Theories of Motivation “Issues” with Maslow’s Need Model

Motivation-an internal state that induces a person to [Link] typically do well satisfying lower order
engage in particular behaviors. needs.

Characteristics of Motivation 2. Model stipulates that there are 5 needs and that the
order is “fixed”. Research indicates some may only have
•Direction –refers to the choice of specific behaviors
2 3 need hierarchy; others 5 6. The order may also be
from a large number of possible behaviors.
inverted and meeting needs outside of work not
•Intensity-refers to the amount of effort a person accounted for.
expends at a task
3. Model not developed from average employees
•Persistence-refers to the continuing engagement in a
-Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory
behavior over time.

Misconceptions about Motivation

*Current generation has no work ethic

* Some people are born “lazy”

* Most people are motivated by the same thing

Why is Motivation Important?

•Under optimal conditions, effort can often be

increased and sustained

•Delegation without constant supervision is always

necessary

•Employees can become self-motivated

[Link] are arranged on a continuum rather than
•Motivated employees can provide competitive hierarchy. People can move back and forth from one
advantage by offering suggestions & working to satisfy category of need to another and lack of fulfillment of
customers needs in one category can affect needs in another
*Motivation is accomplishing things through the category.
efforts of others. If you cannot do this, you will fail as [Link] needs involve material objects that address
a manager. physiological desires and necessities for basic survival.
Job performance = f (ability X motivation X [Link] needs are similar to social needs and
organizational support) involve relationships with significant others.
2 Major Theories of Motivation 4. Growth needs concern creativity or productivity
•Content Theories within the self or in the environment. It implies that the
person is fully utilizing his capabilities or developing
-focus on the factors within a person that energize, additional capabilities.
direct, sustain and stop behavior.
5. Frustration-regression, when people are frustrated in
-look at the specific needs that motivate people their attempts to fulfill needs at one level, they will
Focus on individual needs in explaining job satisfaction, regress to needs at a more concrete level.
behavior and reward systems. -Federick Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
Individual need deficiencies activate tensions within a Herzberg’s Theory Rests on 2 Assumptions
person that trigger a behavioral response.
1.) Being satisfied with one’s job is equivalent to being
•How do we identify these needs? motivated; “a satisfied worker is a motivated worker”
•How can we understand these needs to maximize the 2.) Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate
motivational impact of the programs we design? concepts with unique determinants based on work with
-Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs accountants and engineers

Herzberg’s 2-Factor Theory

Determinants of Job Dissatisfaction are Hygiene*

Factors:

•Pay, fringe benefits •Working conditions

•Quality of supervision •Interpersonal relations

•Organizational policies
Job Environment Factors* Poor hygiene can make you, •Process Theories
sick, but good hygiene won’t necessarily make you
-Provide a description and analysis of how behavior is
healthy
energized, directed, sustained and stopped.
Determinants of Job Satisfaction are Motivator Factors:
[Link] theories attempt to explain how behavior is
(Growth needs) energized, directed, sustained and stopped.

•Work itself, responsibility •Advancement [Link] major process theories include Expectancy,
Equity, Goal setting and reinforcement.
•Recognition •Achievement
THE GOALS OF PROCESS THEORIES ARE TO EXPLAIN
Job Content Factors
THOUGHTS ABOUT EFFORT:
[Link] factors can lead to satisfaction but their
1.) the decision to expend effort
absence can lead only to lack of satisfaction, not
dissatisfaction. 2.) the level of effort to exert

[Link] factors can lead to dissatisfaction rather than 3.) how effort can be made to persist over time
satisfaction.
-Expectancy Theory
Assessment of Herzberg
Explain how rewards lead to behavior by focusing on
Contributions internal cognitive states that lead to motivation. It
explains when and why it will occur.
•1st to argue that job content/job design was important
People will be motivated when they believe that their
•Job enrichment (the work itself) as a job satisfaction
behavior will lead to rewards or outcomes that they
strategy
want. If they do not want the contingent rewards, they
•Model appealing and easy to understand will not be motivated to perform a behavior.

