UNIT II

DC Machine

• Generator

• Motor

A. DC GENERATOR
• Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
• Works on Faradays law of electromagnetic induction
➢ Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, dynamically emf is produced in
the conductor
➢ Emf causes current to flow
➢ Direction of induced emf is given by Flemings right hand rule
Flemings right hand rule

Thumb finger, Fore finger and Middle finger held perpendicular to each other.
➢ Thumb finger – direction of relative motion of a conductor
➢ Fore finger – direction of flux line
➢ Middle finger – direction of emf induced
 I. CONSTRUCTION OF A D.C GENERATOR

PARTS OF A D.C GENERATOR

i. YOKE
ii. STATOR (POLE, POLE SHOE, WINDING, INTERPOLE)
iii. ROTOR (ARMATURE CORE, ARMATURE, ARMATURE WINDING,
COMMUTATOR, BRUSHES, SLIP RINGS, SPLIT RINGS, SHAFT)

(i) YOKE OR MAGNETIC FRAME

• Provides mechanical support for the machine and act as cover for the machine
• Carries magnetic flux produced by the pole
• For smaller machine – made up of cast iron
For larger machine – made up of cast steel
(ii) STATOR

a) POLE, POLE SHOES

• Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
• They carry field winding and pole shoes.
• Pole shoes serve two purposes;

➢ they support field coils and spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
 b) FIELD WINDING
• They are usually made of copper
• Connected in series and carries the flux
• The north and south pole depend upon the direction of the current flow

c) INTER POLES OR COMMUTATING POLES

• is to improve commutation (converting AC to DC) and to reduce armature
reaction (It is the distortion of the magnetic field brought on by the current
flowing through the armature winding)

(iii) ROTOR
a) ARMATURE, ARMTURE WINDING

• It is fixed to the machine shaft and it rotates between field poles

• It is wound in two ways
➢ Lap winding – for low voltage high current machine
Number of parallel paths
= Number of poles (A=P)
➢ Wave winding – for high voltage low current machine
A=2
b) COMMUTATOR
• The emf induced in armature is AC in nature.
• Commutator converts AC to DC.
• The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils.
• Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is fixed to
the shaft.

c) BRUSHES
• Made of carbon and rest on commutator
• They collect current from commutator and carry current from commutator to the
external load.
 II. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF D.C GENERATOR
• According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a
conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an emf (electromotive force)
gets induced in the conductor.

• When the coil ABCD is parallel to the magnetic field, it does not cut by the conductor
hence no induced emf is produced.
• When the coil ABCD is perpendicular to the magnetic field, it cuts by the conductor
hence induced emf is produced.
• When the coil rotates inside the magnetic field the flux linked with the coil changes and
emf is induced in the coil.

• Slip ring is replaced by split rings

• Its purpose is to convert AC current to DC (unidirectional current) current.

III. TYPES OF DC GENERATORS

• Classified according to their methods of field excitation
a. SEPERATELY EXCITED D.C GENERATOR
• Field winding is excited (supplied) by a separately DC source.

Armature current, Ia = IL
Terminal voltage, V = Eg – Ia Ra
Electric power developed = EgIa
Power delivered to load = EgIa – Ia Ra = Ia (Eg − Ia Ra) = VIa
Where, Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated emf
Ra = armature resistance

b. SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR

• The current to the field winding is supplied by the generator itself.
• The field winding may be connected
➢ in series (SERIES GENERATOR)
➢ It may be connected in parallel with the armature winding
(SHUNT GENERATOR)
➢ It may be connected in both series and parallel with armature
winding (COMPOUND GENERATOR)
(i) Series Generator
▪ Field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
▪ Field winding has less number of turns of thick wire

• Armature current, Ia = Ise = IL = I

• Terminal voltage, V = Eg – I(Ra + Rse)
• Power developed in armature = EgIa
• Power delivered to load = V Ia or V IL

(ii) Shunt Generator

• Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh

• Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish
• Terminal voltage, V = Eg – IaRa
• Power developed in armature = EgIa
• Power delivered to load = VIL

