CET 464 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT MODULE 2
MODULE 2
SYLLABUS - Effect of air pollutants on health, vegetation, animals and materials and
environment- Greenhouse effect - Indoor Air Pollution- Sources of indoor air pollutants- Effects
of indoor air pollution
Effect of air pollutants on health
Air pollution is one of the greatest environmental evils. The air we breathe has not only
life-supporting properties but also life-damaging properties. Under ideal conditions the air we
inhale has a qualitative and quantitative balance that maintains the well-being of man. But when
the balance among the air components is disturbed, or in other words, if it is polluted, it may
affect human health. An average man breathes 22,000 times a day and takes in 16 kg of air each
day. It far exceeds the consumption of food and water. It has been estimated that a man can live
for five weeks without food and five days without water, but only for five minutes without air.
All the impurities in the inhaled air do not necessarily cause harm. Depending upon the
chemical nature of the pollutants, some may be harmful when present in the air in small
concentrations and others only if they are present in high concentrations. The duration of
exposure of the body to polluted air is also an important factor. Therefore, the prime factors
affecting human health are:
1. Nature of the pollutants
2. Concentration of the pollutants
3. Duration of exposure
4. State of health of the receptor
5. Age group of the receptor
Generally speaking, susceptibility to the effects of air pollution is great among infants,
the elderly, and the infirm. Those with chronic diseases of the lungs or heart are thought to be at
great risk. Pre-school and school children appear to be both sensitive and specifically reactive to
air pollu- tion health effects. Another point to be noted is that the effect of air pollu- tion on
human health is worst during the winter season, when pollution levels reach a climax.
An objectionable odour, visibility reduction, eye irritation or vegetation damage are
useful guides to the likelihood or severity of health effects. A grey pall over a city or an
industrial area can have a depressing effect and impair the enjoyment of life. There is no doubt,
however, that the urgency with which steps are taken to improve air quality will depend very
much on how serious the risk of ill health from air pollution is thought to be.
Mechanism of Action of Air Pollutants
The effects of air pollution on human health generally occur as a result of contact between the
pollutants and the body. Normally, bodily contact occurs at the surfaces of the skin and exposed
membranes. Contact with exposed membranous surfaces is of utmost importance because of
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their high absorptive capacity compared to that of the skin. Air-borne gases, vapours, fumes,
mist, and dust may cause irritation of the membranes of the eyes, nose, throat, larynx,
tracheo-bronchial tree and lungs
Health Effects
1. Eye Irritation.
2. Nose and throat irritation.
3. Irritation of the respiratory tract.
4. Gases like hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and mercaptans cause odour nuisance even at low
concentrations.
5. Increase in mortality rate and morbidity rate.
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6. A variety of particulates, particularly pollen, initiate asthmatic attacks.
7. Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma, are aggravated by a high
concentration of SO2, NO2, particulate matter and photochemical smog.
8. Carbon monoxide combines with the haemoglobin in the blood and consequently increases
stress on those suffering from cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases.
9. Hydrogen fluoride causes diseases of the bone (fluorosis), and mottling of teeth.
10. Carcinogenic agents cause cancer.
11. Dust particles cause respiratory diseases. Diseases like silicosis, asbestosis, etc., result from
specific dusts.
12. Certain heavy metals like lead may enter the body through the lungs and cause poisoning.
Health Effects of some specific pollutants
➔ Sulphur Dioxide
Sulphur dioxide is an irritant gas which affects the mucous membranes when inhaled. Under
certain conditions, some of the air-borne sulphur dioxide gas is oxidised to sulphur trioxide. Each
of these two gases, in the presence of water Vapour or water, forms sulphurous and sulphuric
acid respectively. Sulphur trioxide is a very strong irritant, much stronger than sulphur dioxide,
causing severe bronchospasms at relatively low levels of concentration.
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➔ Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide has a strong affinity for combining with the haemoglobin of the blood to form
carboxyhaemoglobin, COHb. This reduces the ability of the haemoglobin to carry oxygen to the
body tissues. CO has about two hundred times the affinity of oxygen for attaching itself to the
haemoglobin, so that low levels of CO can still result in high levels of COHb. Carbon- monoxide
also affects the central nervous system. It is also responsible for heart attacks and a high
mortality rate.
➔ Oxides of Nitrogen
Of the seven oxides of nitrogen known to exist in the ambient air, only two are thought to affect
human health. These are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). While some questions
remain about haemoglobin reactions with oxides of nitrogen, there is no positive evidence that
nitric oxide exposure is a health hazard associated with community air pollution.
Nitrogen dioxide is known to cause occupational disease. Among occupations
with NO2 hazards are the manufacture of nitric acid, exposures of farmers to silage that has had
high nitrate fertilisation, electric arc welding, and mining utilising nitrogen compounds as
explosives. It is estimated that eye and nasal irritation will be observed after exposure to about
15 ppm of nitrogen dioxide and pulmonary discomfort after brief exposures to 25 ppm of
nitrogen dioxide.