Criticisms

•May be “method-bound” by self-serving bias

•Some individual differences, like desire for pay,

rejected as a motivator.

•Also, not everyone wants an enriched job

•Assumes satisfaction (presence of motivators) =

motivation

-David McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

Implications for Managers

•Need to offer employees valued rewards (high

valences)

•Need to ensure that if people are willing to put forth

effort that you help them succeed. Maintain the E link
(Provide tools, info, support)

•Need to make sure that you follow through with

reward system that is tied to performance. Maintain
the I link (Differential rewards for performance)

-Equity Theory/ Social Comparison

What is the basis of equity theory?

•…the thinking process by which one makes a decision

to exert effort is a function of social comparison
-Goal Setting Theory
•Based on individual perceptions of outcomes(what
your receive from expending effort to complete a task), REASONING BEHIND GOAL SETTING
job inputs(what you bring or contribute to the task) and
Direction-specific goals direct your focus to relevant
perceptions of a referent person( similar work
activities
situations).
Effort-need to devote more intense levels of effort
toward difficult goals -assumes people are goal driven

Persistence-specific, difficult goals encourage you to

persist longer at a task than would be the case without

such goals

Only possible exception is high “uncertainty avoidance”

cultures.

Goal Setting theory

Hypothesize that specific goals lead to better

performance than do vague goals.

Getting employees to set and strive to attain specific,

How does equity theory work?
relatively challenging goals can generate a strong
•Employees mentally construct outcome-to-input ratios motivational force.
for themselves and their referent other and “socially
Effort increases as task difficulty increases. However,
compare”
there is a point at which the task is perceived as being
•If equity exists, you experience no tension and persist too difficult and the effort actually decreases.
at your current level of effort
-Reinforcement theory or operant conditioning : How
•When Outcome Self=/= Outcome Reference person Rewards & Reinforcements Sustain Motivation Over

Input Self Input Reference person •Some view as an explanation of motivation; others
limit it to how motivation is sustained over time.
Tension is created and employees are “motivated” to
restore equity •Does not have to rely on needs, perceptions or
cognitions. Managers can design work environment to
provide “reinforcers” that strengthen desired behaviors
& weaken undesired behaviors. “Motivation is a
function of the environment”.
•Others allow for cognitions in that people can observe Ex.: A company vacation to Hawaii for all employees
rewards and punishments applied to others. Called after a new contract landed; spot bonuses.
social learning or vicarious learning.

Motivation as a Form of Learning: The Law of Effect

•Behavior that leads toward rewards tends to be

repeated

•Behavior that tends to lead toward no rewards or

toward punishment tends to be avoided

•The type of reinforcer & the timing(schedule) of

reinforcement are key

Reinforcers Which Strengthen Behavior: What

managers can do to increase the probability of
behavior in the future

a. Positive reinforcement--rewards contingent on

exhibiting the correct behavior.

b. Avoidance Learning—withholding something

unpleasant when a desired behavior is engaged in (e.g.,
an annoying alarm is avoided when a machine is used
properly, not operating in reverse). Or, using social
learning, noticing how engaging in some behavior
avoids an unpleasant outcome (e.g., arrive on time and
the boss does not yell). Text: Negative reinforcement

Reinforcers Which Weaken Behavior: What managers

can do to decrease the probability of behavior in the
future

a. Punishment--administering unpleasant consequences

following an undesirable behavior.

b. Extinction--when there are no rewards for a behavior

which was previously rewarded.

Timing of Reinforcement

a. How quickly reinforcers work depends on their

timing

b. Continuous. Used to “shape” new behaviors

c. But continuous reinforcement is impractical

1. Costly

2. Not as effective in sustaining behavior over time

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

1. Based on passage of time

Fixed Interval-Reinforcer given after set period of time.

Ex.: Weekly pay.

Variable Interval-Reinforcer given randomly with

passage of time.

Ex.: Surprise bonus based on time.

2. Based on behavior exhibited by the employee (team)

Fixed Ratio-Reinforcers based on behaviors.

Ex.: Piece rate pay.

