57

UNIT II: MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTIONS & ANGLES

 58
Traverse: It is a framework consists of connecting lines. The distance between the lines are measured with chain or tape
while directions are measured with the help of instruments like compass and theodolite

Closed Traverse:

3. In case of close traverse, it is easy to detect error, adjust it and balance it

4. It is used for the survey of boundary walls, playgrounds etc.

Open Traverse:
1. In case of open traverse, the circuit ends elsewhere but the starting point

2. It is difficult to identify error and it cannot be properly checked, balanced and adjusted

3. It is used in canal, road, railways and tunnels etc.

59
60
61
Whole Circle Bearing Quadrantal Bearing
Convert the following WCB in QB Convert the following QB in WCB
? ?
1. 59°20’ 1. N59°20’E
2. 237°30’ 2. S02°40’W
3. 295°50’ 3. N30°55’W

Convert the following QB in RB ?

1. S22°40’W

62
Latitudes and Departure
Latitude Departure

W E

S
• North-south
component of line • East-west component
• Projection on N-S • Projection on E-W
• Y-component • X-component 63
Latitudes and Departure
Latitude Departure

II I

III IV
Key Rule:

• Quadrant Number and Sign is very important

• WCB → QB
64
Latitudes and Departure
Q. The latitude and departure of a line is measured negative and
positive, respectively. In which quadrant the line is situated ?
Q. The latitude and departure of a line is – (negative), the QB of
same can be?
a) N35°E
b) S73°E
c) N63°W
d) S23°W
Q. Calculate the latitude and departure, and assign proper sign
to them
Line AB BC CD DA
Length (m) 156.5 178.2 234.8 203.1
Bearing 78°40’ 152°32’ 251°18’ 3°45’
65
 Magnetic Declination
• Magnetic declination (sometimes called magnetic variation) is the angle between magnetic north and true
north. Declination is positive when this angle is east of true north and negative when it is west. Magnetic
declination changes over time, and with location.

True Bearing = Magnetic Bearing ± Magnetic Declination

+ = Declination (east) = Declination (west)

• Isogonic line: line joining places with equal MD
• Agonic line: line joining places with zero MD 66
Compass Traversing

Q. The magnetic bearing of AB is 125°35’ find out the true bearing ?

Declination: 10°10’ E
Q. Point A and B has MB of 55°35’ and 145°. From some additional
studies it was observed that both point are on agonic line. Please
calculate the TB of both points.
Q. The magnetic bearing of a line is 48°24’. Calculate the true
bearing if magnetic declination is 5°38’ E
Q. The magnetic bearing of a line is S28°30’E. Calculate the true
bearing if magnetic declination is 7°30’ W

Q. In an old map, a line AB was drawn to magnetic bearing of 5°30’

the magnetic declination at time being 1°East. To what magnetic
bearing should the line be set now if the present magnetic
declination is 8°30’ E 67
Fore Bearing and Back Bearing

68
69
70
71
72
73
 PRISMATIC COMPASS 74

 This prismatic compass is among the two major types of

magnetic compasses used in the series for the function of
magnetic bearing measurement. It is used for rough surveys
where too much accuracy is not necessary.
 This compass is made into a box which is circular and 85 to
110 mm in diameter. In the center of the compass box, is a
pointed steel pivot is used.
 The circle is read as observing the conclusion of the
graduation run clockwise from the south end of the needle.
 The prismatic adapter consists of a 45-degree translucent
prism and a strongly convex reading mask to magnify the
image of the graduation.
 The prism is installed and can be rotated up and down
between both the slides around the outside of the case.
 A hinge is provided so that the prism may be folded over the
edge of the box when it is not in use.
 PRISMATIC COMPASS 75

 The graduations are marked such that the zero is at the

south, 90 degrees at the west, 180 degrees at the north and
270 degrees at the east, i.e., the aluminum ring is graduated
in a clockwise direction with the zero at the south.
 The object vane consists of a metal frame hinged to the box.
In the center of this metal frame is fixed a vertical horse hair
or a tine wire or silk thread.
 When the prismatic compass is not in use the object vane
may be folded over the glass lid, covering the top of the box.
 When the object vane is folded over the glass lid, it presses a
lifting pin which lifts the magnetic needle above the pivot
and keeps it against the glass lid.
 A spring brake is provided inside the box to damp the
oscillations of the magnetic needle
 By pressing the brake pin inward, the Spring may be made to
come in contact with the magnetic needle thereby arresting
the oscillations.
 PRISMATIC COMPASS 76