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➔ Hydrogen Sulphide and Mercaptans
Hydrogen sulphide is a foul smelling gas. It is well known for its rotten egg like odour.
Exposures to hydrogen sulphide for short periods can result in fatigue of the sense of smell.
Other sulphur compounds that are of interest in air pollution mainly because of their
strong odours are methyl mercaptan (CH3SH) and ethyl mercaptan (C2H5SH). But it has been
reported that at the concentrations at which they are odour nuisances, they have no other effect
on human health. In fact, mercaptans are often added to natural or manufactured gas supplies so
that leakage of gas will be noticed.
➔ Ozone
Ozone is a gas that has an irritant action in the respiratory tract, reaching much deeper into the
lungs than the oxides of sulphur.
➔ Fluorides
Fluorides present in air, range from those which are extremely irritant and corrosive like
hydrogen fluoride to relatively non-reactive compounds. But, fluorine is a cumulative poison
even under condition of prolonged exposure and in sub-acute concentrations.
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➔ Lead
The main source of lead in urban atmospheres is the automobile. It creates urban concentration
of inorganic lead of about 1-3 ug/m3, with high values in areas of heavy traffic. Inorganic lead
acts as an agent which causes a variety of human health disorders. The effects include
gastro-intestinal damage, liver and kidney damage, abnormalities in fertility and pregnancy, and
mental development of children.
➔ Hydrocarbon Vapours
Some of the hydrocarbon vapours in the atmosphere have health implications. The effect of
formaldehyde is primarily irritating. It is a major contributor to eye and respiratory irritation
caused by photochemical smog.
➔ Carcinogenic Agents
Carcinogenic agents are responsible for cancer. For example, the poly-cyclic organic compound,
3, 4-benzpyrene. The origin of these compounds is in the incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons and other carbonaceous mate- rials. They are also reported to be present in exhaust
discharges from I.C. engines. In addition to poly-cyclic organic compounds, it has been found
that some aliphatic hydrocarbons are also carcinogenic.
➔ Insecticides
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Insecticides are not only harmful for insects but also poisonous for man, e.g., DDT (Dichloro
diphenyl trichloroethane). They can affect the central nervous system and may attack other vital
organs. Accumulation of pesticides in the environment due to their growing use for agricultural
purposes can also cause premature labour and abortion, due to high concentration of pesticides in
the body of expectant mothers.
Effect of air pollutants on vegetation
Air pollution has long been known to have an adverse effect on plants. At first, it was only
sulphur dioxide that was considered a dangerous pollutant. Now, with the advent of various
pesticides and new industrial pro- cesses, the range of harmful pollutants has multiplied
tremendously. Sometimes, vegetation over 150 km away from the source of the pollutant has
been found to be affected.
Structure of a Normal Leaf
A knowledge of the structure of a leaf will help us understand why damage occurs to plants on
account of air pollutants. A generalized diagram of the structure of a normal leaf is given in Fig.
7.1.
If we examine a leaf, one will normally see a network of denser structures, the veins, all
interconnected to the base or stem of the leaf. The leaf veins act as the transport system for water
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and food, just like blood vessels in animals. The leaf
tissue is in layers with a skin or epidermis layers on top
and bottom and the photosynthetic cells in between.
The stomata are the entrances in the leaf bottom (and in
some leaves in the top) through which CO2 enters to
play its role in photo- synthesis. These openings are
protected by pairs of specialized guard cells which
open and close to allow gases to enter or leave the leaf.
Such gases of course, include pollutants like sulphur
dioxide.
Effect of Environment on Plants
The primary factor which controls gas absorption by the leaves is the degree of opening
of the stomata. When the stomata are wide open, absorption is maximum and vice versa.
Consequently, the same conditions that enhance the absorption of the gas (CO2 for
photosynthesis), predispose the plant to injury (by absorbing a pollutant gas like SO2). The
conditions that cause the stomata to open are high light intensity (especially in the morning
hours), high relative humidity, adequate moisture supply to the roots of the plant and moderate
temperatures. Most plants close their stomata at night and are therefore much more resistant at
night than in the day time. But some plants like the potato, which do not close their stomata at
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night, are as sensitive in the dark as in the light.
Air Pollutants Affecting Plants
1. Sulphur dioxide
2. Fluoride compounds (like hydrogen fluoride)
3. Ozone
4. Chlorine
5. Hydrogen chloride
6. Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2,etc.)
7. Ammonia
8. Hydrogen sulphide
9. Hydrogen cyanide
10. Mercury
11. Ethylene
12. PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate)
13. Herbicides (sprays of weed killers)
14. Smog
The above pollutants interfere with plant growth and the phenomenon of photosynthesis. Smog,
dust, etc., reduce the amount of light reaching the leaf and also by clogging the stomata may
reduce carbon dioxide intake to some extent and thus interfere with photosynthesis.