Variable Ratio-Reinforcers applied randomly after

exhibition of behaviors.
Performance appraisal Criteria used in performance appraisal

• human resource management activity • Trait criteria- are the most traditional
• to determine the extent to which an employee is performance criteria in use. Although they are
performing the job effectively. convenient, they are poor criteria for
• process of evaluation and documentation of performance appraisal. They confine the
personnel performance in order to make a evaluator to making judgements strictly on
judgement that leads to decisions regarding ambiguous terms such as initiative, which result in
training and development, promotion, unreliable appraisals among raters. Although traits
remuneration and selection may be potentially useful predictors of
performance, situational and non-personality
Performance Management
factors may also influence performance.
• can be used to provide feedback about the o Traits refer to observable dimensions of
strengths and weaknesses of employees, to personality, such as initiative, friendliness
distinguish between individuals to allocate and aggressiveness
rewards • Behavioural criteria - measure behaviour
• to evaluate and maintain the human resource exhibited by the employee, such as asking
system of the organization (e.g. training and subordinates for ideas and suggestions to solve
development, allocate rewards effectively) job-related problems. These criteria permit the
• create a paper trail to document the reasons for organization to specify the job behaviour relevant
certain actions, such as dismissing an employee. for getting the job done properly. These criteria
are very useful for identifying employees’ training
Performance management and feedback and development needs, and communicating to
• they want to learn about themselves and find out them how they may improve their performance.
whether they are making progress. Behavioural criteria are not useful for
• Expectations can be made clear, employees can be administrative purposes, because different
managed more effectively, and participative behaviours may result in similar performance
management practices can be established by outcomes.
using performance appraisal in the correct way. • Output criteria - refer to the results of work such
• Satisfaction with performance appraisal might as sales or production volume, and number of
lead to high morale, motivation and productivity typing mistakes in a letter. Output criteria specify
(Mani, 2002). the employee’s contribution to the achievement
• Dissatisfaction with the system, however, may of organizational goals. These criteria are
lead to decreased motivation, feelings of inequity objective, and there is little bias in evaluating
and staff turnover (Dobbins et al, 1990). someone’s behaviour based on job results.

Purposes Requirements of performance measurement system

1. Valid - measures what it intends to measure.

• Developmental purposes- Performance appraisal
2. Reliable - measures accurately.
can determine which employees need more
3. Objective - applies clear procedures.
training and helps evaluate the results of training
4. Standardized - uses the same items for each
programmes. It provides feedback about the
worker.
strengths and weaknesses of employees.
5. Practical - simple and easy to administer
• Reward purposes- Performance appraisal helps
the organization decide who should receive pay Performance Appraisal Methods
raises and promotions.
• A systematic process must be followed to ensure
• Motivational purposes- Performance appraisal
that accurate and reliable data are gathered.
has a motivating effect because most employees
want feedback about their performance. • Users of appraisal systems often feel dissatisfied
with these systems, not only because they are not
• Human resource planning purposes- Performance
valid, but also because they are not perceived as
appraisal data are an important input to human
instruments that develop and motivate people
resource planning.
(Latham and Mann, 2006).
• Communication purposes- Performance appraisal
is a basis for ongoing discussion between Evaluation against COMMON performance standards
managers and employees about job-related
matters. • Graphic Rating Scale- It requires the appraiser to
rate the employee’s performance among selected
• Human resource management research
traits, behaviour or outputs on a descriptive scale
purposes- Performance appraisal can be used to
that ranges from low performance to high
validate selection techniques (e.g. psychometric
performance. The outcome of the rating process
testing programmes).
produces a performance assessment on each
 performance category, and the ratings given for separate cards. The appraiser selects two names,
each standard can be summed to get an overall compares them with the criterion in question, and
evaluation of performance. Downside would be places the ‘loser’ in a new pile. The ‘winner’ and a
that fact that it is often low in job relatedness, new person are then compared. The process is
reliability and validity. repeated until all employees have been ranked
• Checklists- uses behaviour descriptions. In from first place to last.
contrast to graphic rating scales, which are often • Forced Distribution- is a ranking method that
not based on job analysis, checklists use the requires the appraiser to distribute the employees
critical incident method of job analysis to arrive to be ranked into specified performance
at the items for the scale. A simple checklist may categories. The appraiser can place the employees
list (10) ten to (20) twenty items that are believed into one of five categories of performance. The
to reflect effective and ineffective job proportion of employees to be placed in each
performance. category is also decided beforehand.

