8/22/2025

Topographic Maps?
Introduction to Geospatial Engineering

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

Dr. Rishikesh Bharti

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (भारतीय ौ ोिगकी सं ान गु वाहाटी)
North Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781 039, India
e-mail: rbharti@[Link] ‖ Website: [Link]/rbharti/

Topographic Map: The International System 1:1 million scale 1:1 million scale

 This system is used for international map on 1:1 million scale. 4°

6°
 Each sheet covers an area of 40 latitude × 60 longitude.
 The geographical position of the sheet is defined by two letters and
a number.
 The first letter is N/S depending on whether the sheet is north or
NH -41 NH-42 NH-43
south of the equator.
NG -41 NG-42 NG-43
 Next letter after the N/S indicates latitude of sheet alphabetically NF -41 NF-42 NF-43
with the capital Letters in succession of each 40 band.
NE -41 NE-42 NE-43
 Numbering starts from 1800 longitude and goes from west to east, Change at
every 4°
the number changing after 60 longitude, i.e. a map showing 00 to 40N
and 00 to 60E will have a numbering of NA1.
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India and adjacent Countries (IAC) System 1:1 Million Scale

 This is the system followed by the Survey of India.
 Each sheet is bound by 40 latitude and 40 longitude. 4°
 The sheet numbering starts from NW corner 400 latitude N and 440 E as sheet no.1 4°
and increases from North to South.
 Sheets falling in the sea are not numbered.
 Sheets covering India are numbered from 39 to 58.
 The sheets are called 1/M (or 1 Million) sheets.
 The 1/M sheets are further sub-divided into 16 equal parts of 1°×1°. The sheets are
in 1:250,000 scale.
 These sheets are numbered from A to P and each grid is called by the sheet number  Each sheet is bound by 40 latitude and 40 longitude.
 The sheet numbering starts from NW corner 400 latitude N and 440 E as sheet no.1 and increases from North to South.
followed by the alphabet i.e. for the 1/M sheet 57, sixteen components are 57A to 57P.  Sheets falling in the sea are not numbered.
 Sheets covering India are numbered from 39 to 58.

Topographic Map Topographic Map

 The 1/M sheets are further sub-divided

into 16 equal parts of 1°×1°. The
sheets are in 1:250,000 scale (known
as degree sheets).

 These sheets are numbered from A to P

and each grid is called by the sheet  The degree sheets (e.g. 53B) are
number followed by the alphabet i.e. further subdivided into 16 equal
for the 1/M sheet 57, sixteen parts and named with numbers (e.g.
components are 57A to 57P. 53B/1). The sheets are in 1:50,000
scale.
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Topographic Map Topographic Map

 The degree sheets (e.g. 53M) are further

subdivided into four equal parts and
named with NE, NW, SW & SE (e.g.
53M/SE). The sheets are in 1:100,000 scale.  The 1:50,000 sheets (e.g. 53O/14) are
further subdivided into four equal parts
and named with NE, NW, SW & SE (e.g.
53O/14/NE). The sheets are in 1:25,000
scale.

MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING

Introduction to Geospatial Engineering Microwave: 0.1cm - 1m

MRS acquires information in the microwave

portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Role of Atmosphere ?
Depth of penetration?
Lecture 04 Visible>>VNIR>>SWIR Information?

M I C ROWAV E R E M OT E S E N S I N G ‐ I
Thermal Infrared

Dr. Rishikesh Bharti

Department of Civil Engineering Active & Passive
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati Microwave Remote Sensing
[Link] Reflection Emission
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Microwave Remote Sensing Microwave Remote Sensing

Advantages Rayleigh Scattering
λ
 Microwave radiation can penetrate through
the cloud cover, haze, dust, and all but the Gas molecule
heaviest rainfall.
 Not vulnerable to atmospheric scattering Mie Scattering
like shorter optical wavelengths.
Smoke, Dust
Disadvantages
 Very costly instrument/setup.
Non-Selective Scattering
 The output of microwave remote sensing
(Images) is complex and hard to interpret.
Water vapor
 Very little information related to the
composition of the material.

Microwave Remote Sensing Microwave Remote Sensing

Active
(Backscattering)
RADAR

Passive
(Radiation /TB)
Radiometer
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Microwave Remote Sensing Passive Microwave Remote Sensing: Applications

 The amount/intensity of emitted/reflected/transmitted  Applications of passive microwave remote sensing include

microwave energies are very small, which is generally meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography.
insufficient for the passive microwave sensor detectors...
 Meteorologists can use passive microwaves to measure atmospheric
 The amount/intensity of emitted microwave energy is E=hc/λ profiles and to determine water and ozone content in the atmosphere.
related to the temperature and moisture properties…
 Hydrologists use passive microwaves to measure soil moisture since
 Since the microwave wavelengths are long, the energy microwave emission is significantly influenced by moisture content.
available to the passive sensors is very low. Thus, the fields
of view for the microwave sensors must be coarse… Low/ Coarse  Oceanographic applications include mapping sea ice, currents, and
Spatial Resolution surface winds as well as detection of pollutants, such as oil slicks.
 Therefore, passive microwave sensors are characterized by
low spatial resolution…

Microwave Remote Sensing Microwave Remote Sensing

 Active microwave sensors provide their own source of microwave  RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging, which
radiation to illuminate the target. essentially characterizes the function and operation of a radar sensor.