(iii) Compound Generator

• In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings –
one is in series and the other in parallel with the armature.
• A compound-wound generator is classified into
➢ Short Shunt Compound DC Generator
➢ Long Shunt Compound DC Generator

▪ Short Shunt Compound DC Generator

• Series field current, Ise = IL

• Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish
• Terminal voltage, V = Eg – IaRa – Ise Rse
• Power developed in armature = EgIa
• Power delivered to load = VIL

▪ Long Shunt Compound Generator

• Series field current, Ise = Ia = IL + Ish

• Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh
• Terminal voltage, V = Eg – Ia(Ra + Rse)
• The power developed in armature = Eg Ia
• Power delivered to load = VIL
 III. A) DC COMPOUND GENERATOR – FURTHER CLASSIFIED INTO
Cumulative Compound Generator
• Total Flux = Flux generated by series winding + Flux generated by shunt field windings
Differentially Compound Generator
• Total Flux = Flux generated by series winding - Flux generated by shunt field windings

IV. EMF EQUATION OF A DC GENERATOR

Let
ϕ = Magnetic flux per pole in Wb
Z = Total number of armature conductors
P = Number of poles in the machine
A = Number of parallel paths
Where, A = P … for LAP Winding
A = 2 … for Wave Winding
N = Speed of armature in RPM
N / 60 = Speed of armature in RPS
Eg = Generated EMF = EMF per parallel path
• According to the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the emf induced
(generated) per conductor
• EMF induced in each conductor, Eg = dφ / dt
• In one revolution flux cut by each armature conductor dφ = P×φ (Wb)
• Time taken in completing one revolution is given by,
• dt = 60 / N seconds
• Hence, dφ / dt = Pφ / (60/N) = PφN / 60
• No. of Conductors / Parallel Path = Z / A
• EMF Per Parallel Path = (Eg / Per Conductor) × (No. of Conductors / Parallel Path)
Eg = PφN / 60 × Z /A => Eg = PφNZ / 60A (volts)
For wave winding A = 2 => Eg = PφNZ / 120 (volts)
For Lap winding A = P => Eg = φNZ / 60 (volts)
 V. CHARACTERISTICS IN DC GENERATOR
• There are three types

➢ (a) Open circuit characteristics (OCC) (or) Magnetization characteristics

[Eg Vs If]

➢ (b) Internal characteristics (or) Total characteristics [Eg Vs I )

a
➢ (c) External characteristics (or) Voltage regulated characteristics
[V Vs IL]
These three characteristics are applicable for both self-excited and separately excited
DC generator.
A. SEPARATELY AND SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS
(a) Open circuit characteristics:
From generator emf equation, Eg = PφNZ / 60A
𝐸𝑔∝𝜑N
• If N is constant, Φ (flux is directly proportional to current) increases Eg
increases.
• The variation of flux with the induced emf is called the no-load magnetization
curve (or) saturation curve of the generator. Measurement of flux is difficult,
instead the curve is plotted between field current (If) and induced emf (Eg).
• A generator that supplies its own field excitation is called a self-excited
generator.
• Self-excitation is possible only if the field pole pieces have retained a slight
amount of permanent magnetism, called residual magnetism.

Internal and External Characteristics

The internal and external characteristics are obtained due to armature reaction drop and
armature resistance drop.
(b) Internal Characteristics
 • This curve is drawn between the emf (Eg) and armature current (Ia)
• By increasing the Ia induced emf, Eg will decrease due to armature reaction
(c )External Characteristics
• This curve is drawn between the terminal voltage (V) and armature current (I ).
L

(b) DC Shunt Generator Characteristics

➢ This curve is drawn between field current and induced emf
➢ Field current increases and emf also increases.

Internal and External characteristics

➢ ---- Ideal DC generator - by increasing load current the terminal voltage should be
constant. There is no armature drop
➢ (b) Internal Characteristics - The drop is due to the armature reaction.
 ➢ (c) External Characteristics - By increasing the load current the terminal voltage
increases.

