Philosophy In ancient India

Prelims 2022
KaptaanJackSparrow
2nd Edition, Last updated 29/01/22
Note to the reader:
These notes on Philosophy is just the compilation of various sources (mentioned at last) and
part of my 17 pdfs series on Art and Culture for Civil Services (Pre) 2022.
At times, you may feel exhausted after reading notes in this series as they cover truck
load of information. It is advised here that instead of merely cramming everything, try to
understand the core concepts and if somewhere you literally have to cram the information, try
to create your own (sort of) cheat codes for it.
At some places, try to go through the slides rather slowly as here efficient reading will
help you in understanding the trend in/of information.
This file requires atleast 2-3 revisions to remember 80% of its content. Expecting
100% will be too mechanical to ask. Revise more to retain more.

Best wishes,
Kaptaan

Suggestions? Feedback? Errors?

Write to me here: writing2kjs@[Link]
 Shruti Smriti
• “That which has been heard” • “That which has been
• Unquestionable truth and is remembered”
eternal. • Supplementary, may change
• Mainly Vedas. with time.
• Bedrock of Shruti.
 VEDAS
 Knowledge to conduct the life on earth and beyond.
 Stylised poetic style => language is full of symbols and myths.
 Compiled around 3000-1000BC.
 Considered sacred bcz divine revelations, determined by gods to guide us eternally.
 All Vedas give prominence to yagna {sacrifice}.

VEDANGAS:
• These are like branches/limbs of the Vedas.
• They are like supplement to original texts and
concentrate on topics like Siksha, nirukta jyotisha,
vyakarana etc.
VEDAS Breakdown:
 Each of the four Veda is divided into 4 parts:
• Roughly speaking, the Samhitas and Brahmanas constitute Karma Kanda
• Aranyakas the Upasana Kanda
• and the Upanishads the Jnana Kanda.
 Classification:
• Rig Veda – Hymns whose function was to invoke the deities.

• Sama Veda – Collection of all the musical chants.

• Yajur Veda – Defines actions to be performed during Yagnas or sacrificial rites.

• Atharva Veda – Contains mantras to ward off evil/hardship.

 VEDA DESCRIPTION
RIG VEDA • Hymns in praises of different gods.
• Contains Purushasukta = Four varnas {BKVS} born
from the mouth, arms, belly & legs of the Creator.
SAM VEDA • Collection of melodies. {Lyrical}
• Contains stanzas from rig Veda; set to the tune for
singing.
YAJUR VEDA • Procedures & short magic spells to be adopted/used
at the time of performing different sacrifices.
ATHARVA VEDA • Popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk.
• It contains charms and spells in verses to ward off
diseases and evils.
 Vedic and Pre-Vedic cult
Worshippers of the forces of nature like the sun and the moon >> substantiated by
Aryans text too.
The nature of the religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans is also known from the
Rig Veda, they believed in many gods like Indra, varuna, agni, surya and rudra.
Sacrifices, and ritual offering of food and drink to fire in honour of the gods, constituted
the main religious practices. The Sama veda and the Yajur veda elaborated the different
aspects of the sacrificial acts and this ritualism was further elaborated in the
Brahmanas.
The Atharva Veda contained a great deal of animistic beliefs.
Aranyaka and Upanishad sections of the Vedic literature envisage a progressive outlook.
 Unorthodox Cult
 Mahavira and the Buddha ignored the infallibility and supernatural origin of
the vedas.
 Both Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic creeds in the beginning.
 However, buddhism endorsed the doctrine of the law of karma and upheld
the belief in rebirths of the embodied Skandhas and the inevitability of suffering
in the very existence of beings.
 Many of these view points are also found in the major upanishads.
 Buddhism converged to brahmanism in the later time.
 Renunciatory tradition:
 Age of urban affluence, marked by distinctions of class and caste, was also the
age of renunciants who advocated giving up all material things and social
relationships.
 The renunicants were referred to by various terms including:
 Paribbajaka {Parivrajaka} = Wanderer
 Samana {Shramana} = the one who strives i.e. to realise the truth
 Bhikkhu {Bhikshu} = one who lives by begging alms.
 This, however was not a new idea as Vedic texts mentions words like
vanaprasthi, tapasi, vati, yogi, vairagi, sannyasi and vaikhanasa – all of which have
elements of renunciation.
 Folk Cult
o Yakshas and Nagas:
o Vasudeva/Krishna Worship:
o Panini’s Ashtadhyayi refers to the worshippers of Vasudeva (Krishna).
o The Chhandogya Upanishad also speaks of Krishna
o Bhagavatas: people who worshipped Krishna as their personal God
o This cult grew absorbing within its fold other Vedic and Brahminic divinities like
Vishnu (primarily an aspect of the sun) and Narayana (a cosmic God).
oFrom the late Gupta period the name mostly used to designate this Bhakti cult was
Vaishnava.
oVaishnava: predominance of Vedic Vishnu element in it with emphasis on the
doctrine of incarnations (avataras).
 Yakshas and Yakshinis:
o Yakshas were deities connected with water, fire, forest, trees etc.
o From literary evidence: this benevolent, powerful deity who was
focus of exclusive worship was metamorphosed to a terrifying,
demonic creature, reduced to the position of a subsidiary
attendant figure associated more with fertility than with wealth.
o Yakshis or Yakshinis were originally benign with fertility.
o Many of the shalabhanjikas – generic term for sensuous
sculptural representations of women grasping the branch of a tree
– found across the country.
o Yakshas and yakshinis are noted in Brahmanical, Buddhist and
Jain literature as demonic and frightening creatures.
o Manibhadra found at Mathura: tutelary deity of merchants and Yaksha Manibhadra
travellers, especially worshipped at trading centres.
 Nagas and Nagis
o Associated with water and fertility.
o Originally worshipped exclusively but later dominant thoughts absorbed them.
Ex: Krishna subduing Kaliya naga, Shiva wearing naga etc.
o Similar to yaksha cult these are also common to Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain
literature.
 Vedic Philosophy
 Vedic philosophical gave rise to six different schools of philosophies called shada
darshana.
 They fall in the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the
Vedas is recognised by all of them.
 Samkhya: Purush-Prakriti
 Yoga: God as teacher and guide
 Nyaya: Logic – reasoning – Knowledge
 Vaisheshika: Highest good will be achieved from Dharma.
 Mimansa: Sacrifice is liberating
 Vedanta: Brahman is supreme rest all is illusionary.
Samkhya # Kapila, Samkhya sutra

