Engineering Mechanics - Module 1 Notes
(For Mechanical Engineering B. Tech Students)
1. Concurrent Forces on a Plane
1.1 Introduction
" Aforce system is called concurrent if the lines of action of all the forces pass through a single point.
Example: Multiple forces acting on a bolt, rivet, or pin joint in a structure.
1.2 Composition of Concurrent Coplanar Forces
" Composition: The process of replacing two or more forces acting simultaneously on a body by a single
force (called Resultant Force).
Methods of Composition:
1. Parallelogram Law of Forces
If two forces acting simultaneously on a particle are represented in magnitude and direction byy two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the diagonal represents the resultant.
Formula:
R= /P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos 8
where P,Q are magnitudes, and is the angle between them.
Direction:
tan a =
Q sin
P+Qcos 8
2. Triangle Law of Forces
" If two forces acting on a body are represented in magnitude and direction by two sides of a triangle
taken in order, the third side represents the resultant.
3. Polygon Law of Forces
If several forces are represented in order by sides of a polygon, then the closing side (taken in
opposite order) gives the resultant.
1.3 Resolution of Forces
Resolution: Splitting a single force into two or more components.
Usually resolved into:
" Horizontal component: F, = F cos
Vertical component: F, = F sin
1.4 Equilibrium of Concurrent Coplanar Forces
For equilibrium: Resultant = 0
Conditions:
SE, -0, SE, 0
" Lami's Theorem:
If three concurrent forces acting on a body keep it in equilibrium, then each force is proportional to
the sine of the angle between the other two forces.
F F
sin a sin sin y
2. Method of Moments
The moment of a force about a point is the tendency of the force to rotate the body about that point.
M = Fxd
where d = perpendicular distance from point to line of action of force.
Principle of Moments (Varignon's Theorem):
The algebraic sum of moments of a system of concurrent forces about a point is equal to the
moment of their resultant about the same point.
3. General Case of Forces on a Plane
Forces may not always be concurrent. They can be parallel, non-concurrent, or general coplanar
system.
3.1 Equilibrium of Forces in a Plane
General equilibrium conditions for 2D force system:
2F, = 0, DE, =0, SM - 0
Applications: Beam supports, frames, machines.
4. Plane Truss Analysis
4.1 Introduction
Truss: A structure made of straight members connected at joints to carry loads.
Assumptions in analysis:
1. Members are connected by frictionless pin joints.
2. Loads are applied only at the joints.
3. Members are two-force members (tension or compression).
4.2 Method of Joints
Used to determine forces in each member by applying equilibrium at each joint.
Conditions at a joint:
SF, 0, SF, = 0
" Procedure:
1. Start with a joint having maximum 2 unknown forces.
2. Assume nature of forces (tensile or compressive).
3. Solve equilibrium equations.
4. Move to next joint until all forces are determined.
4.3 Method of Sections
Instead of analyzing every joint, cut the truss into sections and apply equilibrium.
Steps:
1. Cut the truss through maximum 3 unknown members.
2. Isolate one portion and apply:
SF, = , SE, =0, M=0
3. Solve for unknown forces.
4.4 Equilibrium of ldeal Systems
An ideal system:
Members are perfectly rigid.
Joints are frictionless pins.
Loads are only at joints.
Stability condition for a perfect truss:
m= 2j-3
where m = members, j = joints.
5. Friction
5.1 Fundamentals of Friction
Friction: The resisting force developed at the surface of contact of two bodies when one tends to move
over another.
Types of friction:
1. Static friction: Before motion starts.
2. Kinetic (sliding) friction: When motion has started.
3. Rolling friction: Resistance offered during rolling.
5.2 Laws of Friction (Coulomb's Laws)
1. Friction force is proportional to the normal reaction.
F- pN
where u = coefficient of friction.
2. Independent of area of contact.
3. Opposes relative motion.
4. Static friction > Kinetic friction.
5.3 Angle of Friction
Defined as:
tan =
where is the angle of friction.
5.4 Angle of Repose
The angle of inclination of a plane at which a body just starts to slide.
tan =
5.5 Problems Involving Friction
Ladder friction: Statbility of a ladder against wall & floor.
Wedge friction: Used in lifting heavy loads.
Belt friction: Friction between belt and pulley.
Flowchart: Force System Analysis
mathematica
Force System Concurrent or Non-concurret
Resolve Forces ’ Fx, Fy
Apply Equilibrium ’ ZFx=0, IFy=0, ZM=0
Trusses ’ Method of Joints / Method of Sections
Check Stability ’ m 2j - 3
Consider Friction u = tano, F = uN
Tables for Quick Reference
Concept Formula/ Law
Resultant of two forces R=VP2+Q2+ 2PQ cos0
Equilibrium of concurrent forces SF, = 0, EF, 0
Lami's theorem
Moment of a force M= Fxd
Perfect truss condition m= 2j -3
Friction force F= pN
Angle of friction tan ¢=
Angle of repose tan ==u
Engineering Mechanics - Module Il Notes
(For Mechanical Engineering [Link] Students)
1. Parallel Forces on a Plane
1.1 Introduction
A system of forces is called parallel when all forces are parallel to each other.