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Forms of Damage to Leaves
Damage to leaves takes several forms
1. Necrosis: Necrosis is the killing or collapse of tissue.
2. Chlorosis : Chlorosis is the loss or reduction of the green plant pigment, chlorophyll. The loss
of chloro- phyll usually results in a pale green or yellow pattern. Chlorosis generally indicates a
deficiency of some nutrient required by the plant. In many respects, it is analogous to anaemia in
animals
3. Abscission : Leaf abscission is dropping of leaves.
4. Epinasty: Leaf epinasty is a downward curvature of the leaf due to higher rate of growth on
the upper surface.
Kinds of Injury to Plants
➢ Acute Injury
It results from short-time exposure to relatively high concentrations, such as might occur under
fumigation conditions. The effects are noted within a few hours to a few days and may result in
visible markings on the leaves due to a collapse and death of cells. This leads to necrotic
patterns, i.e., areas of dead tissue.
➢ Chronic Injury
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It results from long-term low level exposure and usually causes chlorosis or leaf abscission.
➢ Growth or Yield Retardation
Here the injury is in the form of an effect on growth without visible markings (invisible injury).
Usually a suppression of growth or yield occurs.
While deciding about the type of injury the plant has suffered, one must carefully distinguish
between adverse effects caused by air pollution and adverse effects resulting from other factors.
Plant diseases may show symptoms which are very similar to those caused by air pollution. High
temperatures, poor plant care, shortage of nutrients and water may also cause an appearance
which is similar to that of a plant damaged by air pollution. It may also be due to insect damage.
Therefore, while diagnosing the effects of air pollution one must consider factors such as plant
disease, nutrition history, weather damage, insect damage, and the nature of pollutants in the
area.
Effects of Air Pollutants on Plants
The effects of various pollutants like sulphur dioxide, ozone, fluorides, etc., on plants is shown in
Table 7.1
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● Effect of Sulphur Dioxide
Sulphur dioxide produces two types of injury on the leaves of plants-acute and chronic,
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depending on the concentration and period of exposure. The acute injury is characterized by the
killing of marginal or interveinal areas of the leaf. Immediately after fumigation these areas will
get a dull, water- soaked appearance. Subsequently they dry up and usually bleach to an ivory
colour, though some species finally assume a brown or reddish-brown colour. Chronic injury is
caused by the slow, long-continued absorption of sub- lethal amounts of gas or by absorption of
an amount of gas somewhat less than that necessary to cause acute injury.
Sulphur dioxide is phytotoxic in concentrations above 0.1-0.2 ppm. Below about 0.4
ppm, it tends to be oxidised in the cells as rapidly as it is absorbed, but interferences with
functions such as photosynthesis is slight. Chronic injury, if any, is generally exhibited with these
small concentrations. Above about 0.4 ppm, acute injury occurs more frequently. Sometimes
temporary interference with photosynthesis or 'invisible injury' can occur.
● Effect of Hydrogen Fluoride
Hydrogen fluoride behaves somewhat similar to sulphur dioxide except that with a few species
of plants it is effective in causing lesions and interfering with photosynthesis in concentrations
two or three orders less than in the case of sulphur dioxide. With most species it is up to 10 times
as effective as sulphur dioxide. However, recovery of plants from the fluoride effect is much
slower than from sulphur dioxide. This difference in rate of recovery is probably explained by
the fact that sulphite in the leaves is rapidly oxidised to the relatively non-toxic sulphate, whereas
fluorides can be removed only by the slower process of volatization or by some obscure
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chemical reaction. Forage may be rendered unsafe for animal feeding if more than 50 ppm of
fluorine is absorbed.
● Effect of Ozone
Ozone is phytotoxic in exposures of a few hours at about 0.2 ppm. Injury due to ozone is quite
different from typical smog injury. The lesions are generally confined to the upper surface.
Sensitivity of plants to Air Pollutants
The sensitivity of plants to air pollutants is conditioned by many factors.
Genetic Factors: Plant response to pollutants varies between species of a given genus and
between varieties within a given species. Such variation is simply a function of genetic
variability as it affects the plants' morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics.
Plants do not necessarily show similar susceptibility to different pollutants. For example, some
plants are sensitive to fluoride but resistant to sulphur dioxide.
Climatic Factors: The important climatic factors affecting the response of vegetation to air
pollutants are
1. Duration of light
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2. Light quality (wave length)
3. Light intensity
4. Temperature
5. Humidity
Miscellaneous Factors: Soil, water, and fertility affect the sensitivity of plants to air pollutants.
Effect of air pollutants on Animals
The process by which farm animals get poisoned is entirely different from that by which human
beings exposed to polluted atmospheres are poisoned. In case of farm animals it is a two-step
process:
1. Accumulation of the air-borne contaminant in the vegetation and forage
2. Subsequent poisoning of the animals when they eat the contaminated vegetation
In case of human beings working in polluted atmospheres in factories, the concern is for
the harmful substances that are directly inhaled, whereas in the case of the farm animals, the
danger obviously is not in inhaling the polluted air, but rather the ingestion of forage which has
been contaminated with pollutants like fluorine from the air.