Evaluation against INDIVIDUALIZED performance Why would training in how to conduct performance
standards appraisals be an important issue for organizations to
consider?
- Results-oriented systems take the organization’s
objectives for a given period and distribute them - Training in performance management and
among the departments appraisal is essential for all managers and
• Direct Index Method - is concerned with global supervisors. Studies showed that trained raters
outcomes of job performance. For example, a were more accurate than untrained raters (Arvey
marketing job’s required output may include and Murphy, 1998)
performance goals regarding sales volume, and
Content of Appraiser Training
profit from those sales. The level of performance
for each goal is objectively defined, and • The underlying management philosophy Of the
numerical performance ratings reflecting each system.
performance level for the goal are specified. • The underlying values Of the system.
Overall performance is determined by summing • Techniques used in the system.
the numerical ratings • Negotiation Of goals and communication Of
• Management by Objectives- concerns itself with standards.
establishing goals for selected tasks whose • Human relations aspects.
performance is needed to attain departmental • Preparation Of employees for performance
effectiveness in the short run. The MBO process appraisal.
consists of the following explicitly defined steps: • Handling Of performance appraisal problems.
a) Set performance goals for a specified period. • Feedback interviews.
b) The supervisor and lastly, employee • Discussing low performance with workers.
participate in goal setting. c) Performance • Observing and recording skills and rating errors.
feedback.
• Performance dimensions and standards.
Evaluation against OTHERS • Linking performance with rewards.
• Administrative aspects
The evaluation of employees against each other is
important for making various decisions, such as who is Performance Feedback
ready for promotion. This leads to a rank order of
Appraisers must learn that ongoing feedback is the most
employees according to their performance. Ranking is,
important factor in maintaining or improving employee
however, of little use for employee feedback purposes, for
performance. The supervisor has the opportunity to
compensation decisions and for identifying employee
Observe the employee's performance, discuss that
development needs. Ranking tells only who is the best
performance and, if necessary, help the employee to
and who is the worst, but it is difficult to determine the
improve that performance.
performance positions of the people in between.
Rating Errors
• Simple Ranking- is done by asking a judge to
place a group of individuals in order of merit Appraiser bias is regarded as One Of the problems
along some criterion. This process is easy at first, associated with performance appraisal. Latham and
but gets harder. When the appraiser cannot Mann (1996) summarize some Of the recent research
distinguish between employees, a tie rank can be findings regarding appraiser bias as follows: a) Ratings
given to both. were a stronger reflection Of raters' Overall biases than
• Paired Comparison Ranking- appraisers compare true performance factors. B) supervisors' positive regard
every possible pair of individuals on overall for subordinates’ results in leniency and halo errors, and
performance, or against specific standards. The less inclination to punish poor performance. C) Gender
names of all people to be ranked are written on and race bias play a role when ratings are made.
Furthermore, this reduces the reliability, validity and
utility Of the performance appraisal system (Roberts, - The employee's performance. He or she must be
1998). Therefore, raters should be aware Of rating errors. able to answer any employee questions and to
justify the rating given to the employee.
The most common rating errors
- Knowledge of the self. The supervisor or manager
• Halo effect. An extremely good or poor rating in must review his or her own strengths and
one performance category induces the appraiser weaknesses in interacting with people, in
to give correspondingly good or poor ratings on all particular the ability to give negative feedback in a
the other performance categories. constructive manner
• Central tendency. The employee’s ratings on all
Conducting for the Performance Appraisal Interview
performance standards cluster around the
middle point of the rating scale. Although most - Structure and control the interview. The purpose
people are average performers overall, most can of the interview must be stated, control over the
also be differentiated along specific performance interview must be maintained, and an organized
standards. Giving average ratings can be unfair and prepared approach must be shown. No
towards outstanding performers. interruptions should occur during the interview.
