AEROSPACE VEHICLE DESIGN - MVJ22AS73

Module 1:
Introduction to Launch Vehicle: Launch Vehicles Available, Launch Vehicle
Capabilities Deciding, Which Launch Vehicle to Use. Characteristics of Spacecraft
Necessary to Choose a Launch Vehicle Structures. Primary Structural Design Other
Functional Divisions Mechanisms Used by the Other Subsystem. Materials for
Constructing Spacecraft Manufacturing Techniques Applicable to the Structure.

A launch vehicle, often called a rocket, is a powerful machine that transports objects,
such as satellites and spacecraft, from the Earth's surface into space. These vehicles are
essential for various space missions, enabling us to explore, communicate, navigate,
observe, and even conduct scientific research in space.
Launch Vehicles Available
India (ISRO)

➢ Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV): This is considered the "workhorse" of ISRO,
known for its reliability and versatility. It has launched numerous Indian and
foreign satellites into various orbits, including the Sun-synchronous Polar Orbit
(SSPO), Low Earth Orbit (LEO), and Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). Its
variants include PSLV-CA (Core Alone), PSLV-XL, PSLV-DL, and PSLV-QL. PSLV has a
payload capacity of up to 1,750 kg to SSPO (600 km altitude) and 1,425 kg to GTO.
➢ Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV): Designed to primarily launch
communication satellites into GTO, it is larger than PSLV and uses a cryogenic
upper stage. GSLV Mk II, with an indigenously developed cryogenic stage, can carry
a 2-tonne class of communication satellites into GTO.
➢ Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (LVM3): This is ISRO's heavy-lift
launcher, capable of placing 4-tonne class satellites into GTO and about 10 tonnes
to LEO. The Human Rated LVM3 (HRLV) is being developed for the Gaganyaan
mission, India's human spaceflight program. LVM3 is a three-stage vehicle with two
solid strap-on motors, a liquid core stage, and a high-thrust cryogenic upper stage.
United States (NASA, SpaceX, ULA, Northrop Grumman, etc.)

➢ Falcon 9 (SpaceX): A two-stage rocket with a reusable first stage, capable of

launching satellites and the Dragon spacecraft into orbit. It is considered a heavy-
lift vehicle when its first stage is expended.
➢ Falcon Heavy (SpaceX): A super heavy-lift rocket that uses three Falcon 9 first
stages as its core. It is certified for the National Security Space Launch program.
➢ Atlas V (United Launch Alliance - ULA): A heavy-lift vehicle with different
configurations, utilizing solid rocket boosters and a Centaur upper stage. It is
nearing retirement.
 ➢ Minotaur (Northrop Grumman): A family of solid-fueled launch vehicles (I, IV, V, VI,
and C) used to launch payloads for government missions.
➢ Pegasus (Northrop Grumman): An air-launched, small, solid-fueled vehicle.
➢ Space Launch System (SLS) (NASA): A super heavy-lift rocket developed by NASA
for the Artemis program, aiming to return humans to the Moon.
➢ Vulcan Centaur (ULA): A heavy-lift launch vehicle designed to replace the Delta IV
and Atlas V, and currently under development and certification.
Europe (ESA)
➢ Ariane 6 (ArianeGroup): The latest version of the Ariane family of launchers,
designed to carry heavy payloads.
➢ Vega-C (ESA): A small launch vehicle.
China (CNSA, CALT, etc.)
➢ Long March 5/5B: The most powerful version of the Long March family, utilizing
non-hypergolic liquid propellants.
Russia (Roscosmos, Khrunichev, etc.)
➢ Angara A5: A heavy-lift launch vehicle.
➢ Soyuz 2: A family of launch vehicles including Soyuz 2.1A, Soyuz 2.1B, and the
retired Soyuz 2.1V.
Under development and future plans
➢ Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) (ISRO): A family of partially reusable,
heavy-lift vehicles (also named Project Soorya) intended to replace the PSLV and
GSLV, and potentially used for lunar missions and the Indian space station. It will
utilize semi-cryogenic engines and aims for cost-effective launches, according to
ISRO Chairman S. Somanath.
➢ Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) (ISRO): An
experimental vehicle to develop technologies for a fully reusable launch vehicle.
➢ Human Rated Launch Vehicle (HRLV) (ISRO): A modified version of LVM3, designed
to carry humans into Low Earth Orbit for the Gaganyaan mission.
➢ Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) (ISRO): Designed for cost-effective and on-
demand launch of small satellites into Low Earth Orbit.