The three pollutants responsible for most livestock damage are fluorine, arsenic and lead. These
pollutants originate from industrial sources or from dusting and spraying.
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● Fluorine
Of all farm animals, cattle and sheep are the most susceptible to fluorine toxicosis. Horses appear
to be quite resistant to fluorine poisoning. Poultry are probably the most resistant to fluorine, of
all farm animals.
➔ Symptoms of Acute Fluorine Poisoning
Lack of appetite, rapid loss in weight, decline in health and vigour, lameness, periodic diarrhoea,
muscular weakness and death, characterize the acute form of fluorine poisoning. It may also
result in considerable increase of bone fluorine. But acute poisoning due to fluorides is unlikely
in a majority of the cases.
➔ Symptoms of Chronic Fluorine Poisoning
Fluorine is a cumulative poison under conditions of continuous exposure to sub-acute doses.
Fluorine is also a protoplasmic poison. It has a marked affinity for calcium and interferes with
normal calcification. Animals have been reported to be more resistant than humans to dental
mottling. Cattle and sheep are the most frequently affected animals. Teeth in the process of
formation are easily affected. Hence tooth symptoms are a sensitive and unique criterion of
chronic fluorosis. Excessive wearing of incisor and molar teeth may occur at high levels of
fluorine intake.
A bony overgrowth may be observed on the leg bones, jaw bones and ribs. Their appearance
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indicates that there has been a high fluoride intake over a long period. Lameness may occur as a
result of this overgrowth on the leg bones. This may be followed by stiffness of joints. Effects of
fluorides on skeletal structures are usually of a permanent nature.
Symptoms of advanced fluorosis include lack of appetite, general ill- health due to
malnutrition, lowered fertility, reduced milk production and growth retardation. The symptoms
developed in other species such as rabbits, horses and poultry are similar to those in cattle and
sheep, i.e., mottling, staining and wearing of the teeth, bony overgrowths on the skeleton,
stiffness and lethargy and general ill-health from malnutrition and starvation.
● Arsenic
Arsenic occurs as an impurity in many ores and in coal. It has been repor ted to cause poisoning
of livestock near various industrial processes and smelters. Just like most industrial air
contaminants, arsenic may spread over a considerable area from a stack source. Arsenic in dusts
or sprays on plants can lead to poisoning of cattle.
➔ Symptoms of Acute Arsenic Poisoning
In acute cases the symptoms are severe salivation, thirst, vomiting, uneasi- ness, feeble and
irregular pulse and respiration. The animal stamps, lies down and gets up. There is diarrhoea, and
the faeces have a garlic odour and are sometimes bloody. The ears become cold, the body
trembles and develops abnormal temperature and convulsion. Death may occur in few hours or
days.
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➔ Symptoms of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning
Arsenic appears to have a depressing effect upon the central nervous system. The animal
becomes dull, and exhibits a lack of appetite, with a resulting weight loss. Also, there may be
chronic cough and diarrhoea may occur continuously. There may be thickening of the skin,
anaemia and abortion or sterlity. Chronic poisoning can result in eventual paralysis and death.
➔ Tolerance Limits
Arsenic as well as its soluble compounds are extremely poisonous. It has been reported that
sheep have been poisoned by as little as 0.25-0.50 g of arsenic daily, whereas cattle and horses
may tolerate 1.3-1.9 g daily. It has also been reported from laboratory experiments, that 10 mg of
arsenic per kilogram of body weight per day has produced chronic arsenic poisoning in guinea
pigs.
● Lead
Lead contamination of the atmosphere takes place on account of various industrial sources such
as smelters, coke ovens and other coal combustion processes. Lead is also used in dust and
sprays containing lead arsenate.
➔ Symptoms of Acute Lead Poisoning
In case of acute lead poisoning the onset is sudden and the course relatively short. Prostration,
staggering and inability to rise are prominent symptoms. The pulse is always fast but weak.
Some animals may fall suddenly, stiffen the legs and have convulsions. There is complete loss of
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appetite, paralysis of the digestive tract and diarrhoea. Other nervous symptoms in cattle are
grinding of the teeth and rapid chewing of the cud. In case of horses, it may result in complete
loss of appetite, nervous depression, lethargy and death.
➔ Symptoms of Chronic Lead Poisoning
Chronic lead poisoning has been observed frequently in horses that have been grazing on forage
near smelters, lead mines, and in orchards that have been sprayed. Paralysis of the muscles of the
larynx and difficulty in breath- ing are the main symptoms. Convulsions may occur from the
paralysis of the throat, and the difficulty in breathing may be unusually severe and per- sistent,
during and after exercise.
➔ Tolerance Limits
Lead is a cumulative poison. Therefore, the continuous ingestion of even very small daily doses
will be finally as effective as one toxic dose. Hence in case of slight contamination death can
occur after many months and in case of severe contamination death can occur within 24 hours.
