FORM III NOTES

1.1 CLASSIFICATION II

Introduction
Classification is the grouping of organisms based on their similarities and differences in
structure.
General Principles of Classification
Organisms with similar anatomical and morphological characteristics are placed in one group
while those with different structures are grouped separately. Modern studies in genetics and cell
biochemistry are also used in classifying organisms. The science of biological classification of
organisms is known as taxonomy, biologists who study taxonomy are known as taxonomists. In
modern classification closely related organisms which share common features and evolutionary
history are placed in the same group, while more distantly related organisms are placed in
different groups. Based on these similarities and differences organisms placed in seven major
taxonomic units known as taxa, as follows:
 Kingdom
 Phylum (division for plants)
 Class
 Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species
The kingdom is the largest taxon with the highest number of organisms, but which share few
similarities in common, while the species is the smallest with the fewest organisms but which
share very many similarities in common. Members of a particular species can, however, exhibit
various differences e.g. differences in skin colour or body forms. Within the species, organisms
can further be classified based on the differences in colour or forms. In humans, this gives the
races, in animals breeds while in plants, varieties. In bacteria, the term strain is used for forms.

Binomial Nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature is scientific double naming system in which an organism is given two
names; genus and species name. It was developed by Carolus Linnaeus in 18th centuary.

Rules of binomial nomenclature

1. The first part of the scientific name is that of the genus which should begin with a capital
letter. The second name is that of species. The species name should be written in small letters
e.g.
2. When printed in books and other printed works, the scientific names should be printed in
italics. However, when handwritten, the genus and species names should be underlined
separately.

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3. The specific name is frequently written with the name of the scientist who first adequately
described and named the organism e.g. Balanus balanoides Linneaus.
4. Scientists must give a latinised name for a newly described animal or plant species where a
Latin name is missing e,g.
Aloe kilifiensis- A type of aloe found in kilifi
More examples of scientific names
a) Maize- Zea mays
b) Lion- Panthera leo
c) Leopard- Panthera pardus
d) Domestic dog- Canis familiaris
e) Human being- Homo sapiens

General Characteristics of Kingdoms

Organisms are classified into five kingdoms. Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protoctista, Kingdom
Fungi, Kingdom Plantae and Kingdom Animalia. Viruses do not fit neatly into any of the above
kingdoms. They are simple and not cellular. They are metabolically inactive outside the host cell.
Most of them can be crystallized like chemical molecules. Therefore they do not exhibit the
characteristics of living organisms.

Kingdom Monera
This kingdom comprises of bacteria such as: Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis etc.

General Characteristics
1. Unicellular and microscopic. Some are single celled, others colonial. They have varied
body shapes: spherical (cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli), spiral (spirilla), Vibrio (coma
shaped).
2. They are Prokaryotic i.e nuclear material is not enclosed within nuclear membrane
3. Have only a few organelles, and they are not membrane bound. Mitochondria is absent
4. Have cell wall but not of cellulose instead made of a substance known as murein.
5. Mostly heterotrophic, feeding saprophytically or parasitically, some are autotrophic.
6. Reproduce mostly asexually through binary fission
7. Most of them are anaerobes but others are aerobes
8. Most move by use of flagella

Examples include: Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae and Clostridium tetani.

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Economic importance of bacteria.
1. Some are used in food processing e.g., Lactobacillus used in processing of cheese, yoghurt.
2. Some are involved in synthesis of vitamin B and K, in humans
3. Some are involved in breakdown of cellulose in herbivores, they produce cellulase, the
enzyme that digests cellulose.
4. Some bacteria are used for making antibiotics, hormones e.g insulin and enzymes e.g.
amylase, and invertase.
5. Saprophytic bacteria cause decomposition of dead organic matter to release nutrients which
are then recycled.
6. Nitrogen fixing and nitrifying bacteria, increase soil fertility by adding nitrates into the soil.
7. Modern sewage plants use bacteria in treatment of sewage.
8. Some bacteria are used in cleaning oil spills in oceans and lakes.
9. Some bacteria cause human diseases (e.g. Cholera) and animal diseases (e.g. Anthrax)
10. Some bacteria cause food spoilage.
11. Some bacteria cause food poisoning e.g. Salmonella.
12. Denitrifying bacteria reduce soil fertility e.g., Pseudomonas denitrificans.

Kingdom Protoctista
This kingdom comprises of unicellular and simple multicellular organisms. It includes two main
groups of organisms, these are:

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 1. Algae such as Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, euglena and Sargassum. Algae have
chlorophyll, hence carry out photosynthesis and are therefore autotrophic.
2. Protozoa such as Plasmodium, Amoeba, paramecium and Trypanosoma. Protozoa are
heterotrophic since they lack photosynthetic pigment.

General Characteristics
1. They are eukaryotic since their nucleus is bound by a membrane
2. They have varied body forms: Some are microscopic unicellular or colonial, while others are
large multicellular thalloid
3. Most are mobile, and use flagella, cilia and pseudopodia. Some are sessile.
4. They reproduce mainly asexually, by binary fission, fragmentation and sporulation. Some
reproduce sexually by conjugation.
5. Some are heterotrophic e.g. paramecium. Others are autotrophic e.g. the Algae such as
spirogyra which have spiral chloroplast and form green, thread-like filaments, and
Chlamydomonas which are unicellular green algae that have a cup shaped chloroplast. They
move towards light using the flagella.

6. They have many organelles including membrane bound mitochondria

7. Some have specialized structures to perform certain functions such as contractile vacuoles
for osmoregulation.
8. Reproduction is mainly asexual by binary fission, fragmentation or sporulation.
Under special conditions some reproduce sexually by a process known as conjugation.

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Spirogyra

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Economic importance of Protoctista
1. Algae are the primary producers in aquatic food chains.
2. Algae release a lot of oxygen into the water for aquatic animals and to the atmosphere.
3. Some algae are source of food for humans e.g. sargassum is a source of iodine
4. Skeletons of diatoms are used in paint making.
5. Some Protozoans cause human diseases e.g Pasmodium causes malaria, and amoeba
causes amoebic dysentry, Trypanosome causes sleeping sickness

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Kingdom Fungi
This Kingdom comprises Eukaryotic unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Multicellular fungi are made of thread-like structures called hyphae (singular hyphae) that form a
vegetative body known as mycelium. Examples include unicellular fungi such as yeast and
Penicillium, and multicellular ones Rhizopus(bread mould) and mushroom.

General Characteristics of Fungi

1. They are eukaryotic organisms. Some are simple unicellular while others are multicellular
2. Multicellular fungi are made of thread like filaments known as hyphae. A hypha is the basic
unit of the multicellular fungi. Hyphae form a vegetative structure known as mycelium (plural
Mycelia) which is a white, black or grey cotton like mass.
3. Most fungi have cell wall made up of chitin, a few have cell wall made of cellulose.
4. They are heterotrophic feeding either saprophytically or parasitically. Saprophytic fungi use
special hyphae known as rhizoids for anchorage, and for releasing digestive enzymes to
digest food and absorb food nutrients from substrate. Parasitic fungi use special hyphae
known as haustoria for anchorage and absorb food nutrients from host.
5. They store carbohydrates as glycogen and lipids as
6. Most fungi reproduce asexually by sporulation or
budding, a few reproduce sexually by fusion of
hyphal branches. Vertical hyphae known as

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Economic Importance of Fungi
Beneficial Effects
1. Some fungi are used as food e.g. mushrooms.
2. Some are decomposers which enhance decay to improve soil fertility - recycling of nutrients
e.g., toadstools.
3. Some are useful in brewing and bread making e.g., yeast. Yeast is used as food - a rich source
of Vitamin B.
4. Some are useful in production of antibiotics e.g., Penicillium griseofulvin.
5. Used in sewage treatment e.g., Fusarium spp.
Harmful effects
6. Some cause food poisoning by producing toxic compounds e.g. Aspergillus flavus which
produces aflatoxins.
7. Some cause food spoilage, fabric and wood spoilage through decomposition.
8. Some cause diseases to humans e.g., athlete's foot and ringworms. Others cause diseases to
plants e.g., potato blight (Irish potatoes) rust in tomatoes and smuts in cereals.

Kingdom Plantae

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General Characteristics
1. They are multicellular and eukaryotic.
2. Their cells have cellulose cell walls
3. In most, the body is differentiated into leaves, stem and roots.
4. They have chlorophyll hence make their own food by photosynthesis.
5. They reproduce sexually, others asexually.
6. Majority have a transport system
7. They show alternation of generation - Existence of organism in two forms: spore producing
form (sporophyte) and gamete producing form (gametophyte)

Kingdom Plantae has three major divisions: Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Spermatophyta.

Division Bryophyta

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This division consists the simplest most primitive plants, which include mosses and liverworts.

General Characteristics
1. They have no roots, stems or leaves. In some like the liverworts, the plant body is
thalloid(thalus) (not differentiated into root, stem and leaves). Others like mosses have simple
structures that resemble leaves and stems.
2. They have rhizoids for absorbing water and mineral salts and anchoring the plant to
substratum.
3. They show alternation of generations. Life cycle consists of two morphologically different
plants, the gametophyte and sporophyte which alternate with one another. The gametophyte
which produces gametes is the dorminant/persistent plant. The sporophyte is attached to the
gametophyte and is nutritionally dependent on it. The gametophyte reproduces sexually
through the formation of gametes. Male gametes are produced by the antheridia, while female
gametes are formed by archegonia. The male gamete swims through a film of water to the
female gamete. Fusion of gametes results in formation of an embryo which develops into the
sporophyte, which grows on the gametophyte. The sporophyte reproduces asexually through
formation of spores, which are produced in the capsule. A mature capsule bursts to release
spores, which germinates to form a gametophyte if they fall on suitable medium.
4. They lack vascular system.
5. They are found permanently in moist places such as shady river banks, and damp rocks and
surfaces. This is because they are dependent on water for fertilisation.

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Division Pteridophyta:
These are the ferns and horsetails.

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General Characteristics
1. They are highly differentiated in root, stems and leaves but they lack flowers.
2. They have compound leaves known as fronds with leaflets known as pinna.
3. Most of them have a horizontal underground stem (rhizome)
4. They have a vascular system consisting of well developed xylem and phloem.
5. They show alternation of generations whereby the spore bearing sporophyte is the dominant
plant. The gametophyte is an independent minute structure called prothallus which is short
lived. The prothallus produces gametes, male gamete is produced by the antheridia which
swims through a film of moisture to the archegonia where the female gamete if produced.
Fusion of gametes results in formation of a zygote which develops into an embryo that grows
into a Sporophyte which is the fern plant. The fern plant (sporophyte) has spore producing
structures known as sporangia on the underside of the leaves. These are borne on clusters
known as sori, singular sorus.
6. Sexual reproduction is dependent on water.