➢ Ariane Next (Ariane Group): A future generation of reusable rockets.
➢ New Glenn (Blue Origin): A heavy-lift reusable launch vehicle under development.
➢ Starship (SpaceX): A fully reusable super heavy-lift rocket, currently in testing.
Launch Vehicle Capabilities Deciding
1. Payload requirements
 ➢ Mass and volume of the payload: Different launch vehicles are designed to carry
different payload masses and volumes into various orbits.
➢ Payload protection and environment: The payload fairing needs to protect the
spacecraft from aerodynamic forces and heat during ascent.
➢ Specific orbital requirements: This includes the desired altitude, inclination, and
orbit type (LEO, GEO, GTO etc.).
2. Launch vehicle performance and reliability
➢ Launch vehicle reliability: Track record of successful launches and the ability to
consistently deliver the payload to the desired orbit are crucial.
➢ Performance and suitability for the mission: This includes the ability to achieve
the required velocity and altitude for the mission.
➢ Propulsion system type: Solid and liquid propellant engines offer different thrust
characteristics and efficiency levels, and the choice depends on mission
demands.
➢ Number of stages: Multi-stage rockets enable greater velocity and altitude with
less propellant compared to single-stage designs.
➢ Guidance and control systems: The accuracy of the guidance system affects the
precision of orbit insertion and overall mission success.
3. Cost and schedule considerations
➢ Launch cost: This is a primary factor, with variations between different launch
companies and vehicle types.
➢ Launch schedule availability and flexibility: Ensuring the launch occurs within
the acceptable timeframe and aligning with satellite development milestones is
critical.
➢ Insurance costs: Launch failures and delays can incur significant financial losses,
making insurance a key aspect of overall mission cost.
4. Other key factors
➢ Launch site location and infrastructure: Considerations like geographical
restrictions for inclination, availability of transport, and launch support teams
are important.
➢ Reusable vs. expendable launch vehicles: Reusable vehicles offer potential cost
savings but have different design complexities and operational considerations.
➢ Geopolitical climate and market availability: Factors such as sanctions, launch
vehicle availability fluctuations, and supply chain disruptions can impact the
decision process.
Which Launch Vehicle to Use
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle):
❖ Strengths:
Versatile, reliable, and cost-effective, known as ISRO's workhorse.
❖ Capabilities:
Can launch satellites into polar orbits, sun-synchronous orbits, and geostationary
transfer orbits.
❖ Payload Capacity:
Varies depending on the configuration (PSLV-XL, PSLV-QL, etc.), but generally up
to 1,750 kg to sun-synchronous polar orbit.
❖ Best for:
Launching remote sensing satellites, earth observation satellites, and smaller
satellites.
GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle):
❖ Strengths: Can launch heavier communication satellites into geostationary
orbits.
❖ Capabilities: Equipped with an indigenous cryogenic upper stage.
❖ Payload Capacity: Can launch satellites up to 2-tonne class.
❖ Best for: Launching communication satellites that require geostationary orbit.
LVM3 (Launch Vehicle Mark 3):
❖ Strengths:
ISRO's heaviest and most powerful launcher, capable of launching large satellites
and deep space missions.
❖ Capabilities:
Indigenously developed with a cryogenic upper stage.
❖ Payload Capacity:
Can launch 4-tonne class communication satellites and 10-tonne class payloads
to LEO.
❖ Best for:
Launching heavy satellites, deep space missions, and future crewed missions.
Other Considerations:
 ❖ SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle): ISRO is also developing the SSLV for
launching small satellites.
❖ Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV): ISRO is working on reusable launch vehicle
technology, like the RLV-TD, for potential future use.
❖ Mission Requirements: Consider the specific orbit, altitude, and trajectory
needed for your satellite or spacecraft.
❖ Cost: PSLV is generally considered more cost-effective for certain missions.
❖ Reliability: PSLV is known for its high reliability and has been used in many
successful missions.
Characteristics of Spacecraft Necessary to Choose a Launch Vehicle Structures
I. Physical characteristics
❖ Mass: The overall weight of the spacecraft is a primary factor. Launch vehicles have
specific lift capacities for different orbits, so the spacecraft's mass must fall within
the chosen vehicle's capabilities.
❖ Dimensions: The physical size and shape of the spacecraft dictate the required size
of the launch vehicle's payload fairing. The fairing protects the payload during
ascent and must be large enough to accommodate the spacecraft.