 Active microwave sensors are generally divided into two distinct  The sensor transmits a microwave (radio) signal towards the target and
categories: detects the backscattered portion of the signal.
 Imaging and  The strength of the backscattered signal is measured to discriminate
 Non-imaging (e.g. altimeters and scatterometers). between different targets and the time delay between the transmitted and
 The most common form of imaging active microwave sensors is reflected signals which determines the distance (or range) to the target.
RADAR.
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Microwave Remote Sensing: Advantages Microwave Remote Sensing: Advantages

 A l l w e a t h e r c a p a b i l i t y, SOIL SNOW

 Day-night ability (i.e. independent of the S u n ’s

i l l u mi n a t i o n ) ,

 P e n e t r a t i o n t h r o u g h a me d i u m,

 I n f o r ma t i o n t h r o u g h mi c r o w a v e is d i ff e r e n t from
optical data,

 I n f o r ma t i o n a b o u t the g e o me t r i c properties of the

various features.

Microwave Remote Sensing: Band Designations Microwave Remote Sensing: RADAR types

Wavelength (λ) Frequency (υ) Pulsed Radar:

Band Designations
(cm) (GHz) The distance between the transmitter and the object can be measured.
K 1.18 - 1.67 26.5 to 18.0 Speed can also be measured by constantly tracking the object (i.e.
change in range from pulse to pulse).
Ka 0.75 - 1.18 40.0 to 26.5
Ku 1.67 - 2.4 18.0 to 12.5 Continuous Wave Radar:
X 2.4 - 3.8 12.5 - 8.0  Doppler Radar and
C 3.8 - 7.5 8.0 - 4.0  Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) Radar
S 7.5 - 15.0 4.0 - 2.0
L 15.0 - 30.0 2.0 - 1.0 Police often use CW radar to measure the speed of cars. These are also being used for
aircraft altimeters. But these are not suitable for long distance range measurement.
P 30.0 - 100 1.0 - 0.3
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Microwave Remote Sensing: Basics Backscattering

 A radar is essentially a ranging or distance-

measuring device.
 The main components of the radar system:
 Transmitter,
 Receiver,
 Antenna, and
 Electronics to record the data. Backscattering

The portion of the incident RADAR signal redirected directly back

to the antenna through the target is known as ‘Backscatter’.

Backscattering

Microwave Remote Sensing: Basics Electromagnetic Wave

Propagation of Electromagnetic wave in 3-D.
 The transmitter generates successive
pulses of microwave (A) at regular
intervals which are focused by the antenna
into a beam (B). The overall
direction of the
 The radar beam illuminates the surface at a electric field does
right angle to the motion of the platform. not change with
time; it only shifts
 The antenna receives a portion of the the wave in time.
transmitted energy reflected (or
backscattered) from various objects within
the illuminated beam (C).
 Subsequently, electronic system store this
data in the form of a two-dimensional
image of the surface. Wa v e t h e oFundamental
r y o f l i g hproperties
t (Maxwell'sof anequations)
electromagnetic
d e s c rwave,
i b e s including
t h e g e nits
e rsinusoidal
a t i o n o fnature,
time-varying
e l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e tperpendicular
i c f i e l d s a fields,
n d t hwavelength,
e p r o p a g aand
t i odirection
n o f l iofg hpropagation.
t as electromagnetic waves.
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Polarimetry Polarimetry
 Polar: polarization, Metry: measure  Light can be described as a transverse electromagnetic wave, with oscillations of the
 Polarimetry deals with the vector nature of the electromagnetic wave. electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to the direction of propagation (Niziev &
Nesterov, 1999).
 Polarization: Orientation of electric field vector as the wave propagates perpendicular
to mutually orthogonal electric and magnetic field.  The polarization of light refers to the specific orientation of the electric field vector,
which can be linear, circular, or elliptical.
 Polarimetry is a technique that is widely used in various scientific and technological
fields, from materials science to astrophysics, to study the polarization properties of  Linear polarization occurs when the electric field oscillates in a single direction, while
waves, including light. circular polarization involves the electric field rotating around the direction of
propagation.
 Polarization is a fundamental characteristic of waves, describing the oscillation of the
electric field vector in a specific direction perpendicular to the direction of wave  Elliptical polarization is a combination of linear and circular polarization, where the
propagation. electric field traces an elliptical path (Niziev & Nesterov, 1999).
 Understanding the polarization of light is crucial for a wide range of applications, such  Several methods can be used to generate polarized light, including the use of
as laser cutting efficiency, optical manipulation of particles, and defect detection in polarizing filters, birefringent materials, and the inherent polarization properties of
composite materials. (Robles et al., 2019) certain light sources, such as lasers (Ye et al., 2024).