 Sun glasses are provided to sight luminous objects. They are

simply interposed in the line of sight and reduce the strain on
the eyes of the observer.
 In the prismatic compass, the magnetic needle and the
graduated rings are attached together and, therefore, they
remain always along the north-south line when the box is
rotated.
 ADJUSTMENTS IN PRISMATIC COMPASS 77

To take an accurate reading of the bearings of a survey line, the

prismatic compass is adjusted over the station in two categories.
Temporary Adjustments:
• Centering: Centering is the process of bringing the vertical
axis of the prismatic compass over the station mark. It is done
by utilizing the plumb bob. Centering is usually done by
moving the legs of the tripod , so that the plumb bob is
exactly on the station peg . If plumb bob is not provided ,
centering is done by dropping a small stone or a coin . From
the bottom centre of the compass so that it falls exactly on
the station peg.
• Levelling: Levelling is done to make the compass exactly
horizontal. Levelling should be done such that the dial moves
freely and does not touch the rim of the bob.
• Focusing the prism: To get accurate readings from obtained
images and sharp graduation, the surveyor slides the prism of
the compass up or down until it is focused in one place.
 ADJUSTMENTS IN PRISMATIC COMPASS 78

To take an accurate reading of the bearings of a survey line, the

prismatic compass is adjusted over the station in two categories.
Permanent Adjustments:
• Adjustment in levels
• Adjustment of the pivot point
• Adjustment of sight vanes
• Adjustment of needle.
 SURVEYOR COMPASS 79

The important parts and the construction of surveyor compass

are similar to that of a prismatic compass except for the
following points.
 Whereas the prismatic compass consists of a reflecting prism
along with the eye vane, the surveyor’s compass consists of
only a narrow vertical slit instead of a prism.
 The magnetic needle is of broad form in a prismatic compass
whereas it is of an edge-bar type in a surveyor compass.
 In a prismatic compass, the graduated circle is attached to
the magnetic needle, and both of them remain along the
north-south line when the compass box rotates with the
sights, whereas in the surveyor compass the graduated circle
is fixed to the box and moves with the box while the
magnetic needle remains stationary along the north-south
line.
 SURVEYOR COMPASS 80

 In a prismatic compass, as the reflecting prism carries the eye

vane also, the sighting of the object and taking the reading
are done simultaneously, whereas in a surveyor compass the
object should be sighted first and then the surveyor should
go round the instrument to read the graduation on the
graduated ring corresponding to the north end of the needle.
 In a Surveyor Compass, the ring is divided into four quadrants
and graduations are made from 0 to 90 degrees in each
quadrant.
 0 degrees is marked at the North and South points, and 90
degrees is marked at the east and west points.
 The letter E and W are interchanged from their true position
so that the bearing of a line may be read in the correct
quadrant.
 Whereas the prismatic compass may be held in hand for
taking the reading, the surveyor’s compass should be
supported on a tripod.
 Least count of Surveyor Compass is 15′.
COMPARISON BETWEEN PRISMATIC & SURVEYOR’S COMPASS 81
ANGLE OF DIP 82
 THEODOLITE 83

 A theodolite is a precision optical instrument used in surveying,

engineering, and construction to measure angles accurately in
both the horizontal and vertical planes.
 It is an essential tool for various tasks that require precise
angular measurements, such as mapping, land surveying,
building layout, and geodetic surveys.