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Division Spermatophyta
These are the seed bearing plants. These plants are usually described as higher plants.

General Characteristics
1. Plant body is highly differentiated into roots, stems and leaves and seed bearing/reproductive
structures (cones or flowers).
2. Have highly developed vascular tissue consisting of well developed xylem and phloem.
3. They have support tissues like collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and xylem tissues in their roots,
stems and leaves.
4. Reproduction is mainly sexual, but asexual reproduction also occurs in some. Sexual
reproduction is independent of water. The male gamete is transferred to the female gamete by
the growth of a pollen tube.
5. Seeds are produced after fertilization, and serve the purpose of reproduction and dispersal.
6. Show alternation of generations with a dominant sporophyte and gametophyte greatly reduced
and enclosed in sporophyte

Division Spermatophyta divided into two sub-divisions:

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Sub-division Gymnospermaphyta/ Gymnospermae
Sub-division Angiospermaphyta/ Angiospermae

Gymnospermaphyta/ Gymnospermae
These are Cone bearing plants
General characteristics
1. They produce seeds that are wholly exposed on the surface (naked seeds) in structures known
as cones.
2. They bear cones of two types: male cones and female cones.
3. After fertilization, naked seeds are borne on female cones.
4. They don’t form flowers or fruits.
5. They are mainly trees and shrubs which show xerophytic characteristics.
6. Xylem consists of tracheids only while phloem have no companion cells

Gymnospermaphyta is further divided into three classes:

Class Coniferales,
Class Cycadales
Class Ginkgoales

Class Coniferales
These are evergreen trees that show xerophytic characteristics. They have needle- shaped leaves
with thick cuticle. Male cones are small and clustered around the base of the terminal bud.
Female cones are larger with naked seeds and located on lateral buds of young shoots. Examples:
Cypress,pine

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Class Cycadales
 These are palm-like plants
 They are evergreen with long compound leaves that are mainly clustered at the apex.
 They have thick and short unbranched stems
 They have cones that are borne at the apex of the trunk among the leaves
 They are dioecious, sexes are separate.

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Class Ginkgoales
These are very rare plants. The only surviving species are Ginkgo biloba which is natively found
in China.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GYMNOSPERMAE

 Some are used as ornamental plants
 Some are used as live fence
 Most are a source of wood for building, construction, furniture etc
 Most provide raw material for making paper
 Some have medicinal properties

Sub-Division Angiospermaphyta
These are flowering plants
 Seeds are enclosed within a fruit which was originally an ovary in the flower.
 They comprise trees, shrubs and herbs.
 They have very well developed vascular bundles with Xylem that consists of both vessels
and tracheids. Phloem have companion cells.
 These are the most advanced plants.
 Reproduction is both sexual and asexual.
 They undergo double fertilisation resulting in formation of seeds with an embryo and an
endosperm.
Sub-division Angiospermaphyta is divided into two classes:
Class Monocotyledonae
Class Dicotyledonae
Class Monocotyledonae
Common characteristics
 They have one cotyledon (seed leaf) in the embryo of the seed.
 Their leaves are generally narrow and long with the major veins running parallel to the
margin.
 They have a fibrous root system.
 The leaf petiole in many of them is modified to form a sheath.

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  Leaves have parallel veins
 Vascular bundles in the root are arranged such that the xylem alternates with the phloem
forming a ring round the pith.
 In the stem the vascular bundles are scattered within the ground tissues.
 Floral parts are in threes or multiples of three.
 They lack vascular cambium hence they do not undergo secondary growth.
 Most monocots are small herbaceous ((non-woody) plants, e.g. grasses, maize, sugar
cane, lilies and orchids. A few are medium sized plants e.g. bamboo or large trees e.g.
palm
Class Dicotyledonae
Common Characteristics
 They have two cotyledons or seed leaves in the embryo of the seed.
 Their leaves are generally broad
 Have network venation
 Leaves have a well defined petiole
 They have tap root system
 Cross section of the stem reveals vascular bundles that are arranged in a ring around a
central pith.
 The vascular bundle in the root have a xylem which is star shaped and centrally located
with phloem tissue lying between the extensions of xylem.
 Floral parts are in fours or fives or their multiples.
 Some dicots are small herbaceous plants, e.g. sunflower, beans and potatoes. Others are
shrubs, e.g. bougainvillea and rose while many are large trees, e.g. oaks, mango trees,
eucalyptus etc.

Major differences between Monocots and Dicots

Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
Their seed embryo has one cotyledon

The seed embryo has 2 cotyledons

Root system is fibrous Taproot system

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 Leaves have network veins
Leaves have parallel veins

Stem vascular bundles are

scattered
Stem vascular bundles arranged in a ring
around a central pith

Floral parts in threes or multiples of three Floral parts in fours or fives or their
multiples

In the root, xylem is star shaped and

In the root, xylem and phloem alternate
centrally placed, phloem is found between
around pith
extensions of xylem

Economic Importance of Spermatophyta

Many are a source of food for humans and other animals eg wheat, maize, beans, potatoes etc
Many are a source of fuel- wood fuel and charcoal.
Many are a source of timber for building and for paper.
Many are ornamental plants.
Some are useful in textile industry for making fabrics e.g. cotton

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Some are used as live fences

Kingdom Animalia
There are over a million species of animals
Animals can broadly be categorized into Vertebrates and Invertebrates
Vertebrates have a backbone or vertebral column which is mainly made of bone. They also have
a spinal cord. Invertebrates have no vertebral column and no spinal cord, and form about 90% of
animals.
General Characteristics
 They are multicellular with eukaryotic cells.
 Their cells have no cell walls.
 All are heterotrophic.
 Most reproduce sexually while a few reproduce asexually.
 Most show locomotion, but a few are sessile.
Kingdom Animalia comprises of the following major phyla: Polifera (sponges) Coelentrata
(Jelly fish, Hydra) Platyhelminthes (Tapeworm), Nematoda (Ascaris/round worms), Annelida
(Earthworm), Echinodermata (Starfish, sea urchin), Mollusca (Snails), Arthropoda (Insects,
spiders), and Chordata (Mammals)

Phylum Arthropoda
Comprises of animals with jointed appeandages. They include a large variety of small animals
which live on a wide variety of habitats e.g. land and water. Animals in Phylum Arthropoda form
about 80% of all animal species, hence the largest phylum in Kingdom Animalia.
Distinguishing Characteristics
 They have jointed appendages, which are specialised for various functions.
 Their body is covered by a hardened exoskeleton made of chitin. The exoskeleton
provides a surface for attachment of muscle,prevents desiccation, protects inner tissues
against mechanical damage and entry of microorganisms. It is shed at intervals in a
process known as moulting or ecdysis. This allows for growth.
 They have segmented bodies

General Characteristics
 Body is segmented.
 They have bilateral symmetry.
 Gaseous exchange is through tracheal system, book lungs or gills which opens to the
outside through spiracles. Aquatic forms use gills.
 Reproduction is mainly sexual.
 They have an open circulatory system.
 Their nervous system consists of a brain and a ventral nerve cord. They have a variety of
sensory structures such as eyes, antennae and chemoreceptors.

Phylum Arthropoda divided into five classes based on the following criteria:
Number of body parts.

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 The number of limbs.
Presence and number of antennae.
Type of eyes
Classes of Phylum Arthropoda:
Class Crustacea
Class Arachnida
Class Chilopoda
Class Diplopoda
Class Insecta

Class Crustacea
Most of them are aquatic, a few are terrestrial found in moist places e.g., woodlouse.

Distinguishing Characteristics
 Head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax, hence they have two body parts,
cephalothorax and abdomen.
 They have two pairs of antennae; one is small and branched, the other is long.
 They have five or more pairs of jointed appendages some of which are modified for
locomotion, others feeding and others defense.
 In most crustaceans, exoskeleton has deposits of calcium carbonate making it very hard
and is known as carapace. In others such as wood lice the exoskeleton is not hardened.
 Mouth parts include a pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae.
 Gaseous exchange is through gills since most are aquatic
 They have a pair of compound eyes.
 Most crustaceans are free-living but a few are parasitic e.g., barnacles. Examples are
cray-fish, Lobster, Shrimp, Crab and woodlice.

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 

Class Arachnida
Comprises of land animals which are mainly carnivorous and paralyse prey using poison
produced from poison claws.

Distinguishing Characteristics
 The body has two parts: cephalothorax and abdomen. Cephalothorax is head fused to
thorax.
 They have four pairs of walking legs.
 They have no antennae. Instead they have a pair of short pedipalps which are sensitive to
touch and are used to hold and chew food.
 Have a pair of chelicerae (poison claws), on ventral side of cephalothorax. These are
fang-like structures used to penetrate prey and suck it’s body fluids in some, in others like
spiders they are used to inject poison.
 Most arachnids use book lungs for gaseous exchange.
 They have simple eyes.

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  Examples include garden spider, ticks, scorpions.

Class Chilopoda e.g. Centipede

Distinguishing Characteristics
 The body has 2 body parts, a head and trunk.
 The body is elongated, and has 15 or more segments.
 Has a pair of legs on each segment.
 The body is dorso-ventrally flattened.
 Head has a pair of antennae.
 Gaseous exchange through tracheal system.
 Some have compound eyes, others have simple eyes
 Have poison claws on the head and are carnivorous.

Class Diplopoda e.g. Millipede

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Distinguishing Characteristics
 Has three body parts: head, short thorax and a trunk with 9-100 segments.
 Has two pairs of legs on each segment.
 They have a cylindrical body.
 Gaseous exchange is by tracheal system.
 Head has a pair of antennae.
 They are herbivorous.
 Have a pair of clusters of simple eyes
 They are herbivorous and have a pair of mandibles

Class Insecta
Insects form about half the population of all animals in Kingdom Animalia. They occupy almost
all types of habitats on earth. They have a wide variety of food, ranging from plant tissues, to
fluids in animals, dead animals and animal waste.
Distinguishing Characteristics
 Body is divided into three body parts head, thorax and abdomen.
 They have three pairs of limbs.
 Have a pair of antennae.

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  Most insects have one or two pairs of wings.
 The head has a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes
 Gaseous exchange is through tracheal system and have spiracles through which air gets
in and out of the tracheal system
 They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis
 Excretion is through Malpighian tubules which remove uric acid
 Their exoskeleton is covered with wax making it waterproof
 Mouth parts consist of mandibles, maxillae and labium which are modified to suit a
particular insects mode of feeding e.g. biting and chewing, or piercing and sucking.