Effect of air pollutants on materials
Air pollution damage to property is a very important economic aspect of pollution. Air pollution
damage to property covers a wide range- corrosion of metals, soiling and eroding of building
surfaces, fading of dyed materials, rubber cracking, spoiling or destruction of vegetation, effects
on animals, as well as interference with production and services. Another important economic
effect of air pollution is deterioration of works of art.
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Mechanism of Deterioration in Polluted Atmospheres
Air pollutants cause damage to materials by five mechanisms:
1. Abrasion: Solid particles of sufficient size and travelling at high velocities can cause abrasive
action. Also, large sharp edged particles imbedded in fabrics can accelerate wear.
2. Deposition and Removal: Solid and liquid particles deposited on a surface may not damage
the material itself but it may spoil its appearance. However, the removal of these particles may
cause some deterioration. Although a single washing or cleaning may not cause noticeable
deterioration, frequent cleaning ultimately does.
3. Direct chemical attack: Some air pollutants react directly and irreversibly with materials to
cause deterioration. For example, the bleaching of marble by sulphur dioxide, the tarnishing of
silver by hydrogen sulphide and the etching of a metallic surface by an acid mist.
4. Indirect chemical attack: Certain materials absorb some pollutants and get damaged when
the pollutants undergo chemical changes. For example, sulphur dioxide absorbed by leather is
converted to sulphuric acid, which deteriorates the leather.
5. Corrosion: The atmospheric deterioration of ferrous metals is by an electrochemical process,
ie, corrosion. This is due to the action of air pollutants facilitated by the presence of moisture.
Factors Influencing Atmospheric Deterioration
There are four prime factors which influence the rate of attack of damaging pollutants.
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1. Moisture: The presence of moisture in the atmosphere greatly helps the process of corrosion.
Without moisture in the atmosphere, there would be little atmospheric corrosion, if any, even in
the most severely polluted environments. In case of sulphur dioxide and various combinations of
particulates, investigations have revealed that the rate of corrosion of metals will increase as
relative humidity in the air increases.
2. Temperature: Temperature affects the rate of the chemical reaction and consequently it
affects the rate of deterioration.
3. Sunlight: In addition to producing damaging agents such as ozone through a series of
complex photochemical reactions in the atmosphere, sunlight can cause direct deterioration of
certain materials.
4. Air movement: Wind direction is an important factor to be considered in places where
deterioration is caused by pollutants released from nearby factories. For example, damage to
agricultural crops in the vicinity of factories. Similarly, wind speed is also an important factor in
determining the impact of air pollutants on the receiving surfaces. Pollutants present in wind
blowing at high speeds will have more abrasive effects and they may also be carried over
long distances.
Material Damage Due to Air Pollution
Various economic losses occur because of material damage due to air pollutants. Air pollution
damages materials chiefly by corrosion of metals. The prime air pollutant responsible for
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metallic corrosion is sulphur dioxide. In the presence of oxygen, sulphur dioxide is slowly
converted to sulphur trioxide, which in turn, may react with the moisture in the air to form
sulphuric acid. Deposition of this acid on the metal parts of building roofs, caves, downspouts,
and other metal equipment results in a considerable loss from atmospheric corrosion in most
urban communities.
Metals adversely affected include steel, aluminium, copper, zinc and iron. The economic loss due
to corrosion caused by polluted air must also take into consideration deterioration of objects like
steel rails, steel tram- way tracks, overhead wires, metal on bridges, electrical contacts, etc. Such
costs can only be estimated and no definite figures are available. Also, additional costs of
painting, replacement, and substitution would have to be considered in estimating the total
economic loss due to corrosion because of direct and indirect effects. Various economic losses
due to air pollution are as follows.
● Building Materials
Building materials are corroded and disfigured by air pollutants in a number of ways in addition
to the usual weathering process. Smoke and aerosols adhere to stone, brick, and other building
surfaces to produce unsightly coatings. Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide in the presence of
moisture can react with limestone (CaCO3) to form calcium sulphate (CaSO4) and gyp- sum
(CaSO4, 2H2O), both of which are soluble in water. This type of dam- age is notable especially
in works of art. For example, the world famous Taj Mahal of Agra, which is constructed out of
marble.
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Similarly carbon dioxide in the presence of moisture, produces carbonic acid. This acid converts
limestone into a water-soluble bicarbonate, which is then leached away. Staining of building
stone by sulphur compounds and particulates requires additional cleaning expense. From the
point of economic repercussions of pollution, losses due to maintenance costs inside and outside
houses and other buildings as well as due to depreciation of objects should be consi- dered and
properly evaluated.
● Paints
Paint is also affected by air pollutants. Areas of high pollution require more frequent painting.
Paints contain both pigments and a vehicle. Pigments provide colour, hiding power, and
durability. The vehicle holds the pigment to the surface. Together, they enhance the attractiveness
of the surface and protect the underlying material from corrosion or weathering. Air pollutants
may limit both of these functions by damaging the protective coating and by exposing the
underlying surface to attack. Some of the common pollutants that can cause this damage are
sulphur dioxide, ozone, hydrogen sulphide and aerosols. In fact, hydrogen sulphide is a common
cause of the darkening of surfaces covered with paint containing white lead.
