length, expressed in percentage.

δ
l f −¿l g
×100 ¿
lf

lf = gauge length of specimen after fracture (or the distance between the gauge marks at fracture)
lg= gauge length before fracture (i.e. initial gauge length)
For 50 mm gauge length, steel may here a % elongation d of the order of 10% to 40%.

Ductile and Brittle Materials:

Based on this behavior, the materials may be classified as ductile or brittle materials

Ductile Materials:

It we just examine the earlier tension curve one can notice that the extension of the materials
over the plastic range is considerably in excess of that associated with elastic loading. The
Capacity of materials to allow these large deformations or large extensions without failure is
termed as ductility. The materials with high ductility are termed as ductile materials.

Brittle Materials:

A brittle material is one which exhibits a relatively small extensions or deformations to fracture,
so that the partially plastic region of the tensile test graph is much reduced. This type of graph is
shown by the cast iron or steels with high carbon contents or concrete.
 Fig. 12: stress -strain curve of a brittle material

Mechanical Properties of material:

Elasticity: Property of material by virtue of which it can regain its shape after removal of
external load

Plasticity: Property of material by virtue of which, it will be in a state of permanent deformation

even after removal of external load.

Ductility: Property of material by virtue of which, the material can be drawn into wires.

Hardness: Property of material by virtue of which the material will offer resistance to
penetration or indentation.

A stress-strain curve is a graphical representation of the behavior of a material when it's

subjected to a load or force. The two characteristics that are plotted are stress on the y-axis and
strain on the x-axis. Stress is the ratio of the load or force to the cross-sectional area of the
material to which the load is applied. The standard units of measure for stress is newtons per
square meter squared. Strain, on the other hand, is a measure of the deformation of the material
as a result of the force applied. Deformation is a change in the shape or form of the material and
it has no units.

Materials fall into two basic categories: brittle materials and ductile materials. Brittle materials,
like glass, will break or fracture without bending when a large enough force is
applied. Ductile materials, like steel or aluminum, will bend when a force is applied. If the force
is large enough, the material will permanently deform and not return to its original shape. Let's
look at a few typical stress-strain curves.
Fig. xx

[Link]
In other words, in many cases we are dealing with either ductile material such as low carbon
steel or cupper, tough materials such as titanium alloys, or brittle materials such as ceramics and
glasses. Fig xx below explains the differences in the stress strain curve which may appear in
difference materials.
 Fig xx
Elasticity, plasticity toughness and hardness
Elasticity

Toughness
The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before fracture is
termed toughness. The emphasis of this definition should be placed on the ability to absorb
energy before fracture. Recall that ductility is a measure of how much something deforms
plastically before fracture, but just because a material is ductile does not make it tough. The key
to toughness is a good combination of strength and ductility. A material with high strength and
high ductility will have more toughness than a material with low strength and high ductility.
Therefore, one way to measure toughness is by calculating the area under the stress. Strain curve
from a tensile test. This value is simply called “material toughness” and it has units of energy per
volume. Material toughness equates to a slow absorption of energy by the material.
Stress concentration is the accumulation of stress in a body due to sudden change in its
geometry. When there is a sudden change in the geometry of the body due to cracks, sharp
corners, holes and decrease in the cross-section area, then there is an increase in the localized
stress near these cracks, sharp corners, holes, and decreased cross section area. The body tends to
fail from these places where the stress concentration is more. Therefore, to prevent a body from
getting failed, the concentration of stress should be avoided or reduced . It is also called as stress
raisers or stress risers.

Cause:

The stress concentration in a body happens because of the sudden change in the geometry of the
body due to cracks, sharp corners, holes, decrease in the cross-section area. Due to these
irregularities, there is an increase in the intensity of stress in the body.

Effect

When a body has stress concentration in it, the chances of its failure increases. The body tends to
fail from the place where it has more concentration of stress. A body has less life that has more
irregularities within it. In order to increase the life of the body, the intensity of stress should be
reduced.

Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration

There are number of ways to reduce stress concentration in a body and some of these are
(1) Avoiding sharp corners by providing a fillet radius at the sharp corners.

By providing the fillet radius at sharp corners, the cross-section area decreases gradually instead
of suddenly. And this distributes the stress in the body more uniformly. This is shown in the
figure given below.

(2) By providing small holes near a big hole.

If we have an object, that has an internal hole within it. Then the intensity of stress near
that hole is more. To avoid this, some smaller holes are created near that hole. This
distributes the stress more uniformly than it was before. This is shown in the figure given
below.

(3) By decreasing the nominal diameter of a threaded object and make it equal to the core diameter.

Suppose we have a threaded object. And the intensity of stress at threaded part is more.
The chances of object may fail is more at the threaded part. This can be avoided by
decreasing the nominal diameter of the shank and make it equal to the core diameter. This
will distribute the stress more uniformly in the object with threads.