(c) Dc Series Generator Characteristics

(a) Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC)
This curve can be obtained by disconnecting the field winding from the machine and excited
by separate d.c source
(b) Internal Characteristics
➢ This curve is drawn between Eg/Ia
(c) External Characteristics
➢ Here, the drop is due to armature resistance and series field resistance. By increasing
the load current, the terminal voltage decreases
 VI. APPLICATIONS OF GENERATOR
•Separately Excited DC Generators:
➢ Used in labs for testing due to their wide voltage range.
• Shunt Wound DC Generators:
➢ Used for general lighting, battery charging
➢ providing excitation to alternators
• Series Wound DC Generators:
➢ Employed in DC locomotives for regenerative braking
➢ as voltage boosters in distribution systems
➢ in series arc lighting due to their increasing terminal voltage with load
• Compound Wound DC Generators:
➢ used for lighting, Power supplies
➢ Heavy power services
➢ Driving motors and Arc welding

DC MOTOR

A machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is known as dc motor.
• Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.
• The fundamental principles and construction of the DC motors are identical with the
DC generators.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
• Whenever current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a force tending to move it
• force whose direction is given by Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
 • F = BIL Newtons
• B = Magnetic field intensity in wb/m2
• I = Current in Amperes
• L = Length of the conductor in meter.
• In a dc motor, the stator poles are supplied by dc excitation current, which produces a
dc magnetic field.
• Repulsion and attraction of the fields will cause the loop to turn.
• The interaction of the magnetic field and rotor current generates a force that drives the
motor (load).

Back emf of a Motor:

• As the coil rotates in a magnetic field, an emf is induced in the coil. This induced emf always
acts to reduce the current in the coil and is called back emf.
• The back emf increases in magnitude as the rotational speed of the coil increases.
TYPES OF DC MOTOR
The types of DC motors are
1. DC Series motor
2. DC Shunt motor
3. DC Compound motor
DC SERIES MOTOR
In DC series motor, field winding is connected in series with armature.
Same current flows through field as armature.
V = Eb + Ia(Rse + Ra)+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
Eb = V - Ia(Rse + Ra)+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
Normally Vbrush is neglected
• 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒
• 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎= Voltage drop in the armature resistance
• 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒= Voltage drop in the series field winding resistance

DC Shunt motor
In DC shunt motor, the field winding is connected across the armature.
A “constant speed” machine.
• 𝐼𝑠ℎ = Shunt field current,
• Armature current, 𝐼𝑎
• 𝐼L= 𝐼a+𝐼𝑠ℎ
V = Eb + IaRa + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
• Back emf, 𝐸𝑏= 𝑉𝐿− 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎− 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ is neglected

DC Compound motor
• The DC compound motor consists of both series and shunt field windings.
• Depending upon these two winding connections, it is further classified into two types
• Long shunt compound Motor
• Short shunt compound Motor
Further classified into
❑ Cumulatively compound generator
❑ Differentially compound generator
LONG SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR

Shunt field winding is connected between both series and armature winding
Series field current, 𝐼𝑠𝑒= 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿− 𝐼𝑠ℎ (𝑜𝑟)𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑎+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ
• • Back emf, 𝐸𝑏= 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎+ 𝑅𝑎𝑒) − 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
• 𝑉 = 𝐸b + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)
𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ is neglected
SHORT SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR

Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and this
combination is connected in series with series field winding
Load current, 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒
• 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑎+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ
• Shunt field current,
• Generated emf,
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎− 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑅𝑠𝑒− 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ is neglected
V = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑅𝑠𝑒
APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS
• D.C Series motor
• It is a variable speed motor. The speed is low at high torque. At light or no load, the
motor speed attains dangerously high speed. The motor has a high starting torque.
(elevators, electric traction)
• Industrial Uses:
• Electric traction
• Cranes
• Elevators
• Air compressor
D.C Compound motor
• Differential compound motors are rarely used because of its poor torque characteristics.
• Industrial uses:
• Presses Shears
• Reciprocating machine
D.C Shunt Motors
• It is a constant speed motor. Where the speed is required to remain almost constant from
no load to full load. Where the load has to be driven at a number of speeds and any one
of which is nearly constant.
• Industrial use:
• Lathes
• Drills
• Boring mills
• Shapers
• Spinning and Weaving machines.
Torque and Speed Equations of the DC Motor
• Torque is turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. It is measured by the
product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.
• Consider a pulley of radius ‘r’ meter acted upon by a circumferential force of ‘F’
• newton which causes it to rotate at speed N rpm.
• Torque, T = F × r (Nm)
• Work done by this force in one revolution = Force x distance
• = F x 2Πr joules.
• And P = Power developed = Work done/time
 •