❖ Centre of Gravity (CG) and Moment of Inertia (MI): These properties are critical for
maintaining attitude control and stability during launch and in orbit.
✓ An accurate estimation of the CG and MI is essential for calculating the torque
required for manoeuvres and ensuring stability.
✓ Onboard systems, like attitude control systems (ACS), rely on precise
knowledge of these values to function correctly.
❖ Structural design and strength: The spacecraft's structure must be engineered to
withstand the extreme forces and vibrations encountered during launch and
ascent.
✓ Launch Loads: These include intense acoustic pressure, vibration, and shock
loads, as well as steady-state accelerations.
✓ Vibration and Shock Resistance: The spacecraft needs to be designed with
appropriate materials and damping mechanisms to minimize the impact of
vibrations and shocks, which can damage sensitive instruments.
✓ Thermal Protection: Depending on the mission profile, especially for reusable
launch vehicles, thermal protection systems may be needed to shield the
spacecraft from the intense heat generated during launch and re-entry.
 II. Mission-specific requirements
❖ Target Orbit: The desired orbit (e.g., Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbit (GTO), Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO)) dictates the required
Delta-V (change in velocity) the launch vehicle needs to provide and influences the
launch vehicle's propulsion system and staging capabilities.
❖ Attitude Control System (ACS) requirements: The ACS ensures the spacecraft's
correct orientation in space, which is essential for antenna pointing, solar panel
orientation, and scientific observations.
✓ Factors like desired pointing accuracy, slew rates, and allowed attitude errors
influence the design of the ACS and the actuators employed (e.g., thrusters,
reaction wheels, magnetic torquers).
❖ Power System Needs: The spacecraft's electrical power requirements, including the
power generation method (e.g., solar arrays, radioisotope thermoelectric
generators (RTGs)), storage capacity (e.g., batteries), and distribution system, play
a role in launch vehicle integration considerations and potential constraints
imposed by the launch vehicle's power capabilities.
❖ Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TT&C) capabilities: These systems are crucial
for monitoring the spacecraft's health, status, and location throughout the mission,
and for sending commands to control its operations.
✓ Compatibility between the spacecraft's and the launch vehicle's TT&C systems
ensures seamless communication during launch and initial operations.
❖ Deployment mechanisms: If the spacecraft includes deployable components (like
solar panels, antennas, or booms), their design and deployment sequence must be
carefully considered during launch vehicle integration and fairing design.
III. Interface and integration aspects
❖ Payload adapters: These structures ensure a secure mechanical and electrical
connection between the spacecraft and the launch vehicle and come in various
sizes and configurations.
❖ Mechanical and electrical interfaces: Compatibility in bolt patterns, power
connections, and data exchange protocols between the spacecraft and the launch
vehicle is critical for a smooth integration and successful mission.
The relationship between primary structural design and other functional divisions
and subsystems
❖ Primary Structure:
➢ Load-Bearing Capacity: The primary structure is designed to withstand
significant aerodynamic and inertial loads during launch and flight.
 ➢ Lightweight Design: A high strength-to-weight ratio is crucial for maximizing
payload capacity.
➢ Materials: Materials like aluminum alloys, composites, and honeycomb
structures are commonly used to achieve the desired strength and stiffness.
➢ Configuration: Launch vehicle structures can be diverse, including skin-frame,
truss, monocoque, or sandwich structures.
➢ Payload Fairing: A tapered shell at the forward end protects the payload during
ascent.
➢ Payload Adapter: Connects the payload to the upper stage.
❖ Other Functional Divisions:
➢ Stage Separation Mechanisms:
These mechanisms facilitate the separation of spent stages during flight.
➢ Deployment Mechanisms:
Used for deploying solar arrays, antennas, and other spacecraft components.
➢ Thermal Control:
Ensures the vehicle and payload maintain operational temperatures in the harsh
space environment.
➢ Umbilical Connectors:
Provide connections for power, data, and fluids during pre-launch operations.
➢ Separation Systems:
Mechanisms for releasing the payload or other components after reaching the
desired orbit.
❖ Mechanisms Used:
➢ Springs: Used for deployment and separation actions.
➢ Pyrotechnic devices: For igniting separation mechanisms and jettisoning
components.
➢ Linear actuators: For controlled movements in deployment and other
mechanisms.
➢ Bearings: Provide smooth rotational or linear motion for moving parts.
➢ Hinges: Allow for controlled articulation of components.
➢ Cables and wires: For structural support, power, and signal transmission.