Insects are to be found in water, land, air and in all climatic regions of the world. The following
are reasons as to why insects have been very successful in colonizing the earth:
a) A hard exoskeleton which supports the insect above the ground.
b) A waterproof waxy layer over the exoskeleton which reduces evaporation thus conserving
water.
c) Excretion of uric acid which reduces water loss.
d) Internal fertilization which eliminates the need for water to achieve successful reproduction.
(e) Efficient tracheal system for gaseous exchange.
(f) Ability to fly in most insects which makes it easier for them to spread to new areas.
Economic importance of insects
Beneficial effects, insects act as:
1. Pollinators for plants
2. Bees process honey
3. Others make silk e.g. ants, wasps, bees and butterflies, especially during lava stage
4. Some are used in biological control of pests e.g. beetles used to control growth of water
hyacinth
5. Used for genetic studies e.g. fruit flies.
6. Some are food for humans e.g. locusts and termites
Harmful effects
1. Some like the locusts and grasshoppers feed on crops in the field and others like the weevils
feed on stored grain.
2. The termites destroy buildings.
3. Many insects act as vectors for human and animal diseases. For example, the female anopheles
mosquito transmits malaria while tsetse fly is the vector for trypanosome which causes
trypanosomiasis.
Examples of common insects include locusts, dragonflies, cockroaches, termites, lice,bedbugs,
bees, ants, beetles, weevils, fleas, houseflies, mosquitoes, moths and butterflies.

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

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Phylum Chordata
The name Chordata is derived from the term notochord. This is a long flexible rod-like structure.
The more familiar chordates are known as vertebrates. In vertebrates the notochord exists only in
embryonic stages of development but in later stages is replaced by a vertebral column. In some
members of this phylum the notochord persists to adulthood e.g in lower chordates such as
Amphioxus. Some chordates are terrestrial, others are aquatic in fresh water and others are
marine. Among the terrestrial ones, others are arboreal, living in trees, others are burrowers e.g.
moles.

Main Characteristics of Chordata

 Members of the phylum have a notochord in early stages of development.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical.
 They have visceral clefts - which are slits perforating the body wall at the pharynx. In
fish these slits become gills while in higher chordates these slits are only present in
embryo.
 They have a single dorsal, tubular nerve cord. It develops into a brain at the anteriorly
and spinal cord posteriorly in higher chordates. The spinal cord is enclosed within the
vertebral column.
 They possess a post-anal tail, present at least in embryonic stages but becomes
rudimentary in some at later stages of development e.g. in humans.
 They have a closed circulatory system and the heart is ventrally located. Blood flows
out of the heart through dorsally located arteries and back to the heart through ventrally
located veins.
 They possess an internal skeleton.
 Most vertebrates have two pairs of limbs which are modified either as fins, wings, legs
or hands.
 They have segmented muscle blocks known as myotomes on either side of the body.
 They have an internal cavity containing vital organs e.g. heart, lungs, liver
 Reproduction is sexual, through production of sex cells or gametes, males produce sperm
and females produce ova.

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The main classes of phylum Chordata are:
 Class Pisces,
 Class Amphibia,
 Class Reptilia,
 Class Aves
 Class Mammalia.

Class Pisces
These are the fishes. Some fish have a skeleton made of cartilage e.g. the shark. Others like
Tilapia have a bony skeleton.

Common Characteristics
 They are aquatic. Some live in sea water/marine, others freshwater, some migrate
between marine water and freshwater
 Movement is by means of fins.
 They have a streamlined body.
 Body covered with scales
 They have a lateral line for sensitivity/detects vibrations in water.
 Their heart has two chambers, the auricle and ventricle - single circulatory system.
 Their body temperature changes with that of the environment. They are ectothermic
(poikilothermic.
 They have gills for gaseous exchange.
 Exhibit external fertilisation.
 Their nostrils are used for smelling and not for gaseous exchange

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  This Class is divided into two main subclasses: Subclass Osteichthyes, consisting of bony
fish e.g. Tilapia, and Subclass Chondrichthyes comprising cartilaginous fish.

Class Amphibia

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These include the frogs, toads, newts, salamanders
Common Characteristics
 Skin is soft and moist due to mucus secretion by glands found under the skin. Skin is
without scales. Frogs live in damp places to ensure their skin remains moist for gaseous
exchange.
 Adults have four well developed limbs. The hind limbs are longer and more muscular
than forelimbs. The limb can be used for walking, jumping and swimming since they are
webbed.
 Gaseous exchange is through the skin, gills and lungs.
 They have a middle ear which is covered by an exposed ear drum.
 They have a three-chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle hence have a double
circulatory system.
 Fertilisation is external.
 They are ectothermic or poikilothermic
 Larval forms are aquatic while adults are terrestrial. Adults return to water for breeding.
 Reproduction is sexual, with external fertilisation in most though in a few of them
fertilisation is internal e.g. in Salamanders.

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Class Reptilia

Examples are snakes, crocodiles, alligators, lizards, chameleons, tortoises and turtles
Common Characteristics
 They have a dry scaly skin, which reduces desiccation.
 Fertilisation is internal, after which they lay eggs which are covered by a leathery shell
which reduces dessication. The eggs are usually buried in soil and have stored yolk.
Some reptiles e.g. cameleon retain the fertilized egg and give birth to live young ones.
 In some species eggs contain a lot of yolk and have either leathery or calcareous shells.
 They have an exposed ear drum which covers the middle ear. They lack an external ear
i.e pinna and auditory canal, in snakes the middle ear is also absent.
 They have a double circulatory system with a three chambered heart: two atria and a
partly divided ventricle.
 However crocodiles have a four chambered heart.
 They are ectothermic (poikilothermic).
 Have 2 pairs of limbs for walking but in some like snakes the legs are absent.
 They have well developed lungs for gaseous exchange.
 Some live on land but others live in water

Class Aves

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These are birds. They are terrestrial and arboreal and others are aquatic e.g. flamingo, goose,
ostrich, penguin, hawk, dove.

Common Characteristics
 Body is covered by feathers and legs with horny scales.
 They have two pairs of limbs. Fore limbs modified to form wings for flight. Hind limbs
are for walking, swimming or perching.
 The mouth is modified to form a beak.
 Their ears lack pinna but have external auditory canal.
 They have hollow bones to reduce body density for flight.
 Their sternum is enlarged to form a keel for attachment of flight muscles
 They have double circulation with a four-chambered heart (2 atria, 2 ventricles).
 They have lungs for gaseous exchange. Lungs are connected to air sacs in bones.
 Fertilisation is internal and they lay eggs with calcareous brittle shell. Eggs hatch to
young ones.
 They have constant body temperatures hence are homoiotherms (endothermic).
 Nitrogenous wastes are excreted in form of semi-solid uric acid paste to remove the
necessity of carrying water within their bodies. Hence reduce weight for flight.
 They have a third transparent eyelid called nictitating membrane that covers the eye. To
protect eye from foreign objects during flight’

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Class Mammalia
The class comprises the most highly developed animals on earth.

Common characteristics
 They have mammary glands hence name of the class.
 Body is covered with fur or hair.
 Their teeth are differentiated into four types (heterodont dentition).
 They have external ear-pinna.
 Most have sweat glands.
 They have a diaphragm that separates the body cavity into thoracic and abdominal.
 They have a double circulatory system with a four-chambered heart.
 They are endothermic (homoiotherms).
 Most give birth to live young ones, but a few lay eggs e.g. Duck-billed Platypus
Duck-billed Platypus are egg-laying, others [Link] (pouched mammal) give birth
to young ones which are born immature and are nourished in a pouch with milk from
mammary glands. Placental Mammals give birth to fully developed young ones which are
fed on milk from mammary glands.
 Some mammals are terrestrial with most of them living on the ground e.g. rabbits,
elephants, buffalo, giraffe, antelope, cow, human being but some live on trees, e.g
monkeys and tree squirrels. Others are aquatic with flippers and a streamlined body
which enable them to swim, e.g. whales and dolphins. In bats, the forelimbs are modified
into wings which enable flight.
 The brain is highly developed
 They have seven cervical vertebrae at the neck region.

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BIOLOGICAL KEYS
These are tools used by biologists for identification of living organisms. The most commonly
used key is the dichotomous key. The word dichotomous comes from the word dichotomy which
means branching into two.

Dichotomous key
This is a tool used to identify organisms, based on characteristics that are listed in contrasting
pairs.
The word dichotomy means to branch into 2.

Rules Used to Construct a Dichotomous Key

1. Note down the morphological characteristics possessed by the organisms to be identified
2. Number the characteristics starting with the one that shows a major variation and proceed
progressively to the characteristics showing lesser variation, e.g. for a group of plants we
can use:
(i) Type of leaf
(ii) Leaf venation
(iii) Leaf margin
3. For each of the numbered characteristics, give two contrasting statements that enable you
to separate the organisms into two groups.

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 4. For two contrasting statements use identical form of words. The two statements should be
positive, however where a negative statement cannot be avoided, the first statement must
be in positive form e.g.
a) Animal with wings
b) Animal without wings
5. Avoid generalizations or over lapping variations such as
a) Short plants
b) Tall plants
Be very specific in your description so that the two statements clearly represent
different organisms, such as
a) Plant 1 meter and above tall
b) Plant 15cm to 60cm tall.

SOME OF CHARACTERISTICS USED IN INDENTIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

Some Common Features Used for Identification
In Plants
 Type of leaf: Simple or compound
 The texture of leaf: Whether hairy or smooth.
 Shape of the leaf e.g. palmate,
 Leaf colour
 Stem Type; woody or herbaceous.
 Shape of stem - cylindrical or rectangular.
 Texture of stem smooth or spiny.

TYPES OF LEAVES
I) SIMPLE LEAVES
 These are leaves with lamina which is undivided.
 It has a single leaf blade and a single petiole.
 The following are simple leaves of various shapes

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 II) COMPOUND LEAVES

 These are leaves whose leaf blade /lamina is divided into several leaflets/pinna

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 A compound leaf whose leaflets are attached along one main stalk is said to be unipinnate or
pinnate e.g. leaf of Nandi flame.
 A compound leaf whose leaflets are attached to stalks which branch off from the main stalk
is called bipinnate i.e. each leaf is further sub-divided into smaller leaflets e.g leaves of
jacaranda.
 A compound leaf whose leaflets arise from the same point at the tip of the main stalk is said
to be digitate or palmate.
 A compound leaf which has 3 leaflets is called trifoliate.
LEAVE VENATION
 Venation refers to the arrangement of veins in the leaf.
 There are two main types of leaf venation.
i) Network venation/Reticulate venation
 This is where the veins arise from one or more midribs to form a network
pattern.
ii) Parallel venation
 This is where the veins run parallel to each other on the leaf.

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Leaf margin
 Smooth or entire margin e.g leaves of mango, tradescantia, baougainvillea.
 Serrated/Toothen margin e.g leaves of hibiscus rose.
 Crenulated margin e.g leaves of bryophyllum.
 Lobed margin e.g leaves of bouhinia, passion, geranium.