 Literal meaning “count”. Oldest school.

 Believes in Satkaryavada and Parinamavada the basic theory of causation that
explains transformation of what is in the cause into the effect.
 Two Realities: Prakriti, Purusha >> Both completely independent and absolute.
{Dualism}
 The doctrine of evolution = Dew some relationship >> creation of universe.
 Purusha is mere consciousness >> cannot be modified or changed.
 Prakriti(matter) constituted of three attributes{Teen Guna}, thought, movement
and the change or transformation >> these attributes brings about the change in
all objects.
 Denies God but rebirth and transmigration of soul are inherent in Samkhya.
doctrine of evolution

The Purusha or the self is neither

the cause nor the effect of anything.

Prakriti is the uncaused cause of all

the objects.
Salvation: only through acquisition of “Knowledge”.
And this knowledge is acquired through:

Samkhya formed philosophical basis of Yoga.

Evolution by Samkhya
Yoga # Patanjali, Yoga sutra

 Practical of achieving the understanding of self associated with Samkhya.

 Yoga = the union of the two principal entities.
 But existence of God as a teacher and guide.
 Yoga systematically brings about the release of purusha from prakriti.
 Yoga = a means of achieving freedom or mukti. Kaivalya by cessation of
modification of chitta.
 This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation of
rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an
object(pratyahara) and fixing the mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen
object (dhyana) and complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and the
object (Samadhi).
 Nyaya #Gautama, Nyaya Sutras

 School of analysis. Technique of logical thinking

 Valid knowledge is defined as the real knowledge. Many later philosophers
claimed to belong to this school like Vatsyayan {wrote Nyaya Bhasya} and
Udayan {wrote Kusumanjali}
 Logical tools like inference, hearing and analogy.
 Nyaya system of philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and
destroys the universe.
 Vaisheshika #Kanada

 The realistic and objective philosophy of universe. Pluralistic Realism.

 Reality has many bases or categories which are substance, attribute, action,
genus, distinct quality and inherence.
 All objects composed of five elements – earth, water, air, fire and ether.
 God is the guiding principle. The living beings were rewarded or punished
according to the law of karma, based on actions of merit and demerit.
 Creation and destruction of universe was a cyclic process and took place in
agreement with the wishes of God.
 Universe explained by atomic theory.
Mimansa #Gaimini Sutras

 Interpretation, reasoning and application.