• Leniency rating effects. The appraiser rates The employee should be oriented towards future
everyone on the positive end of the rating scale performance by emphasizing the development of
regardless of actual levels of performance strengths. Ways to accomplish performance
• Strict rating effects. The appraiser rates everyone improvements should be discussed. At the end of
lower than their actual level of performance. the interview, a summary should be provided of
• Recency effects. The appraiser is influenced by all the major points.
the employee’s most recent positive or negative - Establish and maintain rapport. An appropriate
behavior. climate for the interview must be set, the
• Similar/dissimilar to me effect. People tend to interview must be opened in a warm and non-
like others who hold similar opinions, values and threatening manner, and the supervisor or
attitudes and behave similarly under similar manager must be sensitive to the needs and
conditions. The appraiser may positively appraise feelings of the employee.
employees who are similar to him or her and - Reacting to stress. The interviewer must remain
negatively appraise those who are different. cool and calm during an employee's outbursts,
• Initial/first impressions. An appraiser forms an apologize when appropriate (without retreating
initially positive or negative impression of the unnecessarily) and maintain composure and
employee and ignores any subsequent perspective.
information that may distort that first - Obtain information. The interviewer must ask
impression. appropriate questions, probe to ensure that
meaningful issues are discussed, and should seek
Sources of Appraisal meaningful information. The interviewer should
- Supervisory appraisals focus on a limited number of topics so that each
- Peer appraisals topic can be discussed comprehensively. Work
- Self- appraisals goals should be reviewed and attainable
- Subordinate appraisals objectives should be set.
- Customer/s - Provide feedback. The focus should be on facts
rather than opinions, and evidence should be
Performance Appraisal Interview available to document the claims. The manager
- Structure and control the interview. should open with specific positive remarks, be
- Provide feedback. specific regarding performance shortcomings, and
- Establish and maintain rapport. orient the discussion to performance comments,
- Resolve conflict. not personal criticisms. They should be phrased
- Reacting to stress. specifically and be related to performance.
- Develop the employee. Conclude with positive comments and total
- Obtain information. evaluation results.
- Motivate the employee. - Resolve conflict. The interviewer should manage
the conflict in the interview, make appropriate
Preparation for the Performance Appraisal Interview commitments and set realistic goals to ensure
conflict resolution.
- The performance appraisal format. He or she
- Develop the employee. The interviewer should
must be able to explain the rating scales, how the
offer to help the employee develop his or her
ratings are derived, and how the numbers on the
career plans, specify development needs and
rating scales are related to performance standards
recommend sound developmental actions.
used on the measure.
- Motivate the employee. The interviewer should
provide incentives for the employee to stay with
 the organization and perform effectively, provide - Training systematic acquisition of skills, concepts ,
commitments to the employee to encourage high or attitudes that result in improved performance
performance levels and support the employee's in another environment.
excellent performance.
What is involved in TRAINING?
- Maier (1976) describes three generally used
- Learning- a relatively permanent change in
approaches to these interview situations: tell and
behavior and human capabilities produced by
sell, tell and listen, and problem solving.
experience and practice.
o The tell-and-sell approach is best for new
- Performance - actions or behaviors relevant to
and inexperienced employees, while the
the organization’s goals; measured in terms of
problem-solving approach, which
each individual’s proficiency
encourages employee participation, is
o Training increases a chance of learning
useful for more experienced employees.
and learning creates better performance.
Performance management is a planned, systematic Learning Outcomes
management system, which can be divided into a few - Cognitive outcome- type of learning outcome that
integrated subsystems, directed at the improvement of includes declarative knowledge, or knowledge of
individual, group and organizational effectiveness. The rules, facts, and principles.
subsystems include the determination of performance - Skill-based outcome -type of learning outcome
objectives and standards, performance measurement, that concerns the development of motor or
feedback and development of employees. technical skills.
- Affective outcome - type of learning outcome