Leaf Apex
 In most leaves, the apex is pointed e.g bougainvillea, hibiscus.
 In some leaves, the apex is rounded.
 IN others, the apex is labed e.g bouhinia.
Leaf Arrangement
 This is the manner in which the leaves are arranged on the stem.

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 

Whorled
 The leaves are arranged around the stem at the same point/node to form a whorled.
Alternate
 The leaves are alternating with each other along the stem.
Opposite
 Leaves are arranged opposite each other along the stem.
Spiral
 Leaves are attached in a spiral manner along the stem.
Leaf Shape

Ovate
 Oval shaped leaf
Cordate
 Heart-shaped
Linear
 Long and narrow leaf e.g. leaf of maize, grass
Palmate

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  Leaf with several lobes e.g. leaf of passion.
Lanceolate
 Wider than most linear leaves e.g. mango.


 Type of leaf: Simple or Compound leaves. For compound leaves, also type of compound
leaf e.g some are pinnate others are palmate/digital

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

 Type of venation: Network or parallel venation


 Type of leaf margin: Leaf margins can be smooth, serrated, or lobed

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 

 Type of leaf arrangement on stem or Phyllotaxy: Can be opposite, alternate or whorlled


 The colour of leaf.

STEMS
 Are the part of the plant that bears leaves.
 It may also bear branches and flowers.
 The main external features of stems are leaves, axillary bods, nodes, internodes, scale
leaves.
 Some stems have roots appearing on them which are called adventitious roots.
 Some stems have thorns or tendrils.
 Most stems grow upright above the ground however other types of stems exist.
 They include
a) Rhizomes
 These are horizontal underground stems which contain stored food. E.g.
rhizome of many grasses or ginger.
b) Stem tubers
 These are fleshy underground stems with plenty of stored food e.g. Irish
potatoes.
c) Runners

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  These are horizontal stems that grow just above the ground e.g. runners of
strawberry

ROOTS

There are various types of root systems

i) Fibrous root system
 Made up of several roots of almost equal size all of them arising from the
same point.
ii) Tap root system
 Has a main large root which grows vertically downwards with smaller lateral
roots branching from it.
Example: root of carrot and beans.
iii) Adventitious Roots
 A root growing directly from the stem.
iv) Prop Roots
 Are adventitious roots but grow from an upright stem into the soil.
 Are used for additional support.
v) Butress roots

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  They grow from the lower part of the stem into the soil and offer additional
anchorage of support.
 They are found mainly in huge trees that have grown for many years.

vi) Ariel Roots
 Absorb water from the air
vii) Breathing roots/pneumatophores
 Found in plants such as mangroves that grow in water or muddy areas.
 Used for gaseous exchange.

Adventitious roots Butress roots

FLOWERS
 Some plants produce flowers.
 Variations exist in the type of flowers found in plants.

 Type of flowers: Are flowers terminal or lateral

 For each flower: Is the flower regular or irregular

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 
 Number of floral parts for each flower. Are floral parts free or fused,
 Roots Type of root system- Taproot or fibrous

In Animals
Features used to identify animals:
 Type of mouthparts.
 Type of skeleton.
 Presence or absence of antennae.
 Body segmentation.
 Body covering: scales, fur, hair or feathers.
 Number of body parts.
 Locomotory structures: legs, wings and fins.
 Presence or absence of vertebral column.
 Presence and type of eyes.
 Presence and number of wings
Construction of dichotomous keys
Using dichotomous keys to identify organisms

Practical Activities To examine Bryophyta A mature moss plant is obtained. The specimen is
observed using a hand -lens. A labelled drawing showing structures is made: rhizoids, set a
capsule, gametophyte, sporophyte ..

To examine Pteridophyta A mature fern plant is obtained. It is observed using a hand lens. Sori
can be seen on the lower side of fronds. A labelled drawing showing: frond, pinna, sorus,
rhizome and adventitious roots.

To examine Spermatophyta A mature twig of either cypress or pinus with cones is obtained.
Observation of Male and female cone is made using a hand-lens. The naked seeds are noted. The
leaves show xerophytic characteristics e.g. they are rolled, or needle-like. A mature bean plant
with pods is obtained, Observation of the leaves, stem and roots is made. Leaves are compound,
broad arid have network of veins. The Ieaf-has a leaf stalk. They have a tap root

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 ECOLOGY
This is the branch of Biology that deals with the study of the inter-relationships of organisms to
each other and to their physical environment. The word ecology is derived from a Greek word
Oikos meaning house or a place to live.

The environment constitutes the surrounding of an organism both living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic).

In the study of ecology, one can study a single species or many species.
(i) Autecology is the study of an individual species within a community. It involves study of the
relationship of the species with both abiotic and biotic components of the
environment/ecosystem.
(ii) Synecology is the study of different species of organisms interacting amongst themselves
within the ecosystem.
5. Knowledge of ecology is applied in many spheres such as
 Sustainable food production
 Conservation of natural resources
 Pollution control
 Prediction of adverse weather conditions
 Population control
 Ecotourism

Concepts of Ecology
These are some of the terms that are used in ecology
They include:

1. BIOSPHERE
Part of the earth and its atmosphere occupied by organisms. Also called ECOSPHERE

2. HABITAT
The specific locality with a particular set of condition where an organism lives.
Habitat can be classified into (a) terrestrial (land)
(b) aquatic (water)

3. ECOLOGICAL NICHE
Is the position that an organism occupies in a particular habitat in terms of space and role.
It includes the physical space where it is found, its role in that habitat in terms of feeding
relationships and other interactions with other species, as well as its behavior.

4. POPULATION

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 Refers to all the members of a given species in a particular habitat at a specific time e.g. a
population of Zebra’s at Nairobi National Park or a population of lions in Masai Mara or a
population of Meru Oak in Mt. Kenya Forest or a population of fleas on a dog.

5. COMMUNITY
Refers to all organisms of different species that live and interact together in the same habitat.
A community is made up of populations.
It is dynamic as it undergoes changes progressively starting from simple life forms to more
complex forms. This is called ecological succession.
H`

6. ECOSYSTEM
Derived from 2 terms ecology and system.
It is a natural unit composed of communities of living organisms and their physical environment,
all interacting together to form a self-sustaining or self-perpetuating system.
Hence, ecosystem consists of abiotic and biotic components of the environment. Examples: a
pond, tropical forests, savannah grassland etc.

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7. BIOMASS
This is the dry mass of organisms in a given area or at a given trophic level in a given area.
It is measured in form of dry mass per given area for a period of time e.g grams of grass per m 2
per year or total weight of zebra in a park.
Biomass can also be taken for a particular trophic level (feeding level) biomass of producers.
8. CARRYING CAPACITY
Refers to the maximum number of organisms that an area can support comfortably without the
depleting of available resources e.g. the maximum no. of cattle a paddock can hold without
overgrazing.
At carrying capacity, the no of deaths and births tends to balance thus there is no significant
increase or decrease in population size with time unless there is a calamity or a positive change
in resources.
Factors in an ecosystem
The conditions in which an organism lives constitutes its environment.
These conditions ae divided into:
i) Abiotic/physical factors
ii) Biotic /living factors.

Abiotic factors
The term abiotic means non-living.
Abiotic factors constitute the physical environment of the organism.

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They include light, temperature, availability of water, humidity, wind, atmospheric pressure, pH
and salinity. All these affect the distribution and number/abundance of organisms.

LIGHT
 Light from the sun is the main source of energy for life on earth.
 Light is necessary for photosynthesis for plants, some Protoctista and Monera. Animals
directly or indirectly depend or plants for food.
 Aspects of light that affect living organisms include intensity, quality and duration of
light.
 Light intensity and quality affect the rate of photosynthesis, flowering and germinating of
plants while in animals it affects reproduction, migration and hibernation.
 A photographic light meter is used to measure light intensity and a secchi disk is used to
measure light penetration in water.


TEMPERATURE
Changes in temperature affect the rate of enzyme activity. This in turn affects the rate of
metabolic activities in organisms.
Most organisms function within a narrow range of temperature.
Temperatures vary due to seasons, altitude, latitude and also diurnally especially in hot areas.
This affects the distribution of organisms.
Terrestrial habitats are affected more by temperature than are aquatic habitats. This is because
high heat capacity of water which keeps temperature in aquatic environment relatively constant.

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Living organisms must develop physiological and behavioral adaptations to cope with extremes
of temperature. Air temperature is measured by a thermometer. Temperature range is measured
using a maximum and minimum thermometer.

Atmospheric Pressure:
The atmosphere refers to the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth.
This gaseous envelope exerts pressure or force on the earth’s surface.
Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude. It is highest at sea level and decreases as altitude
increases.
The amount of O2 and CO2 available is affected by variation in atmospheric pressure. These two
gases affect the distribution of organisms as they affect respiration and photosynthesis in animals
and plants.
Decreased atmospheric pressure increases the rate of transpiration increasing the need of plants
to conserve water.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer.

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Humidity
Is the amount of water in the atmosphere.
It affects the rate of transpiration and evaporation of water vapour from the surfaces of
organisms.
This affects the distribution of organisms.
Humidity affects the rate of heat loss in animals, when it is high, sweat does not evaporate, hence
heat is not lost.
When the humidity is high, there is a lot of water vapour in the atmosphere hence evaporation
and transpiration are reduced.
When humidity is low, there is less water vapour in the atmosphere. Evaporation and
transpiration increase.
A wet and dry bulb hygrometer is used to measure humidity. A paper hygrometer is also used.
A simple method is using blue anhydrous cobalt chloride paper which turns pink when hydrated.
The rate at which the paper turns pink is an indication of the amount of humidity in the
atmosphere.

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WIND
Wind is moving air.
It increases the rate of water loss from organisms thus affecting their distribution.
I also influence pollination in plants and dispersal of seeds and fruits.
It also affects migration of flying animals such as insects and birds.
Wind is important in rain formation.
In desert areas, wind aids in the formation of sand dunes. Stable sand dunes may become
habitats for growth of stable plants.
Wind causes wave formation in lakes and ocean which enhances aeration of water in these water
bodies.
It also influences the positioning of predators and prey since it transfers scent.
The direction of wind is measured using a wind vane or wind sock. Speed of wind is measured
using anemometer.

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RAINFALL/ WATER
Amount of rainfall influences the distribution and abundance of organisms on earth e.g areas
which receive high amounts of rainfall have abundant plant species which support large
population of herbivores and hence carnivores.
Rainfall is measured using a rain gauge.