● Textiles
Sulphur oxides cause deterioration of natural and some synthetic textile fibres. For example,
cotton, which is a cellulose fibre, is weakened by sulphur dioxide. The most common form of
permanent damage to textiles has been the deterioration of nylon hose. This has been usually
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traced to sulphuric acid mist. Curtains suffer badly in polluted areas because they hang at open
windows and to some extent serve as filters for dust, soot, and acid droplets.
The fading of textile dyes by air pollutants, primarily oxides of nitrogen, and ozone, has been a
problem in the textile industry. It is reported, that the combination of ozone and high humidity
causes pronounced fading of certain dyes on cotton and rayon fabrics.
● Rubber
Another form of property damage which is common in USA and other countries is rubber
cracking. The main affected areas are the side walls of tyres and various forms of electrical
insulation. This type of damage is caused by ozone. The mechanism appears to be an attack at
the double bonds in the hydrocarbon polymer compounds used in the rubber. The problem has
become so acute in areas like Los Angeles that tyre manufacturers add a special anti-ozone
compound to all tyres sold in the area. More rapid failure of rubber insulation in atmospheres of
high ozone content has also been noticed in power-transmission substations and in telephone
exchanges.
● Leather
Sulphur dioxide causes leather to lose much of its strength and ultimately disintegrate. The
storage of leather bound books in libraries can pose a serious problem. The bindings of books
stored in the open in rooms with polluted air were found to deteriorate much more rapidly than
those stored in confined spaces or inside glass cases. Initially, chemical decay of book bindings
can be observed by the cracking that takes place on the top inside hinges of the book. The cracks
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generally spread apart and as further mate- rial is exposed, the leather loses its resiliency and
disintegrates to a reddish brown powder. After some time, the entire book may get detached.
● Paper
Paper made prior to about 1750 is not seriously damaged by Sulphur dioxide. This is because, it
is about this date onwards in history that chemical methods were introduced for manufacturing
paper. Apparently, the small amounts of metallic impurities in 'modern' paper accelerate the
conversion of absorbed sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid, in the presence of moisture. The
sulphuric acid content of some papers has been found to be as high as one per cent, which makes
the paper extremely brittle. It has been found that exposure of books and writing paper to sulphur
dioxide in concentrations 2-9 ppm for 10 days made them brittle and decreased their folding
resistance.
● Glass and Ceramics
Although glasses and enamels are especially resistant to the chemical action of air pollutants, it
has been observed that during a long exposure for three years, porcelain enamels showed a
change in their surface appearance. Moisture and atmospheric pollution by acidic substances
seems to have played a major role in surface degradation.
Fluorides, especially hydrogen fluoride, are capable of attacking a wide range of ceramic
materials and glass through their ability to react with silicon compounds. In the past, window
glasses in areas near synthetic fertiliser and enamel plants have been rendered opaque through
the action of fluorides. However, the concentrations required to produce this type of damage are
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far in excess of those necessary to kill sensitive vegetation. Restrictions imposed on emission
limits of fluorides by legislation in many countries has actually eliminated this type of effect
except perhaps in occasional localized situations. Hence, fluoride damage to materials appears to
be an insignificant economic
effect.
● Electronics Industry
Particulate matter and gaseous pollutants have been constant sources of trouble to the electronics
industry. Many kinds of electronic components and equipment have been damaged.. Air
pollutants cause thin insulating film to develop on contacts resulting in open circuits and
malfunctioning of the equipment. Sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide tarnish copper and
silver contacts by producing sulphide films. These pollutants even cause gold-silver bonded
contacts to fail. Atmosphere particles can settle on con- tacts and prevent intimate surface
contact when closed. If the particles contain corrosive components, direct chemical action can
occur.
Effects on Art Treasures
Air pollutants have caused great damage to art objects throughout the industrialized world. Some
excellent monuments of antiquity have been silently eaten away by pollutants. This can be
clearly seen in many works of art like sculptures and carvings on historic buildings and
cathedrals. A few examples of such works of art which have been affected by air pollution both
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in India and abroad have been described below.
Effect on Art Treasures in India
(a) Taj Mahal : The Taj Mahal a miracle in marble and a historical monument is facing grave
danger from pollution created by existing foundries, power houses, railway yards and other
industrial units. According to some environmentalists, the problem now seems to have been
aggravated because of the commissioning of the Mathura Oil Refinery, about 40 km from the
priceless monument. Whether the monument is going to be affected by the pollutants emitted
from the refinery or not has created a controversy which is now being debated. Many reports on
this have appeared in noted newspapers and journals. However, it is to be hoped that certain anti-
pollution safeguards built into the refinery will minimise the effect of pollutants on the
monument.
According to some reports, pollutants from existing foundries, power houses and railway yards
are already affecting the Taj Mahal. Black and brown patches are disfiguring the shiny white
surface of the Taj. Reports in newspapers also speak of the formation of gypsum, scaling and
flaking effects.