They can act in the same direction (like a beam under uniformly distributed load) in opposite
directions (like couple system).
Examples:
Weight of distributed load on a beam.
Multiple people sitting on a seesaw.
1.2 General Case of Parallel Forces
Resultant Force of parallel forces can be obtained by:
R= SF
Location of Resultant is determined using principle of moments:
R-d- 2(F, z;)
where:
d= distance of resultant from reference axis,
F individual force,
Z; = distance of force from reference.
1.3 Center of Parallel Forces
Point where the resultant of parallel forces acts is called the center of parallel forces.
For distributed loads, it is equivalent to the center of gravity (CG).
2. Center of Gravity (CG) and Centroid
2.1 Definitions
Center of Gravity (CG): The point through which the whole weight of a body may be considered to act.
Centroid: Geometrical center of a plane figure or shape.
2.2 Conditions
" For homogeneous body of uniform density, CG = Centroid.
2.3 Coordinates of Centroid
Ifa plane area is divided into small parts:
E(A; i)) E(A;· yi)
A;
" A; = area of part
" I;,y = coordinates of centroid of part
2.4 Centroid of Common Figures
Shape Centroid Coordinates
Rectangle (b x h) (b/2, h/2)
Triangle (b/3, h/3) from base
Semicircle (radius) (0,4r/3n) from flat side
Quarter circle (r) (4r/37, Ar/3n)
Trapezium
2.5 Composite Figures
" Divide figure into standard simple shapes.
" Find centroid of each shape.
" Apply formula for i, j.
3. Theorems of Pappus (Guldinus Theorems)
Theorem 1(Surface Area):
The surface area generated by revolving a plane curve about an external axis = product of length of
curve and distance traveled by its centroid.
A= L·(2ry-)
Theorem 2 (Volume):
The volume generated by revolving a plane area about an external axis = product of area and distance
traveled by centroid.
V=A-(2rye)
4. Moments of Inertia (M.1.)
4.1 Definition
" Moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis = sum of product of elemental area and square of its
distance from the axis.
Units: mm or cm".
4.2 Polar Moment of Inertia
About an axis perpendicular to the plane:
4.3 Parallel Axis Theorem
" If Ir is the moment of inertia about centroidal axis and d is the distance between centroidal axis and
parallel axis, then:
I=I,,+ A'
where A = area.
4.4 Moments of Inertia of Standard Figures
Shape Axis M.
Rectangle (b x h) Centroidal x-axis I,=
Rectangle (b x h) Centroidal y-axis I, =
Triangle (b x h) Base axis I, =
Circle (r) Diameter
Circle (r) Polar J=
Semicircle () Centroidal I, =0.11
5. Virtual Work
5.1 Principle of Virtual Work
" Ifa system is in equilibrium, the total virtual work done by all forces during a virtual displacement is zero.
SW - 2(F· s) = 0
Virtual displacement = small imaginary displacemernt consistent with system constraints.
5.2 Applications of Virtual Work
1. Beams - determination of support reactions.
2. Frames and Trusses - internal force analysis.
3. Equilibrium of Bodies - checking stability of machines.
4. Simple Machines - work done in levers, puleys, screws.
Flowchart: Module Il Concepts
mathematica Copy Edit
Parallel Forces Resultant + Center of Parallel Forces
Center of Gravity (CG) / Centroid ’ Composite Figures
Pappus Theorems + Surface Area & Volume of Solids
Moments of Inertia + Ix, Iy, J, Parallel Axis Theorem
Principle of Virtual Work + Equilibrium & Applications
Tables for Quick Reference
Centroid Formulas
Shape Centroid Location
Rectangle z=b/2, y =h/2
Triangle z=b/3, y =h/3
Semicircde z=0, y = 4r/3n
Quarter Circle I =y= 4r/37
Moment of Inertia Formulas
Shape About Centroidal Axis
Rectangle (bxh) I, bh° /12, I, = hbt /12
Circle (r) I¡ = r/4
Triangle (bxh) I,= bh³ /36
Polar MI. J=I,+I
Diagram References (Descriptive)
1. Parallel Forces - Diagram of simply supported beam with loads, resultant marked at CG.
2. Centroid Triangle showing centroid at 1/3 height.
3. Pappus Theorem Area rotated around axis generating solid of revolution.
4. Moment of Inertia - Rectangle with centroidal axis and parallel axis.
5. Virtual Work Pulley with virtual displacement shown.
Engineering Mechanics - Module lIlNotes
(For Mechanical Engineering B. Tech Students)
1. Rectilinear Translation
1.1 Kinematics of Rectilinear Motion
Translation: Motion of a rigid body such that every line in the body remains parallel to its original
position.