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SALINITY
It refers to the salt content of water (salt concentration).
This results to different types of aquatic environments
i. marine have high content of salt or concentration of salt.
ii. freshwater have low concentration of salt.
iii. estuarine have fluctuating salt content.
Marine habitats have high salt concentrations. Hence organisms that live in marine habitats have
developed adaptations that enable them reduce water loss to their hypertonic environment.
Organisms living in freshwater habitats ran the risk of being waterlogged due to osmotic uptake
of water into their bodies. Most have osmoregulatory adaptations that enable them to remove
excess water from their bodies.
In estuaries, there are fluctuations of salt concentration at varying times. At low tide, salt level is
low at high tide, salt level is high.
Estuarine organisms must have adaptations to cope with this wide range of salinity. This affects
their distribution.
Salinity also influences the amount of oxygen in the water. Solubility of oxygen in sea water is
about 10% less than fresh water. Salinity is determined by calculating the percentage of salts in
the water.

pH / HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION

This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of water or soil solution.
The pH of an ecosystem affects the type and distribution of organisms found in it e.g low pH
(acidic) reduces the activity of some useful soil bacteria.
This affects processes such as decomposition and conversion of Nitrogen to Nitrates.
pH also affects availability of nutrients in the soil.
pH affects reproduction in animals e.g fish if pH is low eggs of some fish cannot hatch.
Most aquatic ecosystems are neutral.
The pH of the soil can be altered by leaching, fertilizers, soil exhaustion and pollution in our
environment.
pH of water or soil can be measured using universal pH indicator paper, universal indicator
solution, which are then marched to a pH chart. Alternatively, a pH meter is used.

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TOPOGRAPHY
This refers to the configuration of the earth’s surface including its altitude and position of its
natural and man-made features.
It influences the distribution of plants and animals in conjunction with factors such as
temperature, light, humidity e.g. for every 1000m (1km) ascent/rise, temperature drops by 6 oC
this affects the distribution of organisms.
Steep slopes cause surface run-off, causing soil erosion.
Direction of slope of a mountain i.e. leeward receive less rain compared to windward.

Biotic inter-relationships between organisms in the Ecosystem

The species that make up an ecosystem interact and relate with each other in many ways. Some
of the inter-relationships include:
1. COMPETITION
It comes about when organisms of the same or different species demand a common limited
resource from the environment.
Such resources may be nutrients, water, space, light, mates or breeding grounds.

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Under such conditions, two organisms might exist together in competition or one might displace
the other, which may die or migrate. Hence, competition affects the distribution and population
size of organisms.
Competition that occurs between members of the same species is called intraspecific
competition. Competition between members of different species is called interspecific
competition.
Competition is severe if organisms share the same ecological niche. Organisms that have
structural and behavioural adaptations usually survive the competition while those that are less
adapted may be excluded.
Interspecific competition has been studied in a variety of organisms. One was carried out on two
closely related species of paramecium i.e. [Link] and [Link]
It was observed that when each species is grown separately in control cultures (a medium
containing nutrients) with constant food supply, they show normal population growth. However
when they are grown together in the same culture, competition occurs and one of the species is
eliminated.

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 Closely related organisms can however live together without competition. For instance when
Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium bursoria are grown in the same culture, each species
occupies a different part of the culture where it can feed on bacteria without competing with the
other species. Grazers and browsers can also live in the same habitat with minimal competition,
since they occupy different niches with grazers feeding on grass while browsers feed on twigs.
Competition among grazers in the same habitat is minimized when they feed on different parts of
the same plant. E.G. Zebra eats softer shoots, followed by wildebeest, and later gazelle eats the
more fibrous remnants of the same grass.
2. PREDATION/PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIP
It is the food relationship where one organism known as predator kills another organism known
as prey for food and feeds on it either wholly or in part.
Predators are usually larger than the prey.
The prey is consumed in part or as whole.
Predators are normally found where there are suitable prey eg. Lions are only found where there
are prey like antelopes.
Predators have adaptations that enable them to capture and feed on prey. This includes:
i. Sharp claws, strong jaws and carnassial teeth.
ii. Many have highly developed sense of sight and smell.

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 iii. They are swift in running.
iv. Many have a body colour that matches that of the surrounding (camouflage).
v. Some produce venom which kills or paralyses prey e.g. Snakes, scorpions and spiders.
vi. Birds of prey such as hawks, kites and eagles have acute eyesight, fast flight and modified beaks
and talons.
Prey also have adaptations that enable them to avoid their predators. This include:
i. Ability to run very fast to escape from predators e,g antelopes.
ii. Many have a body colour that matches the surrounding i.e camouflage.
iii. Some graze in large herds which enable them to fight of the predators e,g buffaloes.
iv. Other prey resembles inedible/inanimate or unpalatable organisms e. stick insects which mimic
dry sticks.
v. Others have confrontational displays e.g porcupine, chicken.

Prey population size is usually controlled by the population of predators. Predator population is
controlled by prey population size.
When the size of the prey population is high, the predators have abundance of food. This results
in an increase in predator population. The large number of predators then kill many of the prey
resulting in decrease the numbers of the prey. With lack of sufficient food, the predator
population also drops. This results in a decline in predation pressure and the remaining prey
multiply and their numbers increase. The result of such a predator – prey relationship is a cycle
of population increase followed by a decline.

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The fact that predators control prey population and vice versa can be used as a method of
biological control for an unwanted species e.g pests, weeds e.t.c. This is used especially in
grazer – plant relationship e.g

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 Examples of biological control
i. Prickly pear cactus, a plant that was introduced in Australia in 1839, grew very rapidly and
spread to surrounding farmland. By 1925, it had covered more than 12 million Hectares of
farmland -+making it useless. However, it was found that the cactus moth is a natural predator

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 for the prickly pear cactus, it was introduced in Australia and spread and multiplied eating up the
cactus. Today, the moth and the cactus exist in low populations.
ii. Weevils have been used to reduce the population of water hyacinth in Lake Victoria.
iii. Fish are used to control the population of mosquitos by feeding on mosquito larvae.
iv. Lady birds to feed on aphids which are parasites on some plants.
v. Cats can be used to control population of mice

3. PARASITISM

Is the relationship in which one organism (parasite) obtains nutrients from another organism
(host) without killing it.
A parasite benefit in terms of food and shelter from the host. The host is harmed by the parasite.
There are two types of parasites.
i. Ectoparasites – are those found on the surface of the host e.g ticks.
ii. Endoparasites – those found inside the body of the host e.g plasmodium.
Parasites weaken their hosts and harm them in the following ways:
a) They cause or transmit diseases which may kill their host hence reduce their number and
distribution.
b) Parasites also damage the tissues of the host.
c) They deprive the host of nutrients.
Distribution of parasites is affected by hosts as parasites are only found where there are suitable
hosts.

[Link]
This is a relationship between two organisms where each organism benefits from the other.
Symbiosis is a mutually beneficial feeding relationship.
The two organisms in the relationship may or may not live together.
Example:
(i) Symbiotic Bacteria found root nodules of leguminous plants.
- This involves bacteria of the genus Rhizobium and leguminous plants. The bacteria absorb free
nitrogen from the air and use it to make nitrates which is used by the plant for making proteins.

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 - The plant manufactures food materials during photosynthesis which are used by bacteria for
food.
- The bacteria also get shelter.
- The legumes on the other hand are able to survive in soil with a low nitrate concentration as
they get the nitrates from the bacteria.
- Farmers can improve fertility in their farms by including legumes in their crops.

(ii) Ruminants e.g. cattle and sheep have cellulase secreting bacteria in their rumen. The
cellulase secreted by the bacteria enables the herbivores to digest the cellulose in the plant matter
they feed on. The bacteria receive shelter and nutrients from the herbivore. In the non-ruminants
the bacteria are found in the rumen.

6. SAPROPHYTISM
This is the type of nutrition where organisms feed on dead organic matter causing decay or
decomposition. Such organisms are known as saprophytes or decomposers and they are mostly
saprophytic bacteria and saprophytic fungi.
- Decomposers secrete enzymes onto organic matter, to digest the matter to simple substances
which they then absorbed.
- Importance of decomposers
- Decomposers cause decay which results in release of nutrients such as Nitrates, Carbonates,
Phosphates and Sulphates which are then reused by organisms especially plants, hence
decomposers cause recycling of nutrients in the ecosystem.
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 - Decomposers clean the environment by preventing accumulation of dead organic matter.
- Detrivores
- These are animals which feed on decomposing plant organic matter hence enhance
decomposition e.g. termites and earthworms.
- They have cellulose digesting enzymes which enables them to digest cellulose hence they are an
important agent of decomposition.
NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen is an important element found in amino acids which form proteins in both plants and
animals. The movement or circulation of nitrogen and it’s compounds in the ecosystem is termed
as Nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen is found free in the atmosphere in large amounts.
However, plants cannot use gaseous nitrogen because it is inert.
Therefore nitrogen must be converted into a form that can be utilized by plants. Hence nitrogen
must combine with other molecules so that plants can take it up. Convertion of nitrogen to a form
that can be used by plants is known as Nitrogen fixation. Plants take in Nitrogen in form of
Nitrates, Nitrites and Ammonia compounds (NH4 +). From these plants are able to make
proteins.
Animals obtain the Nitrogen they need in form of proteins when they feed on other animals or
plants.
Nitrogen cycle occurs in 4 stages;
I) Nitrogen fixation
II) Ammonification
III) Nitrification
IV) Denitrification
Nitrogen Fixation.
This is the conversion of Atmospheric Nitrogen to form that can be used by plants.
It involves two processes:
(i) Biological fixation
(ii) Non – biological fixation
Biological Nitrogen Fixation
It is carried out by three types of organisms.

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(a) Symbiotic bacteria of the genus Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants e.g. beans
- They convert atmospheric Nitrogen into Ammonia which is then converted to ammonium
compounds and then used by plants to make plant proteins.
(b) Free-living Nitrogen Fixing bacteria which include bacteria of the genus Azotobacter and
Clostridium found in the soil.
(c) Nitrogen fixation by algae including Anabaena, Chlorella and Nostoc. They convert atmospheric
N2 into Ammonia which is then converted into Nitrates.
Non- biological fixation
Comes about when lighting energy combine N2 and O2 to form Nitrogen (IV) Oxide.
The Nitrogen (IV) oxide combines with water in to form Nitric acid and Nitrous acid. These
then react with chemicals in the soil to form Nitrates.
Plants absorb the Nitrates from the soil and use it to form proteins which is transferred into
animals either directly or indirectly through feeding.
Plant proteins are digested into Amino acids and assimilated into animal proteins.
Ammonification
Plants and animals die or pass out wastes. Saprophytic bacteria and fungi break down the
protein material in dead plants and animals into ammonia which is then released into the soil.
Nitrification
This is the conversion of Ammonia compounds into nitrites then into Nitrates.
This is done by nitrifying bacteria.
They are two types
(a) Those of genus Nitrosomonas and Nitrococus (both also called nitrite bacteria) that convert
Ammonia into Nitrites.
(b) Those of genus Nitrobacter (nitrate bacteria) which convert Nitrites into Nitrates.
This process enriches the soil with Nitrates. The nitrates are absorbed by plants and again used to
form plant proteins.
Denitrification
Some processes in the soil deprive it of Nitrates. These include denitrification. This is the
process of breaking down Nitrates into Nitrites, ammonium compounds and gaseous Nitrogen.
This is done by denitrifying bacteria for example:
(i) Pseudomonas dentrificans

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 (ii) Thiobacillus dentrificians
They breakdown nitrates and utilize the oxygen released for their respiration. The process of
denitrification deprives the soil of fixed Nitrogen. However, it is important releasing free
nitrogen into the air.