Polarimetry Type of Polarization

Axis of Polarizor
parallel to H

Source: [Link]
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Polarization Wave Descriptor Microwave Remote Sensing: Polarization

Based on the parameters describing the polarization state of the wave there are three canonical polarization states:  In microwave remote sensing, the polarization of the radiation is also
(1) Linear (2) Circular and (3) Elliptical Polarization important.
𝑦 𝑦
Linear Polarization
𝑦 𝑦  Polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field.
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
 Most radars are designed to transmit microwave radiation either
horizontally polarized (H) or vertically polarized (V).
 Horizontal Polarization  Vertical Polarization (V)  Linear ᴨ/4  Linear 3ᴨ/4
(H)  𝜙 = 0º  𝜙 = 0º  𝜙 = 0º
 𝜙 = 0º  τ= ᴨ/2  τ= ᴨ/4  τ= 3ᴨ/4
 τ= 0º

Parameters Right-handed Circular Polarization Left-handed Circular Polarization

𝜙 [-ᴨ/2, ᴨ/2] [-ᴨ/2, ᴨ/2]
τ = -ᴨ/4 = ᴨ/2

López-Martínez, C., & Pottier, E. (2021)

Microwave Remote Sensing: Polarization Microwave Remote Sensing: Polarization

 Combinations of polarization are also used in Microwave RS: “Polarimetry is the science of acquiring, processing and analyzing the polarization
state of an electromagnetic field”
 HH - for horizontal transmit and horizontal receive,
 VV - for vertical transmit and vertical receive,
 HV - for horizontal transmit and vertical receive, and
Orthogonal plane w.r.t
 VH - for vertical transmit and horizontal receive. propagation direction

 The first two polarization combinations (HH & VV) are referred to as
like-polarized because the transmitted and received polarizations are Electric field
same.
 The last two combinations (HV, VH) are referred to as cross-polarized
because the transmitted and received polarizations are opposite of one
another. Horizontal Polarization (H) Vertical Polarization (V)
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Microwave Remote Sensing: Polarization Microwave Remote Sensing: Polarization

HH HV
HV
HH
VV VV
like-polarized cross-polarized
HH HV

VV VH

Microwave Remote Sensing: Satellites Microwave Remote Sensing: Imaging Modes

Parameters Seasat ERS-1,2 JERS-1 Radarsat SIR-C ENVISAT Radarsat -2

 STRIP
Launch June July 91 Feb. 92 Nov. 95 Apr & Oct. March 1, Dec. 14, 2007
1978 &Apr 95 1994 2002
Frequency (GHz) 1.275 5.3 1.275 5.3 1.2, 5.3, 9.8 5.3 5.3  SCANSAR
Wavelength (cm) 23.5 5.6 23.5 5.6 23.5,5.6,3.1 5.6 5.6
 SPOTLIGHT
Resolution(m) 25 30 18 10 - 100 25 30 10-100

Swath (km) 100 100 75 35 - 500 15 - 90 150–1km 35 – 500  POLSAR

Look angle 23 23 35 20 - 50 20 - 55 20 - 50 20 –50
Polarization HH VV HH HH HH,VV,HV HH,VV HH,VV
 INSAR 10 km

Looks 4 4 3 1- 4-14 1, 4
30 km  ISAR
100 km

Strip Mode ScanSAR Spotlight

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Microwave Remote SensingSide-Looking Radar System Operation Microwave Remote Sensing

13
Radar pulse from transmitter
10 1 onboard aircraft
12 Imaging RADAR System
2
Return signal from tower
9 11
3
10
4 Side Looking Airborne
8 SYNTHETIC APERTURE
9 RADAR (SLAR) / Real
RADAR
8 Aperture RADAR (RAR)
7 5

6 6
7
Real Aperture RADAR (RAR): Synthetic Aperture RADAR:
Return signal from house
 Aperture means antenna, and  1m (11m) antenna can be synthesized electronically
 Real means a real/fixed length of antenna into a 600m (15km) synthetic length,
(e.g. 1-15m)…  Commonly used in airborne and spaceborne RADAR
systems.

Microwave Remote Sensing Microwave Remote Sensing

SENSOR SLANT RANGE

 The distance between the transmitter and reflecting objects can be Zenith
estimated using the measured signal echoes.
Horizontal Plane
 Since the energy propagates with the velocity of light (c), the Slant
Range (SR) to any object can be:
ct
SR 
2
Since the time incorporated in the equation (time measured for the pulse to travel both Image Centre
Slant
the distance to and from the target), factor 2 is used in the equation.
Range
Range term is used for the distance.
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Thank You