 Interpretation, application and the use of the text of the Samhita and
Brahmana portions of the Veda.
 Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and religion means the
fulfilment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
 This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika systems and
emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge.
 The law of righteousness itself.
 This system lays stress on the ritualistic part of Vedas. {reasoning of them}
 Salvation => perform rituals.
 For rituals, need priests and hence social distance b/w various classes.
 In early Mimansa doctrine, the gods were irrelevant only sacrifice was
central. Later accepted the existence of supreme god.
 Vedanta #Shankracharya
 Brahmaputra of Badarayana formed its basic text.
 Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the concluding portion of
the Vedas.
 Brahman is existent, unchanging, the highest truth and the ultimate
knowledge. He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman
and the self.
 Brahma and atma indestructible.
 Believed in theory of rebirth and karma.
 All different religions are like so many roads, which lead to same goal.
 UM emphasized the path of knowledge rather than path of sacrifices (PM)
and results of sacrifices are impermanent while knowledge (brahman) was
eternal and unchanging.
 Charvaka #Brihaspati

 Finds mention in Vedas and Brihandarankya Upanishad.

 The materialistic philosophy. Rejected the ideas of eternal soul, rebirth and
laws of Karma.
 Also known as the Lokayata Philosophy – the philosophy of the masses.
 Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans and
pleasure the ultimate object in life. Charvaka recognises no existence other
than this material world.
 Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised
by Charvakas.
 Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do
not recognise ether as it is not known through perception.
 The whole universe according to them is thus consisted of four elements
 It is one logical and rational philosophy.
 Holds perception as the primary and proper source of knowledge.
Charvakas underplay inference as conditional or invalid for gaining
knowledge.
 Later schools: Dhrutta and Sushikshita.

Dhrutta Sushikshita
Only four elements – earth, water, Accepted the idea of soul but this
air and fire – existed. And Rejected soul was not eternal – destroyed
the idea of soul. when body is destroyed.
Ajivikas #Gosala
 Followers of doctrine of immutability or pre-determined belonging to
religious orders or sect. Source = Bhagawati Sutras. {BS}
 Naked wandering ascetics. Often eating very little, practices ahimsa, but BS
mentions that they were allowed to eat meat.
 Gosala >> senior contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira.
 Popular during reign of Bindusara.
 Follows doctrine of Niyati or Destiny.
 Human effort was of no consequence in this strictly deterministic doctrine.
 Karma and transmigration existed, but human effort played no role in it, as
paths of souls over a thousands of years are already mapped.
 They are called rigid fatalists and determinists: all affairs of universe ordered
by cosmic force niyati, thus, karma is a fallacy.
 Nirvana? Live thousands of lives, last being Ajivika monk.
Ajnana
 Heterodox, school of radical Indian skepticism. Although some traces in Rig veda
and Upanishads.
 Part of Sramana movement.
 It was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the
truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it
was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation.
 They were specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of
their own.
 In the Pali texts, the Sceptics are nicknamed Amarāvikkhepikas, which translates
as "eel-wrigglers," probably in reference to their "verbal jugglery."
 Varna:
 Quadruple division: a form of social classification.
 The concept is generally traced to the Purusha Sukta verse of the Rig Veda.
 Post-Vedic period: Varna division is described in the Dharmashastra literature,
the Mahabharata and in the Puranas. In Manusmriti, it is type of social classes.
 The later explanations invariably created Brahmins a supreme class.
 Varna system is also present in Buddhist and Jaina texts, but for them, powerful
religious sanction associated with Brahmanical tradition was lacking.
 Also, both these traditions placed the Kshatriya above Brahmana in hierarchy.
 Gotra (clan affiliation) was an important basis of Brahmana identity.
 Dharmashastra accepted inter-varna marriages (Anuloma vs Pratiloma).
 Jati:
 Another social institution.
 Dharmasutras explain the origin of jati through ingenious but fictitious theory of
mixture of varnas.
 Pg 483: Upinder singh gives a good discussion on Varna and Jati. Excerpts:
 Varna – 4 but jatis numerous can’t be counted.
 Both are hierarchical orders but ranking in Varna is fixed, jatis have more fluidity.
 Varna had limited rules for discouraged social interaction among various varnas, but jatis
have more elaborated and clearly established rules of commensality – giving birth to ideas of
purity and pollution.
 Varnas are associated with range of occupations, while jatis (atleast) beginning were
associated with specific occupations.
Antyajas: groups considered lowly
Chandalas: extremely untouchables,
born of worst pratiloma union
Smritikaras: law givers
Kammakaras: slaves, dasas
 Ashrama
 Four stages of the Brahmanic
scheme of life.
 One facet of Dharma
concept.
 Expression of theory of
Purushartha: four proper
goals of human life
(Purusartha), for fulfilment,
happiness and spiritual
liberation.
 Stage Details