P = T x ω watts
Where
T = Torque in Nm
ω= Angular speed in rad/sec = 2ΠN / 60
P = 2ΠNT / 60 watts
Armature Torque of a motor:
• Let ‘Ta’ be the gross torque developed by the armature of motor running at N rpm.
It is also called armature torque.
• Power developed in armature = Ta (2ΠN / 60) ……………………. (i)
We also know that
Electrical power converted into mechanical power in the Armature = 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎…….….. (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii) we get,
Ta (2ΠN / 60) = 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎
But ‘𝐸𝑏’ in a motor is given by

Necessity of D.C. Motor Starter

• At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no back e.m.f. in the armature.
• Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will
draw a heavy current (Ia = V/Ra) because of small armature resistance.
This high starting current may result in:
(i) Burning of armature due to excessive heating effect,
(ii) Damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking,
(iii) Excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected. The result is that
the operation of other appliances connected to the line may be impaired and in
particular cases, they may refuse to work.
• In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable resistance (known as
starting resistance) is inserted in series with the armature circuit. This resistance is
gradually reduced as the motor gains speed (and hence Eb increases) and eventually it is
cut out completely when the motor has attained full speed.
• Starting current is limited to 1.25 to 2 times the full-load current.
Types of D.C. Motor Starters
A two-point starter is used for starting dc motor which has the problem of overspeeding
due to loss of load from its shaft. Such a starter is shown in fig

• DC motor starting, two and three point starter. Here for starting the motor, the
control arm is moved clockwise from its OFF position to the ON position against the
spring tension.
• The control arm is held in the ON position by an electromagnet. The hold-on
electromagnet is connected in series with the armature circuit.
• If the motor losses its load, current decreases and hence the strength of the
electromagnet also decreases. The control arm returns to the OFF position due to spring
tension, this preventing the motor from over speeding. The starter arm also returns to the OFF
position when the supply voltage decreases appreciably. L and F are two points of the starter
which are connected with the supply and motor terminals.
Three-Point Starter:
• This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors.
• The below Fig. shows the schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor
with protective devices.
It is so called because it has three terminals L, Z and A. The starter consists of
starting resistance divided into several sections and connected in series with the
armature.
The tapping points of the starting resistance are brought out to a number of studs.
• The three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected respectively to the
positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and armature terminal.
• The other terminals of the armature and shunt field windings are connected to the
negative terminal of the supply.
• The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field circuit.
• One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L through the over-load release
coil.
• The other end of the handle moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with
each stud during starting operation, cutting out more and more starting resistance as it
passes over each stud in clockwise direction.
Operation:
(i) To start with, the d.c supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position.
(ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in
contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the
supply, while the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature
circuit.
(iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is
cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the novolt
release coil which is energized by shunt field current.
(iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally
cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF
position under the pull of the spring.
(v) If no-volt release coil were not used, then in case of failure of supply, the handle
would remain on the final stud. If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly
connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current.
(vi) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from
the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and
pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the no volt release coil.
(vii) The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by
the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply.
Drawback
• In a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the shunt field
circuit so that it carries the shunt field current. While exercising speed control through field
regulator, the field current may be weakened to such an extent that the no-volt release coil
may not be able to keep the starter arm in the ON position.
• This may disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not desired. This drawback is
overcome in the four-point starter.

Four-Point Starter
• In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the
supply line through a protective resistance R.
• Fig. shows the schematic diagram of a 4-point starter for a shunt motor (over-load release
coil omitted for clarity of the figure.
• Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit.

Therefore, proper speed control can be exercised without affecting the operation of no
volt release coil.
• The only difference between a three-point starter and a four-point starter
is the manner in which no-volt release coil is connected.
However, the working of the two starters is the same. It may be noted that the
three point starter also provides protection against an open field circuit.
• This protection is not provided by the four-point starter.