Sulphur dioxide from the various sources mentioned, mixes with the
atmospheric moisture and gets converted into sulphuric acid which settles down on the exterior
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of the Taj Mahal. The acid reacts with the marble (calcium carbonate) and corrosion and
discolouration of the monument is the ultimate result.
It looks as though more money will have to be spent on protecting the Taj Mahal from the effects
of pollution than it took Shah Jehan to construct it. Perhaps the immediate solution to save the
Taj Mahal lies in shifting the foundries and power houses from Agra, and in effectively
supervising anti- pollution measures adopted by the refinery. Further, the coal locomotives being
used by the railways in that region can be replaced by diesel engines. In addition to these steps, a
dense green belt of suitable tree species should be created around the Taj Mahal to absorb
atmospheric pollutants as trees can act as effective air scrubbers.
(b) Belur Temple: The renowned temple of Sri Channakeshava at Belur (Hassan district,
Karnataka state), is threatened with a similar hazard. A plywood factory located close to the
temple emits soot-laden fumes, which get deposited on the sculptures in the temple and discolour
the surface, inside and outside This pollution effect is under investigation.
Effect on Art Treasures in Other Countries
The Parthenon in Athens, has been affected in recent years because of air pollution.
Cleopatra's needle, the large stone obelisk(a stone pillar having a rectangular cross section
tapering towards a pyramidal top) moved from Alexandria, Egypt, to London, has suffered more
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deterioration in the damp, smoky, acid atmosphere of London in the last 90 years than in the
earlier 3000 or more years of its history.
Similar cases have been reported from other parts of the world. The Colosseum in Rome, and
the San Marco Basilica in Venice, Italy, show signs of decay, possibly due to air pollution. In
France, it is reported that environmentalists have removed statues from the exterior of
cathedrals and replaced them with copies. Similarly, ancient temples and buildings in
industrial areas of Japan are facing the hazards of atmospheric pollution. Paintings, books,
fabrics, antique costumes and other art objects have suffered damage.
Effect of air pollutants on Environment
● Impacts on atmosphere
●Air pollution in the form of Greenhouse Gases, e.g., CO2 and CH4, raises the temperature of
earth/atmosphere.
● Air pollutants such as CO2, SO2 and NOx are main causes of the acidic rainfall.
●Visibility is also affected by the air pollution in the atmosphere.
○Visibility is a measure of how well an observer can see a scene.
○If air pollution increases, the contrast may decrease, reducing our ability to see the
object.
○Low visibility can lead to accidents and thus is a concern for public safety.
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● Impacts on Climate
◼Pollutant releases into the air via car exhaust, smokestacks at factories and power plants,
agricultural emissions, and other sources can cause climate change.
◼Greenhouse gases (such as CH4 and CO2, and O3) cause the climate change by inducing
global warming due to trapping of outgoing longwave i.e. heat radiation emitted by the earth to
the upper atmosphere.
◼Change in temperature pattern- Global average temperature rose about 1.8°F (1°C) from 1901
to 2020.
◼Change in precipitation rainfall pattern-The leading cause is a change in atmospheric
temperature due to GHGs.
● Impacts on Soil
◼Air pollution can significantly affect the quality of soil.
◼Lead is absorbed in small amounts by vegetation through the soil, lowering its productivity.
◼Oxides of Sulfur and Nitrogen contribute to acid rain and interfere with the chemical
composition of soil.
◼Acid rain can alter the productivity of the soil, which can affect plant growth
◼Acid rain is known to cause serious negative Impacts (like loss of nutrients, minerals and
elements) on soil.
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● Impacts on Water Bodies
◼Acidic Impact: If air is polluted, it also pollutes the precipitation that falls into water bodies.
◼Some rivers, lakes or coastal areas may seem to be clean. But these areas still be polluted
because of acid precipitation from rain, snow and particulate matter
◼Acid precipitation in the form of snow is suddenly released into the water system during the
spring melt, called acid shock. This acid shock can be lethal for many aquatic organisms such as
fish.
◼Thermal Impact: The ocean absorbs most of the excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions,
leading to rising ocean temperature
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Definition -Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiations from the sun are absorbed by
the greenhouse gases and not reflected back into space. This insulates the surface of the earth and
prevents it from freezing
◼ A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow plants. The sun’s radiations
warm the plants and the air inside the greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and
warms the greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants. Same is the case in the
earth’s atmosphere.
◼ During the day the sun heats up the earth’s atmosphere. At night, when the earth cools down
the heat is radiated back into the atmosphere. During this process, the heat is absorbed by the
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greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. This is what makes the surface of the earth warmer,
that makes the survival of living beings on earth possible.
◼ However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the earth has
increased considerably. This has led to several drastic effects.
Greenhouse Gases
◼ Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared radiations and create a greenhouse
effect.
◼For eg., carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, ozone, Nitrous oxide.
◼The major contributors to the greenhouse gases are factories, automobiles, deforestation, etc.
◼The increased number of factories and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the
atmosphere.