 Theodolite may be classified

i) Transit Theodolite
ii) Non Transit Theodolite
 84

Transit Theodolite:
 A transit theodolite is equipped with a telescope that can be
rotated or transited 180 degrees around its horizontal axis. This
means the telescope can be flipped over, allowing you to
measure both horizontal and vertical angles without changing
the instrument's position.
 Transit theodolites are particularly useful when you need to
measure angles in both the horizontal and vertical planes, such
as when surveying for elevation changes or constructing
buildings with precise vertical alignments.
 By flipping the telescope, you can effectively switch between
measuring horizontal angles (as with a typical theodolite) and
measuring vertical angles (by sighting upwards or downwards).
 85

Non Transit Theodolite:

 A non-transit theodolite, on the other hand, has a fixed
telescope that cannot be transited or flipped over to measure
vertical angles. The telescope is permanently aligned with the
horizontal axis of the instrument.
 When using a non-transit theodolite to measure vertical
angles, you must physically reposition the entire instrument
(theodolite and tripod) to point it upwards or downwards to
the target. This can be more time-consuming and less
convenient compared to a transit theodolite.
 Non-transit theodolites are typically used when horizontal
angle measurements are the primary focus, and there is no
need to measure vertical angles frequently or with high
precision.
PARTS OF THEODOLITE 86
 PARTS OF THEODOLITE 87

Telescope:
 The telescope is the primary optical
component of the vernier theodolite. It
allows surveyors to sight and focus on a
target or point of interest. It is mounted on
the horizontal axis known as trunnion axis.

The Vertical Circle:

 The vertical circle is a graduated circle
attached to the telescope’s trunnion axis.
The primary function of the vertical circle is
to measure vertical angles accurately. The
vertical circle is typically graduated in
degrees (0-360), and it may have finer
subdivisions for more precise angle
measurements.
Levelling Head PARTS OF THEODOLITE 88

 It is the lowermost part of a theodolite. It

consists of two parallel horizontal plates
separated by three leveling screws.
 The lower plate with a large threaded hole
in its centre is called trivet or foot plate. It
provides a means to place the instrument on
(tripod) stand and get it screwed. Its central
aperture provides a way for suspending a
plumb bob.
 The upper plate of the leveling head is called
the tribrach. It contains a tapered bearing at
the centre. It has three arms each carrying a
leveling screw. It provides a support for the
upper part of the instrument.
 The principal use of levelling head is to
provide a means for levelling the
instrument.
 PARTS OF THEODOLITE 89

The Standards (or A Frame):

 Two standards resembling the letter A are
attached on the upper plate. These provides
the bearings of the pivots of the telescope
allowing it to rotate on its trunion axis in
vertical plane. The vernier frame and arm of
vertical circle clamp are also attached to it.
The Index Frame (T Frame or Vernier
Frame):
 It consists of a vertical leg known as clipping
arm and a horizontal bar called the index arm
engraved with verniers C and D at its ends.
 Each of the verniers at C and D are having two
scales which increases in opposite directions.
 It is used as seat for altitude bubble and also
provides vernier reading for vertical angle
measurement
 PARTS OF THEODOLITE 90

The Lower Plate

 This is also called as scale plate. Because it contains a
scale on which 0 to 360 readings are graduated. It is
attached to the outer spindle and consists lower
clamping screw. If lower clamp screw is loosened
and upper clamp screw is tightened, both plates can
rotate together. Similarly, if lower clamping screw is
tightened and upper clamp is loosened then, only
upper plate is movable and lower plate is fixed with
tribrach plate.

The Upper Plate

 This is also called as vernier plate. The top surface of
upper plate gives support to the standards. It also
consists an upper clamping screw with respect to
tangents screw which helps to fixing it to the lower
plate. When the upper clamping screw is tightened
both upper and lower plates are attached and moved
together with some relative motion because of upper
tangent screw. The upper plate also consists two
verniers with magnifiers which are arranged
diagonally. It is attached tow inner spindle.
 PARTS OF THEODOLITE 91

Horizontal Circle
 The horizontal circle is attached to the telescope's
horizontal rotation axis. It is graduated in degrees
and provides a rough measurement of horizontal
angles. However, for more precise angle
measurements, a vernier scale is used in conjunction
with the horizontal circle.

The Plumb Bob

 A plumb bob is suspended from the hook fitted to
the bottom of inner axis to center the instrument
exactly over the station mark.

Tripod
 When in use, the theodolite is supported on a tripod
which consists of three solid or framed legs. At the
lower ends, the legs are provided with the pointed
steel shoes. The tripod head carries at its upper
surface an external screw to which the foot plate of
the levelling head can be screwed.
GENERAL DEFINITIONS & TERMS 92
GENERAL DEFINITIONS & TERMS 93
TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS 94
TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS 95
TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS 96
TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS 97
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES BY GENERAL METHOD 98

• Set up the theodolite at station-point O and level it accurately.