Brahmacharya Memorization, skill development + character formation, self-realization.

Marry, extending their responsibilities to include wife, children,

Grihastha relatives, and society in general.
This ashram is the only one permitting sexual gratification.
Gradually retire from family responsibilities and, with his wife, begin to
focus his mind on spiritual matters. Often he goes on pilgrimage.
Vanaprastha
His wife may accompany him, but all sexual relationships are
forbidden. Vanaprashta literally means “forest-dweller.”
Only to men who exhibit the qualities of a brahmana.
The man would leave home and family and was prohibited from seeing
Sannyasi
his wife again. Considered civilly dead, he was free to wander, living a
life dependent on God alone.
The-PYQs
 The-PYQs
Q-CSP-2020
With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs :
1. Parivrajaka - Renunciant and Wanderer
2. Shramana - Priest with a high status
3. Upasaka- Lay follower of Buddhism
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
 The-PYQs
Q-CSP-2013
With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consider the following
statements regarding Sankhya school:
1. Sankhya does not accept the theory of rebirth or transmigration of soul.
2. Sankhya holds that it is the self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any
exterior influence or agent. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
 The-PYQs
Q-CSP-2011
The “dharma” and “rita” depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization of India.
In this context, consider the following statements:
1. Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one’s duties to
oneself and to others.
2. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and
all it contained. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Questions from
TTS-21
 TTS-Qs
Q
Dhruta and Sushikshita were sub schools of which of the following philosophical
thought of ancient India?
A. Ajivikas
B. Charvaka
C. Buddhism
D. Ajnana
 TTS-Qs
Q
With respect to Indian Philosophy, consider the following statements:
1. Sāṃkhya philosophy has a dualist view on the existence of things.
2. Nyaya philosophy assumes that misunderstanding or misconception is the root
cause of human sufferings.
3. Yoga Philosophy does not believe in existence of god.
Which of these statements are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Other Questions
from IASEC
 IASEC-Qs
Q
Saptamatrikas are a group of seven female deities worshipped in Hinduism as
personifying the energy of their respective consorts. Which of the following is not
part of this group?
A. Maheshvari
B. Vaishnavi
C. Yami
D. Saraswati
 IASEC-Qs
Q
“It believes in satkaryavada, and parinamavada the basic theory of causation that
explains transformation of what is in the cause into the effect. Its theory of liberation
is just the absolute and complete cessation of all pain without a possibility of return,
as purusa realizes itself dissociated with the prakrti.”
Which Indian philosophical school is being referred to in the passage?
A. Sankhya
B. Yoga
C. Nyaya
D. None of these
 IASEC-Qs
Q
Which of the following was not strictly a part of Sramana movement of ancient India?
A. Ajnana
B. Avidya
C. Ajivikas
D. Lokayata
 IASEC-Qs
Q
With reference to the Yoga School of Philosophy, consider the following statements:
1. The school believes that the present manifestation of Gunas in an individual is
result of some divine power identified as God.
2. The ideas of Hatha Yoga are scarcely philosophical but more about physical training
with strong religious linkages.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. None of these
 IASEC-Qs
Q
With reference to the Yoga School of Philosophy, consider the following statements:
1. The school believes that the present manifestation of Gunas in an individual is
result of some divine power identified as God.
2. The ideas of Hatha Yoga are scarcely philosophical but more about physical training
with strong religious linkages.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. None of these
 References:
Primary references – NIOS material and Various NCERTs.
Secondary references - AnC Book by Nitin S, Krishna Reddy book
Marginal references - Wonder that was India, AL Bhasam, Romila Thapar book,
Ancient India by RS Sharma, Upinder Singh – Selective reading,
Random reference - Cultural history of India – AL Bhasam
Last Resort - Google :p
Best Wishes