◼The greenhouse gases never let the radiations escape from the earth and increase the surface
temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming.
Causes of Greenhouse Effect
◼Burning of Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in transportation and to
produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in
population, the utilization of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the
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release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the cutting of trees, there is
a considerable increase in the greenhouse gases which increases the earth’s temperature.
◼Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the greenhouse effect in the
atmosphere.
◼Industrial Waste and Landfills
The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are released in the atmosphere.
Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the greenhouse gases.
Effects of Greenhouse Effect
◼ Global Warming :It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of the
Earth’s atmosphere. The main cause for this environmental issue is the increased volumes of
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane released by the burning of fossil fuels,
emissions from vehicles, industries and other human activities.
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◼ Depletion of Ozone Layer :Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from
the sun. It is found in the upper regions of the stratosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer
results in the entry of the harmful UV rays to the earth’s surface that might lead to skin cancer
and can also change the climate drastically.
•The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural greenhouse gases including
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
◼Smog and Air Pollution
-Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused both by natural means
and man-made activities.
- In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of more greenhouse gases including
nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The major contributors to the formation of smog are automobile and
industrial emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires and the reaction of these chemicals
among themselves.
◼Acidification of Water Bodies
-Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned most of the world’s water
bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to
the acidification of water bodies.
-Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and falls into the river, streams and
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lakes thereby causing their acidification.
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
Indoor air pollution refers to any contamination of the air within a building
⮚
Whether it’s in college, the office or simply at home, most people spend about 90% of their
⮚
time indoors.
And while we often talk about the amount of pollution in our atmosphere, we rarely consider
⮚
the quality of the air that we’re breathing when we are inside.
However, indoor air pollution has been shown to have considerable effects on both long and
⮚
short term health and is thought to be responsible for 4.3 million deaths each year
How Does Indoor Air Pollution Affect Human Health?
◼A reduction in fresh air exchange in modern buildings has given rise to a phenomenon known
as “sick building syndrome”, or SBS). This is commonly caused by a combination of poor
ventilation and poorly-maintained air conditioning.
◼The symptoms of sick building syndrome improve when you leave the premises and get worse
the longer you stay there. The most common symptoms include:
•Headaches
•Blocked sinuses or a runny nose
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•Skin rashes
•Itchy eyes
•Drowsiness
•Difficulty breathing
Sources of Indoor Air Pollution
[Link] smoke
◼Deadliest indoor air pollutant
◼Contain formaldehyde, carbon monoxide
◼The inhalation of cigarette smoke is particularly harmful to children, increasing the risk
of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), severe asthma, ear problems, and acute
respiratory infections.
◼Moreover, cigarette smoke contains at least 70 carcinogens, chemicals that have been
proven to cause cancers. When inhaled, these chemicals can cause illnesses such as
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other cardiovascular diseases which
lead to heart attacks, as well as other serious complications.
2. Mold
◼Mold is a form of fungus which grows on the damp areas in buildings.
◼It digests the materials it lands on, and can grow on many types of surfaces.
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◼It is prevalent in moist environments and is most common during the winter months
and in more humid climates
◼ Mold may be white, black, green or yellow, and can appear to be slippery or rough in
texture.
◼Mold can release a range of hazardous toxins into the air and can cause many different
symptoms—and is a particular concern to babies, children, older adults, and those with
existing skin problems, respiratory problems, or weakened immune systems.
◼Allergy symptoms, breathing problems, headache, fatigue
[Link]
◼ Colorless, odorless, radioactive gas
◼ Comes from soil under basements and diffuse into the air in your building
◼ Radon emits radiation which can attach to dust particles and pass into the lungs
causing damage.
◼ Long term exposure can cause lung cancer
◼ Fix cracks in floor or walls to prevent influx of radon
◼ Install ventilation fan in basement to blow radon out.
4. Carbon monoxide
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○ Malfunctioning furnace, gas appliances, cars
○ Blood cannot carry oxygen
○ Feel sleepy, nausea, dizzy, cause death.
5. Pet Dander
▪ Pet dander is comprised of microscopic flakes of skin and hairs shed by household
pets
▪ Exposure to pet dander can cause symptoms like coughing, sneezing, allergic
reactions, watery eyes, and chest tightness.
6. Asbestos
◼ Roofing, flooring, insulation, brakes
◼ Harmless unless disturbed or deteriorates
◼ Can cause asbestosis (scarring of lungs) and lung cancer
7. Formaldehyde
◼ Pressed wood, panelling, particle board, glue, deodorizers
◼ Respiratory irritation, fatigue, skin rash, known to cause cancer
SOLUTION TO INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
◼ Source Control
◼
◼
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Ensure proper ventilation
Ensure proper air filtration/cleaning
◼ Replace Old Filters
◼ Quit smoking or Smoke Outside (to reduce your lifespan)
◼ Avoid Painting, Spraying Combustible products indoors (or near ventilation units)
◼ Maintain clean roof, gutters, storm drainage
◼ Reduce and Remove Moisture
◼ Proper Asbestos Maintenance
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