• Set the vernier A to the zero or 360° of the horizontal circle so do this,
loosen the upper clamp and tum the upper plate until the zero of vernier A
nearly coincides with the zero of the horizontal circle. Tighten the upper
clamp and turn its tangent screw to bring the two zeros into exact
coincidence.
• Turn the instrument and direct the telescope approximately to the left hand
object (A) by sighting over the top of the telescope. Tighten the lower
clamp and bisect A exactly by turning the lower tangent screw. Bring the
point A into exact coincidence with the point of intersection of the cross-
hairs at diagram by using the vertical circle clamp and tangent screws.
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES BY GENERAL METHOD 99

• The reading of the vernier A which was initially set at zero gives the value
of the angle AOB directly and that of the other vernier B by deducting 180°.
The mean of the two vernier readings (after deducting 180° from the
reading on vernier B gives the value of the required angle AOB.)
• Change the face of the instrument and repeat the whole process. The
mean of the two vernier readings gives the second value of the angle ABC
• The mean of the two values of the angle AOB, one with the face left and
the other with the face right, gives the required angle free from all
instrumental errors.
Table to Record the Observations 100
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES BY METHOD OF REPETITION 101

• The theodolite is mounted on the tripod stand.

• The theodolite is centered over an arbitrarily selected station P from where
the given stations can be sighted without any obstruction and the
instrument is levelled using the foot screws and the plate bubble is brought
to the centre of the run.
• The theodolite is set on the face right mode on the vernier A and the
horizontal circle is initially set at 0°00’00” and the station A is sighted .
• The upper clamp screw is unclamped and the theodolite is swung to the
right and the station B is sighted and the central vertical cross hair is made
to bisect this station and the horizontal angles on both the vernier A and B
are observed.
• The measurement of horizontal angle between the stations A and B is
repeated for the desired number of repetitions and the cumulative
horizontal angle observed in the last repetition is recorded.
 102

• The theodolite is then set on the face left mode and the vernier A on the
horizontal circle is initially set at 180°00’00” and the station B is sighted.
• The upper clamp screw is unclamped and theodolite is swung to left and the
station A is sighted and the central vertical cross hair is made to bisect this
station and the horizontal angles on both the vernier A and B are observed.
• The measurement of horizontal angle between the station A and B is
repeated for the same number of repetitions as earlier and the cumulative
horizontal angle observed in the last repetition is recorded.
• The mean values of the horizontal angles on vernier A and B are computed
for every sighting.
• The actual horizontal angle between the given stations is determined by
dividing the cumulative horizontal angle by number of repetitions.
• The average of the two actual horizontal angles observed on each for the two
initial settings of vernier A is determined as the result.
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES BY METHOD OF REITERATION 103

• The theodolite is mounted on the tripod stand.

• The theodolite is centered over an arbitrarily selected station P
from where the given stations can be sighted without any
obstruction and the instrument is levelled using the foot screws
and the plate bubble is brought to the centre of the run.
• The theodolite is set on the face right mode on the vernier A and
the horizontal circle is initially set at 0°00’00” and the station A is
sighted .
• The upper clamp screw is unclamped and the theodolite is swung
to the right and the station B,C,D and A are sighted in sequence
and the central vertical cross hair is made to bisect these stations
and the horizontal angles on both the vernier A and B are
observed and recorded. The observations are closed on the first
station A.
• The theodolite is then set on the face left mode and the vernier A 104

on the horizontal circle is initially set at 180°00’00” and the station

A is sighted.
• The upper clamp screw is unclamped and the theodolite is swung
to the left and the stations D,C,B and A are sighted in sequence
and the central vertical cross hair is made to bisect these stations
and the horizontal angles on both the vernier A and B are
observed and recorded. The observations are closed on the first
station A.
• The mean values of the horizontal angles on vernier A and B are
computed for every sighting and the horizontal included angles
are determined as the difference in successive mean values.
• The average of the two sets of horizontal included angles
observed one set each for the two initial settings of vernier A is
determined as the result.