➢ Fasteners: High-strength fasteners like "Milson" for panel attachment and
accurate positioning.
➢ Honeycomb panels: Used for structural rigidity and thermal control.
The integration of these structural components and mechanisms is critical for the overall
success of the launch vehicle's mission.
Materials and manufacturing techniques for spacecraft structures
Spacecraft structures are crucial for protecting sensitive equipment and enduring the
harsh environments of space, including launch stresses, extreme temperature
fluctuations, radiation exposure, vacuum, and potential impacts.
1. Materials for spacecraft structures
❖ Metals: Aluminum and titanium alloys are the traditional choices for structural
components due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and
ductility.
✓ Aluminum: Used for the main airframe, structural components, and propellant
tanks. Common alloys include Al 6061-T6 for propellant tanks and structural
components and Al 7075-T7351 and 7075-T7352 for machined elements.
✓ Titanium: Employed in high-strength structural components, fasteners, and
heavily loaded areas like landing gear and wing-fuselage connections.
✓ Steel: High-strength steel alloys are used in applications requiring stiffness and
strength, such as engine components, high-temperature sections, and for bolts
and fasteners, particularly in non-magnetic applications.
❖ Composites: Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) and fiberglass composites
offer superior strength-to-weight ratios, high stiffness, and fatigue resistance
compared to traditional metals.
✓ CFRP: Widely used in structural components like frames, beams, wings,
fuselage, and tail sections.
✓ Fiberglass Composites: Utilized in non-structural components like fairings and
access doors.
❖ Ceramics: Materials like Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC) and ceramic tiles are used
in thermal protection systems (TPS) to withstand the intense heat of re-entry.
❖ Thermal Protection System (TPS) Materials: A critical aspect of spacecraft
construction, TPS involves materials like:
✓ Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC): Used for the nose cap and wing leading edges
due to extreme temperatures during re-entry.
✓ High-Temperature Reusable Surface Insulation (HRSI) Tiles: Silica fiber tiles
used for protection in regions with high but not extreme temperatures.
 ✓ Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation (FRSI): Fibrous refractory composite
insulation (FRCI) tiles and blankets are employed in areas requiring moderate
heat protection.
❖ Other specialized materials:
✓ Fused Silica: Used for orbiter windows, offering high optical clarity and
radiation resistance.
✓ Polymeric materials: Used as thermal insulation, electrical insulation, and
adhesives.
✓ Aerogels: Known for low thermal conductivity and lightweight properties, they
are being investigated for insulation in fuel tanks and other applications.
✓ Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites: Offer enhanced mechanical, thermal, and
electrical properties, leading to lighter and stronger structures, and are used in
coatings, composites, and energy storage.
2. Manufacturing techniques
❖ Traditional techniques:
✓ Forging and machining: Used for forming and shaping metal components.
✓ Metal spinning: A highly effective method for producing large, round
components like rocket nozzles and combustion chambers, offering high
strength, material savings, and faster production.
✓ Welding and riveting: Often employed in assembling metal structures.
❖ Advanced techniques:
✓ Additive Manufacturing (AM) or 3D Printing: Builds complex geometries layer
by layer, enabling lightweight components and rapid prototyping and
production of spare parts.
✓ Automated Fiber Placement (AFP): Robotic systems precisely place fibers for
manufacturing complex composite structures.
✓ Out-of-Autoclave (OOA) Processes (e.g., VARTM, Resin Infusion): Offer lower-
cost composite manufacturing for large structures by curing without high-
pressure autoclaves.
✓ In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU): A future manufacturing technique involving
extracting and processing resources from space, such as lunar regolith or
Martian soil, to build structures directly in space.
✓ Direct Robotic Extrusion of Photopolymers (DREPP): A novel technique that
utilizes UV-curable resin extruded and cured by UV light to build structures in
3D space, offering flexibility for complex shapes in microgravity.
3. Challenges and future trends
❖ Challenges: Spacecraft materials must withstand extreme temperatures, radiation,
vacuum, micrometeoroid impacts, and cyclic loading, requiring high durability,
fatigue resistance, and corrosion resistance. Balancing weight and durability,
ensuring reliability for long-duration missions without maintenance, and
controlling contamination from outgassing are crucial factors.
❖ Future Trends: Research and development focus on next-generation materials like
ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) for extreme heat resistance, graphene and other
nanomaterials for lightweight structures, and shape memory alloys (SMAs) for self-
repairing and adaptive structures. Additive manufacturing and in-space resource
utilization are key areas for sustainable space exploration.