Energy flow in an ecosystem

The main source of energy in an ecosystem is the sun.
Light energy from the sun is trapped by green plants and used during photosynthesis to form
carbohydrates. Hence light energy is converted into chemical energy and stored in the plant. For
this reason, green plants are known as producers in any ecosystem.
Green plants (producers) are eaten by animals, hence energy is transferred from the plants to
these animals. These animals are the herbivores and are known as primary consumers.
Herbivores are eaten by carnivores who are called secondary consumers e.g. dog

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Secondary consumers are then eaten by tertiary consumers e.g. leopard
When the tertiary consumer dies, it is eaten by quaternary consumers e.g. vulture. These feeding
levels i.e. producer and consumer levels, are referred to as trophic levels. When living organism
die, they are decomposed by saprophytic bacteria and fungi, these saprophytes are referred to as
decomposers.
Energy flows from one trophic level to the next i.e. from producer to primary consumer then
secondary consumer and so on, through feeding.
As energy passes from one trophic level to the next there is loss of energy at each trophic
level through the following processes:
 During respiration
 Excretion of undigested and indigestible food
 Energy is lost in form of heat as sweat
 Some energy is also lost in form of heat as incomplete predation.
When organic materials are fully decomposed, all the energy is lost from the ecosystem. Thus,
energy flows through an ecosystem and is not recycled.
Decomposers
These are bacteria and fungi which break down organic materials to simple substances which are
made available for use by these organisms.
In the process, they make the simple substances available to other organisms thus the materials
are recycled in the ecosystem.

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Detrivores are organisms that feed on dead plants materials which are undergoing decomposition
e.g. cockroaches, termites, earthworms and some ants.
FOOD CHAIN
These are used to describe the flow of energy in the ecosystem from producer to consumer
levels.
A food chain is a linear representation of energy flow, from producers through to the consumers.
It can be described as nutritional sequence involving several organisms where each is fed upon
by a subsequent one

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When decomposers are included in a food chain, they are usually placed at the end.

FOOD WEB
In food chains, an individual organism is shown feeding on only one another organism.
In a natural ecosystem however an organism feeds on more than one organism. This results in
several inter-connected food chains which form a web.
A food web is made up of several food chain which branch and interconnect. Thus, there is a
network of food consumption in an ecosystem.
A food web is a network of food consumption in an ecosystem consisting of several
interconnecting food chains.

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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The efficiency of energy transfer from one trophic level to the next in a food chain can be
summarized diagrammatically in form of pyramids.
In an ecosystem, most of the organic matter/energy is lost as it moves from one trophic level to
the next,
Matter is lost in the following ways

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 i) Some matter will be lost through defecation/egestion as animals rarely digest all they
eat.
iii) Some will be lost during respiration as the organisms produce energy for their use.
(iii) Some of the matter is also lost through excretion.
(iv) Some matter is not fed upon/uneaten matter.
The result of this loss of matter/energy at each trophic level is that organisms at a given trophic
level can only support a smaller mass or smaller number of organism in the next trophic level.
NOTE: Matter lost in each trophic level means loss of energy
Pyramid of Numbers
The number of all organisms at each trophic level of a food chain can be counted or estimated.
When these numbers are drawn to scale, they produce a pyramid shaped histogram/pictogram
called pyramid of numbers.
It is noted that there is a progressive decrease in the number of organisms in succeeding trophic
level in food chain.
The greatest number being the producers, followed in decreasing order by primary, consumers,
secondary consumers, tertiary consumers and least of all quaternary consumers
Construction of pyramid of numbers
1. Use the data collected or provided.
2. From the data identify and draw the most suitable food chain.
3. Indicate the number at each trophic level in the food chain.
4. Choose a suitable scale for the data.
5. Using the chosen scale draw a horizontal rectangular bar to represent the number of
producers as the base of the pyramid.
6. Progressively draw horizontal bars of the other trophic levels in their ascending order.

Interpretation of pyramid of numbers

The reason for the progressive decrease is due to energy lost at each trophic level due to
respiration, defecation, excretion and uneaten matter. Thus, fewer organisms can be supported at
the succeeding level.
Generally, the body size of organism increases at each trophic level, from the base to the apex of
the pyramid as their number decreases.

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Inverted pyramid of numbers
This occurs when number of organisms at a succeeding trophic level is higher than the lower
trophic level. This is seen especially if the size of each organisms in the upper level is smaller as
compared to those in the lower level e.g. caterpillars feeding on one cabbage. This will result in
inverted pyramid of numbers.

Pyramid of biomass
If the dry mass of all organisms at each trophic level of a food chain in a given habitat are taken
and drawn to scale a pyramid shaped histogram is obtained. The histogram is known as Pyramid
of Biomass
Biomass refers to the total dry weight organisms at a given trophic level.
As in pyramid of numbers, the mass of organisms also decreases at every succeeding trophic
level where producers have the highest mass, followed in decreasing order by primary
consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers then quaternary.
The decrease in mass can be explained by loss of energy at each level.

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Pyramid of Biomass is a more accurate way of representing organic matter in a food chain as it
takes into account the size of the organism.

POPULATION
Population – number of organisms of the same species found at a specific area at a particular
time e.g. population of buffaloes in Nakuru National Park in 2024
Characteristics of populations
(i) Population density - number of organisms per unit area
(ii) Population dispersion – spread and distribution of organisms in a habitat.
(iii) Population growth – rate of increase in numbers of organisms.
Factors that affect rate of population growth
Availability of food
Availability of water
Availability of space
Pests, diseases and predators

Population Estimation Methods

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In an ecosystem the population of any species varies with time due to the influence of biotic and
abiotic factors, as well as food availability, space, diseases and pests.
Population estimation is the approximation of number of organisms of a particular species.
There are two main population estimation methods. These are:
(i) Total Count
Involves counting each individual organism of that particular species.
It is an expensive method which requires a lot of time and personnel.
It is suitable only where the total area and number of organisms involved is small or the
organisms involved are very large.
(ii)Sample count
A sample is a small number of individuals taken from the habitat to act as a representative of the
whole population.
Samples are used where area to be studied is too large to allow all organisms living there to be
studied or if the organisms are too many.
E.g. The distribution of water fleas along the length of a river can be estimated by placing a
plankton net at fixed positions equidistant along the river. The samples are then caught and
counted. The average number of water fleas in a given amount of water is recorded for each
station.
Sampling can be carried out using the following methods:
Quadrat method
Line transect
Belt transect
Capture re-capture method

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 Quadrat Method

- A quadrat is a square area. It has equal sides. It can be a large or a small area. Standard
quadrat area most often used is 1m2. In this case a 1m2 frame of wood/metal is used as quadrat.
- The quadrat can be further subdivided into smaller squares by strings or wire.
- The choice of quadrat size used depends on;
 Total area to be studied
 Nature of habitat
 Objective of the study e.g percentage cover
The quadrat method is suitable for small plants e.g grass, herbs and slow-moving animals.

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Procedure used when estimating population when using quadrat
1. Select a suitable study area
2. Mark the study area and measure its size.
3. Stand in the middle of the study area, hold the quadrat a loft and throw it at random within the
study area.
4. Where the quadrat lands, identify and count all the organisms enclosed within the boundaries
of the quadrat and record the number of each species identified.
5. Make several throws of the quadrat and repeat step 4 for each quadrat thrown. Record all
your result such as in a table below.

6. Work out the average for each species for the total throws made.
7. Calculate the total population of each species in the study area.
Using this information, population density can be calculated – population density refers to the
number of individuals per unit area e.g 10 antelopes per km2
Line transect
1. Consists of a marked length of string laid along a selected line along a habitat.
2. Every plant touched is recorded.
3. It is useful in showing changes in the vegetation in places such as hillside, river valleys on the
shores of a coastal area.
- A line transect may be used together with a quadrat.
-In this case, the quadrat is placed at equal intervals along the transect.
-The areas enclosed by the quadrat are carefully studied.

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- A line transect is often used where there is gradual change in the type of organisms in a habitat
(Transition in a habitat).
- Physical factors such as soil pH, temperature and humidity may also be measured.

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Belt Transect
-Consist of 2 measuring tapes/ marked strings which are laid parallel to one another about 1m
apart along selected strip of land. The vegetation enclosed by 2 tapes or strings is carefully
studied and recorded; at marked points.
- A quadrat can also be used together with a belt transect.
- Where the quadrat is taken at equidistant intervals along the belt transect.
Plants enclosed within it are carefully studied and recorded.
Copy practical activity 5 KLB pg 50

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Belt transect is most suitable in estimation of plant populations.

Capture Recapture method.

This method is suitable for estimating the population size of very active or highly mobile
animals such as flying insects, fish, bats and birds.
After selecting the study area and measuring it, and the type of organism to be studied, the
procedure of this method of sampling is as follows.
i) Capture a number of the selected animal species.
ii) Mark them with a tag or dab of permanent non- poisonous paint.
iii) Count them and record as first marked.
iv) Release each animal back into the same area where it was picked from.
v) After a short period(approximately 24 hours) allowing sufficient time for the marked
animals to mix randomly with the rest in the population, capture a second sample of the
species under study, count them and record as second capture.
vi) Determine the number of individuals which are marked in the second capture and record
as Marked Recapture (MR)
The population of the organisms can be calculated using the Lincoln Index

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P = FM x SC
MR
Where FM = Number of individuals first captured and marked.
SC = Second Capture
MR =Marked Recapture
P = Total Population.
The following precautions must be taken in carrying out this.
 The capture and marking technique should not harm the animals or change their behavior
in any way
 Ensure that the marked animals will have enough time to mix randomly with others in the
population.


The marking technique used include:

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 i. Use tags
ii. Coloured paint that is quick drying e.g. cellulose paint
iii. Waterproof paint for water animals.
The following assumptions are made when using this method:
1. There is no migration of the study organisms in or out of the study area between the two
counts.
2. The released animals will mix randomly with the remaining population.
3. The mark does not alter the behavior of the animals under study.
4. The marked animals will have enough time to mix randomly with unmarked ones after they
are released.
5. The population number does not vary during the study period i.e no births, no deaths
6. That there is even distribution of the animal in the study area.
Instruments used to collect animal specimens.