- It starts with the question, 'Which performance
that includes attitudes or beliefs that predispose a
must be managed?'. This has to do with where
person to behave in a certain way.
and what the organization wants to be and what
Importance of Training
it wants to achieve in the coming years. The long-
- Maintains qualified products/services.
term strategic plan is used to select the specific
- Achieves high service standards.
goals of the organization, and the behaviour that
- Provides information for new comers.
should be reinforced and rewarded to achieve the
- Refreshes memory of old employees
goals. Performance objectives, linked to the
- Achieves learning about new things: technology;
business plan, should be decided for each
products/service delivery
department and individual.
- Reduces mistakes-minimizing costs
- Performance must be managed to bridge the gap
Benefit of a training
between the current Performance management
- Opportunity for staff to feedback/suggest
position (as shown by diagnosis) and desired
improvements
position (as shown by the strategic plan) through
- Improves communication and relationships-better
the management of resistance to change.
teamwork.
- Coaching and feedback form part of performance
- Most training is targeted to ensure trainees
management (Latham and Mann, 2006).
“learn” something they apply to their job.
Feedback and coaching result in improved
Objectives of TRAINING and DEVELOPMENT
supervisor and employee relationships, increased
- Productivity – quality/quantity improvement.
commitment to the organization and reduced
- Effectiveness in present job.
intentions to quit.
- Qualification – personal development and
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF EMPLOYEES advancement.
- Morale boost – foster loyalty, cooperation,
What is Training?
favorable attitudes.
- Training is the “systematic acquisition of skills, What is manpower?
rules, concepts, or attitudes that result in the - The portion of the population which has actual or
improved performance” ( Goldstein & Ford, potential capability to contribute to the
2002). production of goods and services.
- A systematic process of providing opportunities
for employees to develop the job specific skills, TRAINING PROCESS
experience and knowledge they need to do their 1. Determining Training Needs
job or improve their performance. a. Determine the types of training
- A carefully planned and handled effort of b. Types of Needs Analysis
management through competent instructors, to i. Organizational analysis –
impart “know-how” and develop or improve Examines company wide goals
certain phases of an individual’s skills, attitudes, and problems to determine
discipline, behavior, or knowledge to make him where training is needed
either more effective on his present job or better ii. Task analysis – examines tasks
qualified for another job. performed and KSAOs required to
 determine what employees must work or to improve his standard
do to perform successfully of performance.
iii. Person analysis – examines ii. Updating- training to improve the
knowledge, skills, and current performance of people in their
performance to determine who occupation in respect to modern
needs training developments-new materials,
c. Methods used to gather needs tools, process etc.
assessment/analysis iii. Refresher-process of further
i. Performance Appraisal Scores training in work currently
ii. Survey questionnaire- developing performed in order to improve
a list of skills required to perform job performance. To regain skills
particular jobs effectively and and knowledge which may been
asking employees to check skills in parky forgotten as a result of
which they believe they need lengthy interruptions in
training on. performance of an occupation.
iii. Observation iv. Specialization – training given to
iv. Focus groups – employees from consolidate, deepen, and broaden
various dept. who conduct focus skills and knowledge for a
group session to determine skills particular task, function or aspect
and knowledge needed by of worker’s occupation.
employees v. Retraining – training for
v. Interviews- reveal more clearly acquisition of skills and
than survey approach. knowledge required in an
vi. Skill and Knowledge Tests occupation other than the one for
vii. Documentation examination – which the person was originally
involves examining records like trained.
absenteeism, turnover, accident e. Motivating employees
rates, performance appraisal. i. Relate the training to an
viii. Critical incidents employee’s immediate job
2. Designing Training Programs/Training Objectives opportunity to apply their skills.
a. Establishing Goals and objectives- Training program has a reputation
obtainable given the time and resources as being effective and useful.
allocated to the training ii. Training must be interesting
b. Training Goals and Objectives should iii. Increase employee buy-in
i. What learners are expected to do iv. Provide incentives – designed to