. Rectilinear Translation: Translation in a straight line.
Equations of Motion (constant acceleration):
1. U= u+ at
2. s = ut + ;at?
3. y=u'+2as
where:
u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
a = acceleration
t= timne
" s = displacement
1.2 Principle of Dynamics
" From Newton's Second Law:
" Rate of change of momentum = Resultant force
F= Tma
1.3 D'Alembert's Principle
" A dynamic problem can be reduced to a static equilibrium problem by introducing an inertia force
opposite to acceleration.
F ma = 0
" Useful in analysis of machines and riqid body motion.
1.4 Principle of Work and Energy
" Work done by all forces on a particle = Change in kinetic energy.
W= AKE -m(u² u')
For rigid bodies in plane motion:
U-2=T,-T;
where U = work, T= kinetic energy.
1.5 Conservation of Energy
" In absence of non-conservative forces (like friction):
T+V= constant
where T = kinetic energy, V = potential energy.
1.6 Principle of Impulse and Momentum
Impulse = Change in momentum
Fdt = m(v2 -v)
For rigid body in plane motion:
I - A(Linear Momentum), >I = A(Angular Momentum)
1.7 Conservation of Momentum
For an isolated system (no external force):
mju) myu2 = mU1 + m2v2
" Applies to particle collisions, rocket motion, explosions.
1.8 System of Rigid Bodies
" Arigid body system consists of several particles connected rigidly.
For equilibrium/dynamics:
F= maG ZMG = ça
where G= center of mass.
1.9 Impact
" Impact: Collision between two bodies in a short time with large forces.
Types:
1. Direct Central Impact - Line of impact passes through centers, velocities are along line of impact.
2. Oblique Impact - Line of impact not along line of centers.
1.10 Coefficient of Restitution (e)
Measures elasticity of impact.
e=l’ perfectly elastic collision
"e=0 perfectly inelastic (bodies stick together)
" 0<e<l’ partially elastic
2. Curvilinear Translation
2.1 Kinematics of Curvilinear Motion
Motion along a curved path (e.g. projectile, car on curved road).
Components of acceleration:
Tangential: a, =
Normal (centripetal): a,, =
2.2 Equations of Motion in Curvilinear Path
Position vector: F(t)
" Velocity: õ=
Acceleration: =
2.3 Projectile Motion
" A
classic case of curvilinear translation under gravity.
If projected with velocity u at angle 8:
Time of flight:
2u sin
T
" Horizontal range:
usin 20
R=
" Maximum height:
u' sin 0
H -
2g
2.4 D'Alembert's Principle of Curvilinear Motion
" Inertia force acts opposite to acceleration components (tangential and normal).
" Reduces dynamics problem into static form for curvilinear paths.
3. Kinematics of Rotation of a Rigid Body
3.1 Angular Motion
" For a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis:
1. Angular displacement: (radians)
2. Angular velocity: w=
3. Angular acceleration: a =
3.2 Equations of Rotational Motion (constant a)
1. w Wn +at
2. 0 = wpt + at'
3. w²= w+ 2a8
3.3 Relation Between Linear and Angular Motion
" For a particle at distance r from axis:
Linear velocity: v = rw
Linear acceleration:
" Tangential: a = ra
" Normal: a, = Tw
3.4 Work and Energy in Rotational Motion
" Kinetic energy
T-13
where I = moment of inertia.
" Work-energy principle:
W = AT
Flowchart: Module IlII Concept Link
css
Rectilinear Motion ’ Dynamics + D'Alembert's Principle
Work-Energy Impulse-Momentum Conservation Laws
Impact ’ Coefficient of Restitution + Momentum Transfer
Curvilinear Motion ’ Tangential & Normal Components
Projectile ’ Time, Range, Height
Rotation of Rigid Body ’ Angular Kinematics Energy
Tables for Quick Reference
Equations of Motion (Rectilinear)
Equation Formula
Velocity-time =Wt at
Displacement-time 8= ut +at?
Velocity-displacement y2=u?+ 2as
Projectile Motion
Quantity Formula
Time of Flight T= 2u sin B
Horizontal Range R= sin20
Max Height H- u'sin'0
2q
Rotational Motion
Parameter Formula
Angular velocity
Angular acceleration d
Linear velocity U=ru
Linear acceleration a = ra, a, = ru'
KE of rotation T- ?
Diagram Descriptions (for visualization)
1. Rectilinear Motion - body moving on straight path with force and inertia force shown (D'Alembert).
2. Work-Energy - block sliding down an incline, KE and PE exchange.
3. Impulse-Momentum -hammer striking a nail.
4. Impact- two balls colliding centrally.
5. Projectile -curved trajectory, marking maximum height, range.
6. Rotation - rotating disc showing tangential & centripetal acceleration.