PIT FALL TRAP – used to capture ground insects

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Instruments used to collect animal specimens
SWEEP NET - Used to capture flying insects

ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS TO VARIOUS HABITATS

There are various kinds of habitats in the earth’s ecosystem.
They can be broadly grouped into aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
Terrestrial habitats iinclude:
 Hot sandy deserts
 Semi-arid areas
 forests
 grassland
 woodlands
Aquatic habitats include:

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  Ponds
 Dams
 Lakes
 Seas
 Rivers
 Swamps (wetland dominated by trees)
 Marshes (wetland dominated by shrubs and herbaceous plants)
Plants possess different adaptations based on the kind of habitat in which they are found.
An adaptation is a change or modification in the structure or behavior of an organism that
increases its chances for survival in a specific environment.
There are four main groups of plants classified according to the kind of adaptations they have.
These are:
 Mesophytes
 Xerophytes
 Hydrophytes
 Halophytes
A. XEROPHYTES
These are plants with adaptations or characteristics suited to dry habitats or to endure prolonged
drought in arid and semi-arid areas.
Their habitat is characterized by the following conditions
 Unpredictable and poorly distributed rainfall which is less than 250mm and hardly
exceeds 350mm per year
 Very high day temperatures and very low night temperatures which result in high diurnal
temperature range
 Are windy
 Low humidity
Adaptations of xerophytes to their habitat
(a) Modified leaves
- Most have leaves that are reduced in size e.g. leaves of acacia.
- Some shed their leaves during the dry season to reduce water loss.
- Others e.g. coniferous trees such as Cupressus sp. and Juniperus sp. have small leaves.
- Others such as Pinus sp. have long, rolled up needle like leaves thus reducing leaf surface
exposure.
- Leaf surfaces have thick waxy cuticle to reduce water loss.

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(b) Distribution of stomata
-Many have few stomata which are mainly located on the lower surface hence not directly
exposed to the sun.
- Some, such as cactus have stomata in grooves on sunken pits which trap moist air thus reducing
saturation deficit between the outside and the leaf air spaces. This reduces transpiration and
protects it from air currents.

- In some plants e.g cactus, stomata open at night when temperatures are lower and close at day
time (reversed stomatal rhythm). This reduces transpiration.
(C) Water storage in plant tissues
- Some plants e.g cactus have thick fleshy stems that store water.
- The stems are covered by a thick cuticle to minimize transpiration.
- Some E.g. baobab tree store water in tissues at the trunk hence become thick.
- Others e.g aloe plant & bryophlum have thick fleshy leaves that store water.
- The desert rose is a shrub that is found in semi-arid areas. It has a swollen base and fleshy
leaves that store water.
- Other plants store large amounts of water in the underground stems or rhizomes
Milky latex
Certain plants e.g. Common milk weed have white latex in their stems which minimizes water
loss through transpiration and renders the plant or weed distasteful to herbivores (unpalatable)
hence protecting it from predators.
Root and systems
Many plants develop deep roots to enable them get water from the water table eg. Acacia.

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Others have extensive shallow roots system to enable them absorb water from short showers or
surfaces run off.
Drought evading plants
Some desert plants are very short-lived.
They grow, blossom and produce seeds in the wet season.
The seeds are drought resistant hence survive the dry periods. They germinate as soon as main
rain period begins.
Shedding of leaves
Some trees e.g. acacia and baobab shed their leaves at the onset of dry season and then produce
new leaves during the rainy season to reduce transpirations.

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 HYDROPHYTES
Are aquatic or semi-aquatic plants which are adapted to grow in fresh water e.g ponds, dams and
fresh water lakes as well as wetlands such as swamps.
Their habitats are characterized by the following
i. Have low concentration of dissolved gases e.g. O2 and CO2
ii. Low light intensities underwater
iii. Waves and currents are common
iv. Low concentration of mineral salts
Hydrophytes can be grouped into the following categories:
a. Submerged Hydrophytes
Grow below water surface e.g. Elodea
b. Floating hydrophytes: Plants that grow on water surface and have free floating roots and leaves
eg. Water lettuce, duck weed, and water hyacinth (Eichhornia species).
c. Emergent hydrophytes: eg. water lily (Nymphaea) and papyrus reeds. Their roots are anchored in
muddy bottom of the pond of lake but part of their stem and leaves are above the water.

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 Adaptation of hydrophytes
1. Most emergent and floating types have broad leaves with maximum number of stomata and
located on the upper surface only+.
This provides a large Surface area for gaseous exchange. The exposed stomata allow for
quick loss of excess water through transpiration. Such leaves have no cuticle on upper surface.
2. Some submerged hydrophytes have leaves which are deeply dissected into thread-like straws in
order to provide a large surface area for maximum absorption for maximum light for
photosynthesis.
Their leaves also have numerous and highly sensitive chloroplasts that synthesize under low light
intensities. Some leaves even have chloroplast appearing on epidermis.
3. Many hydrophytes have large, air- filled tissues called aerenchyma. This allows them to float
(provides them with buoyancy). The aerenchyma also store gases for gaseous exchange.
4. Most have poorly developed roots that lack root hair to reduce absorption of water.
5. Their flowers are raised above the water to allow for pollination (floating and emergent)

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 HALOPHYTES
Are plants which are adapted to live in very salty conditions in soil and marine water.
Their habitats are characterized by the following conditions
 High concentration of mineral salt
 Low concentration of dissolved gases especially in marine water.
 Currents and waves are common in the sea.
 Temperatures in marine environments is generally stable.
Adaptations of halophytes to their habitats
Halophytes face a physiological drought as they are unable to absorb water from a medium that
has high salt concentration (hypertonic to their cells)
They have the following adaptations to deal with problems.
i. Their root cells concentrate a lot of salts in themselves by active transport. This enables them to
take in water by osmosis in the normal way.
ii. Some plants have salt glands that secrete excess salt.
iii. Others have water storage tissues
Other adaptations are as follows:
 Some plants like mangroves have pneumatophores (breathing roots) which emerge above
the water or mud to obtain maximum oxygen from the air.
 Mangroves growing on mud flats have stilt roots for support and anchorage.

 Most halophytes are found growing close to the surface to enable them get sufficient light
of photosynthesis.
 Those that are in deeper waters are capable of photosynthesizing in low light intensities.
 Some e.g. coconut have fruits with large aerenchyma tissue to enable them to float. This
enables dispersal of the fruit by water.

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MESOPHYTES
Are plants living in a well-watered soil or under normal conditions of water supply.
Are mainly found in ecosystems such as rainforests, savannah grasslands and tropical highlands.
Their habitats have the following characteristics
i. Average rainfall ranging from 950mm – 1800mm which is well distributed throughout
the year.
ii. Relatively high humidity
iii. Thick cloud
iv. Moderate to high temperature with low diurnal range.
v. Less windy.
vi. Shallow water table.

Adaptations of mesophytes
Mesophytes show varying adaptations depending on where they are found.
Some are adapted to reduce water loss while others are adapted to increase water loss. Some are
adapted to low light conditions
a) Trees grow very tall in the forest ecosystem due to competition for light as vegetation is
very dense
b) Some plants are climbers which support themselves on large trees in an attempt to reach
light.
c) Some plants are epiphytes (plants that grow on taller tree branches to reach light)
d) Others have numerous chloroplasts that adapt them to photosynthesis under low light
intensities, especially those that form the undergrowth.
e) Many have leaf mosaic that minimize overlapping and overshadowing.
f) Those in areas with adequate water supply possess broad leaves with thin cuticles and
many stomata on both sides of the leaf to increase transpiration
g) Those in dryer areas have more stomata on the lower surface than on the upper surface to
reduce transpiration.
h) Some have shallow roots to absorb less water.
i) Others develop buttress roots or prop roots for extra support.
j) Those in dryer areas are deep rooted in an attempt to absorb enough water from water
table.
k) Some have waxy and glossy surfaces to reflect light and drip off rain water.

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EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON HUMAN BEINGS AND OTHER ORAGNISMS
Organisms in the ecosystem influence one another also their environment in various ways.
Human beings influence almost all ecological systems on earth. They can change the ecosystem
for their own use.
While interacting with the environment human beings often misuse the natural resources. Some
of the effects of human activities include
i. Deforestation
ii. Overgrazing
iii. Soil erosion
iv. Pollution

POLLUTION
Is the release of substances or forms of energy in such quantities that are either harmful or
unpleasant to humans and other organisms in the environment.
There are 3 main categories of pollution i.e air, water, soil.

AIR POLLUTION is the addition of undesirable substances into the atmosphere.

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 Causes
1. Sulphur based chemicals eg. Sulphur (IV) Oxide, Hydrogen sulphide
Sources: Food processing industries, burning of petroleum fuels, manufacture of sulphuric acid.
Hydrogen sulphide is produced from mineral extraction mines, geothermal power stations and
volcanic activities.
Effects
1. High concentration of SO2 may cause bronchitis, pneumonia or heart failure.
2. SO2 slows down cilliary activity in the respiratory tract thus solid partides reach the
alveoli where they cause irritation and interfere with gaseous exchange.
3. SO2 is also toxic to plants when absorbed through stomata.
4. SO2 dissolves in rain water to form acid rain which lowers soil pH and reduce crop
production.
5. Acid rain also corrodes metals such as iron and aluminium in buildings. Products of
corrosion are harmful and contaminate drinking water.
6. Acid rain causes leaching of Mg and Ca from soils hence reduce soil fertility.
7. Hydrogen sulphide is poisonous. It contaminates blood and suffocates victims when
inhaled.
2. Oxides of Nitrogen e.g Nitrogen (II) Oxide (NO) and Nitrogen (IV) Oxide (NO2)
Sources
 Burning of petroleum fuels in industry
 Emissions of exhaust fumes from motor vehicle
 Industrial manufacture of nitric acid.
Effects
1. Dissolve in rainwater to form acid rain
2. Harmful/poisonous to animals when inhaled since they affect respiratory systems.
3. Nitrogen (IV) Oxide is carcinogenic (causes cancer)
4. Reduce visibility on roads due to thermal inversion which causes foggy conditions.
Smoke and fumes
Contains Carbon (II) Oxide (CO) Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) and carbon particles.

Sources
 Industries that burn charcoal, coal, petroleum and natural gas.
 Motor vehicles exhaust

Effects
 Affects visibility due to smog on roads
 They block stomata hence hinder photosynthesis.