ii. The conditions under which they increase a particular skill an
are expected to do it employee needs either to be
iii. The level at which they are promoted or receive a pay raise.
expected to do it. v. Provide food.
c. Outcome of the training objectives vi. Reduce stress associated with
category attending.
i. Instructional Objective –What vii. Feedback – positive feedback
principles, facts, and concepts during training
should be learned in the training 3. Developing Training Program
program. a. Training Methods
ii. Organizational and departmental i. Conducting Classroom
objectives –What impact will the instruction- seminar, lecture or
training have on organizational workshop/ Off-the –job training
and department. 1. Who will conduct the
iii. Individual and growth objectives training? In-house,
–What impact will the training external trainers
have on the behavioral and 2. Where will the training be
attitudinal outcomes of the held? Location
individual trainee? 3. How long should the
d. Further Training training be? Cost-
i. Upgrading – training for effectiveness, massed
supplementary skills and learning or distributed
knowledge in order to increase practice
the occupational mobility of a 4. Developing the training
curriculum, topic, outline,
 visuals, handouts, and purpose of an
videos, role play exercises organization. The
improving interpersonal employee performs
skills through acting several different jobs
simulated roles, ice within an organization.
breakers, case study. a. Allows lateral
5. Adjusting for the transfer and
audience greater flexibility
6. Behavior modeling in replacing
technique, discussion of a absent workers.
problem, why it occurred b. Reducing
and the employee boredom with
behaviors necessary to task-repetitive
correct the problem job.
7. Adjusting for the 4. Apprenticeship Training –
audience provides beginning
ii. Hands on Methods – trainee is workers with
actively involved in learning. comprehensive training in
1. Includes On-the –job the practical and
Training, Apprenticeship, theoretical aspects of
Simulated Training work required in a highly
2. OJT-means having a skilled occupation.
person learn a job by Involves formal
actually performing it. agreements between
Informal training by labor and management
experienced peers and for necessary knowledge
supervisors that occurs on and skills.
the job and during job 5. Learning by Modeling
tasks ( DeRouin et Others
al,2005) a. Social Learning
a. OJT works best for b. Characteristics of
teaching skills that the Model –
require supervision similar to them in
to learn, are best significant ways.
learned through c. Characteristics of
repetition, and the Observer –
benefit form role employee must
modelling. ( Gallup & pay attention,
Beauchemin, 2000). retain
b. Internships and information and
Assistantships – reproduce the
require a higher level behavior.
of formal education 6. Learning through
than required by the Coaching and Mentoring
skills trades. Students a. Coaching:
are employed by a experienced
business organization employees
and work just as the working with new
same as other full- employees and
time employees. They professional
perform under the coaches who
direction of a faculty work with all
from the school employees. Train
3. Job rotation – Movement the trainer, Pass-
from one position to through
another provides programs.
employees with exposure b. Mentoring – a
to a number of different form of coaching .
job functions and broad A veteran in the
grasp of the over-all organization who
 takes a special
interest in a new
employee and
helps him not
only to adjust to
the job but also
to advance in the
organization.
7. Technology based-
Training
a. Distance
Learning-
programmed
instruction, self-
paced, active
participation,
small chunks of
information.
b. Computer-Based
or Web Based
Programmed
Instruction.
4. Implementation
a. Training proper. Increase positive transfer
of training is by having the trainee
practice the desired behavior as much as
possible.
b. Overlearning – practicing a task even
after it has been successfully learned.
training successfully.
c. Employees must have the skills and
abilities to complete the
d. There should be minimal outside factors
that might distract the employee
5. Evaluation
a. Research Designs for Evaluation/
Controlled Experimentation
b. Practicality
c. Content Validity – comparing training
content
d. Employee Reactions
e. Employee Learning
Levels of Training Effectiveness
- Learning Level- assess the acquisition of
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behavior.
- Behavioral Level- measures the improvement of
behavior on the job. Degree of application of
training
- Results Level – measures the business results
achieved by the trainee. Business impact by
evaluating the goals for training were met.
Determining the Return on Investment
- ROI – accounting for the cost of the training.
- Direct costs- salaries and benefits for all
employees involved in training