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  Smoke causes intense eye irritation, headaches and breathing difficulties. combines
 Carbon (II) Oxide combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin which
causes suffocation
 Excess Carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere causes Global warming. This may result in
melting of polar ice caps and rise in sea levels along coastal areas and flooding of low
lands. May also lead to excess evaporation from water bodies resulting unexpected heavy
rains.

GLOBAL WARMING
The rising of atmospheric temperatures on earth has come about due to increase in greenhouse
effect.
The thick layer of CO2 that surrounds the upper part of the earth’s atmosphere normally acts as a
blanket that traps some heat thus preventing it from radiating out and getting lost into space
hence it prevents excessive cooling of the earth especially at night. This is referred to as the
greenhouse effect.
However, excessive increase and accumulation of CO 2 and other greenhouse gases e.g Nitrous
Oxide and Methane CH4 in the atmosphere because of pollution has intensified the greenhouse
effect. This has resulted in rise in global temperatures significantly. This is called global
warming.
CO2 contributed upto 50% of global warming. Global warming may lead to melting of polar ice
caps and this will lead to rising level of oceans.

Dust
 Composed of small particles emitted from cement and lime producing industry such as cement
works. Also, from quarries, road construction and from dry weather roads.
 Due to environmental concerns cement manufacturing industries have adapted the “wet method”
which does not result into release of dust into the environment.
Effects
 Dust settles on plant leaves limiting photosynthesis.
 Clogs respiratory surfaces of organisms resulting in breathing difficulties and respiratory
diseases.
 Reduces visibility and irritates the eyes.
Lead (Pb)
Sources
Combustion of leaded petrol by motor vehicle
Soldering using lead
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 Leaded paint, leaded pipes
Effects
 Absorbed into the bloodstream and accumulates in the liver, kidney and bones affecting their
physiological functioning.
 Also interferes with mental development of children.
 Blocks stomatal pores in plants making it difficult for plants to carry out gaseous exchange hence
no photosynthesis.
 Causes central nervous system and blood vessel damage.
Aerosols
 Is a substance that consist of very fine particles of liquid or solid suspended in a gas. They
include:
o Pesticides
o Insecticides
o Fungicides
o Perfumes
o Air fresheners
o Spray paint
Main pollutants in aerosols are:
(i) Copper (ii) Lead (ii) Chloroflorocarbons (CFC compounds)
Effects
1. Copper based aerosols cause irritation of respiratory organs and poisoning of water plants and
fish.
2. They are non-biodegradable hence tend to accumulate in the ecosystems especially in food
chains.
3. CFCs are also used in refrigerators and as propellants in aerosol cans such as insecticides and
air fresheners. CFC mainly cause depletion of ozone layer leading to increased penetration of
ultraviolet radiation. Ozone is a gas with the formula O 3 found in a band of upper atmosphere
called stratosphere
4. Ozone absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun, preventing it from
reaching the earth’s surface.
5. Excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation is linked to some human disorder such as skin
cancer.
A molecule of Ozone can react with an oxygen atom to form two oxygen molecules.
O3 + O O2 + O2

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 This reaction occurs naturally at a slow pace and reduces the ozone layer. However, it is
speeded up by certain highly reactive atoms called free radicals. The most important radical
atoms are free chlorine atoms from CFC pollutants in the atmosphere.
Noise
Is the presence of undesirable sound in the atmosphere.
It is produced by machines in factories, heavy vehicles, airplanes, music players and loud
speakers.
Effects
Affects hearing where people become insensitive to low pitched sound.

CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

(1) Legislation
Governments need to put in place relevant laws or legislative acts on environment pollution such
as:
o Automobiles should be fitted with filters and catalytic converters in their exhaust pipes to reduce
emission of oxides of N, S and C.
o Industries that manufacture Sulphuric acid and Nitric acid should have long chimneys fitted with
wet scrubbers to remove the acid gases. This involves passing smoke through a water spray that
dissolves soluble gasses like Sulphur(IV)oxide and nitrogen(IV)oxide.
(2) Use of unleaded fuel
(3) Develop and encourage use of renewable energy sources such as use of solar and wind
energy.
(4) Use of CFC free aerosols.
(5) Use of biological control methods to control pests, diseases and weeds, to reduce over-
reliance on non-biodegradable chemicals (cannot be decomposed/ broken down biologically e.g
by saprophytes)
(6) Encourage use of public means of transport as much as possible to minimize emission of
exhaust fumes.
(7) Ban smoking in public.
(8) Ear muffs should be used in factories that produces loud noises.
(9) Education of people on the need for sustainable environment management.
(10) Government(s) should be signatories on global treaties on environment e.g Kyoto Protocol.

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WATER POLLUTION
Water is one of the most important natural resources.
Water pollution involves addition of substances or energy forms into water bodies in quantities
that are harmful to living organism dependent on water.
Sources of Water Pollution
(a) Domestic Effluents (Sewerage and kitchen waste)
- Untreated sewage from urban Centre’s gets discharged into rivers.
- The sewage contains disease – causing micro-organisms such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
- It is also full of faecal material and urine which encourage bacteria growth
- Kitchen waste contains detergents that have a lot of phosphates.
Effects
(1) May cause epidemic of water borne diseases e.g. cholera, typhoid and amoebic dysentery.
(2) May cause Eutrophication. Eutrophication is the over enrichment of a water body by
nutrients released from break down of organic matter or from artificial fertilizers.
The breakdown of organic matter in sewage releases nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates,
sulphates which enrich the water body resulting in eutrophication. Eutrophication triggers a
chain reaction in the following manner.

(b) Industrial Effluents

- Industries discharge various effluents into rivers, dams, marshes, fresh water lakes and oceans.
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- The effluents may contain toxic heavy metal and other compounds e.g. mercury, arsenic and
cadmium in addition to acids and other chemicals.
Effects
(1) Poisonous substances such as arsenic released, directly kill aquatic organisms such fish.
Death may also result indirectly through eutrophication.
(2) Some of the compounds enter food chains and accumulate to lethal levels in organisms in
higher trophic levels (non-biodegradable products accumulate to higher level of concentration at
each succeeding trophic level)
(3) Heavy metals can also cause blood poisoning, malfunction of the nervous system and
eventually death.
(c) Heat
Industries discharge hot water directly into water bodies. Some effluents may react among
themselves releasing heat into the water.
Effects
(1) Heat reduces the amount of dissolved gases (O 2 and CO2) leading to death of organisms due
to lack of oxygen for respiration and CO2 for photosynthesis.
(2) Hot water may kill organisms due to high temperatures.
(3) Heat may raise activity of enzymes hence raising respiratory rates to abnormal levels causing
malfunctioning of organisms.
(4) High temperatures may denature enzymes.
(d) Oil spillage
- Oil can get into water bodies through
(i) oil tanker accidents
(ii) Spillage when loading or discharging the oil at the ports.
(iii) Seepage from oil refineries’ storage tanks
(iv) Damaged war ships.
Effects
(a) Oil layer on water prevents atmospheric O 2 from dissolving into the water hence fish and
other aquatic organisms have less O2 available for respiration hence die of suffocation.
(b) Marine birds may die due to clogging of their feathers thus unable to fly or swim and
buoyancy is reduced.

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(c) Oil coats photosynthetic phytoplankton’s killing them hence reduce primary productivity in
water
(d) Oil reduces light penetration in water hence plants become unable to photosynthesize.
(e) Oil clogs gills of fish killing them.

(e) Agrochemicals
These include: Inorganic fertilizers, fungicides, herbicides and pesticides.
- Inorganic fertilizers contain phosphates, sulphates and nitrates.
- Pesticides may contain heavy metals e.g. Mercury and Copper.
- Other pesticides such as DDT contain Chlorofluorocarbons which are non-biodegradable.
-These chemicals and fertilizers percolate through soil and after underground seepage, they join
streams and rivers eventually end up in lakes and oceans.
Effects
1. Since most of these chemicals contain heavy metals such as Copper and Mercury, they affect
respiratory activities of aquatic organisms. These chemicals find their way into organisms in
small amounts. However, they accumulate over a long time and reach toxic levels leading to
death.
2. They also accumulate in food chains, becoming lethal at higher trophic level.
3. Nitrates, sulphates and phosphates in fertilizers causes eutrophication.

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(f) Lead
Is a water pollutant mainly in pipes and tanks in domestic water supply systems
Through run-off, it finds its way into water bodies like rivers, lakes and oceans.
The effects of level (Pb) whether inhaled or ingested are the same.
(g) Mercury
As a pollutant, mercury is released by industries that manufacture chlorine, sodium hydroxide
and vinyl plastics.
It is also released during combustion of coal and petroleum products.
Fungicides and some cosmetics also contain mercury.
The mud in some rivers contains mercury which is converted to Methyl mercury by methane
producing bacteria.
Effects
1. Methyl mercury is volatile and very toxic. It is absorbed by aquatic plants mainly through
leaves and roots hence entering the food web involving human beings. Animals eating plants
with mercury are poisoned and killed. Mercury poisoning in people results in accumulation of
mercury in liver, kidneys and brain affecting their physiological functioning and eventually
causing death.
2. Mercury also interferes with the process of melanin formation leading to skin lightening,
blindness, other paralysis and death.
h) Soil erosion
Leads to transportation of silt into water bodies.
Effects

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  Makes water unclean and unfit for human consumption.
 Reduces light penetration hence hindering photosynthesis.
 Clogs respiratory surfaces of aquatic organisms e.g gills of fish and stomata of plants.
This interferes with gaseous exchange.
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION
1. Legislation: Relevant legislation should be enforced and provide for heavy penalties, and
international treaties on environmental conservation should be adhered to.
3. Industries should control and treat their industrial effluents before releasing/ discharging them
into water bodies.
4. There should be proper treatment and disposal of sewage.
5. There should be separate systems for disposal of sewage and for drinking water.
6. Latrines should be constructed far from water bodies and should be properly used.
7. There should be proper personal hygiene to control disease causing agents.
8. Encourage use of unleaded petrol.
9. Public should be educated on correct amount of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides to be used.
10. Farmers should be encouraged to use organic farming instead of inorganic fertilizers.
11. Appropriate soil erosion control methods be put in place e.g. building of gabions, terraces
and growing of soil covers crops.
12. Practicing recycling technologies e.g. using organic household waste to make compost
manure.
13. Minimizing production of plastic items and using biodegradable materials such as paper and
sisal.
SOIL POLLUTION
Is the discharge of harmful chemicals or substances into the soil which accumulate to levels that
cause harm to soil organisms.
Sources
a) Oxides of Sulphur e.g Sulphur (IV) Oxide which enters the soil as acid rain.
Effects
Acid rain lowers soil pH, resulting in death or reduced growth of plants and animals that cannot
tolerate acidic conditions.
May cause death of soil micro-organisms such as saprophytes and nitrogen fixing bacteria
Acid rain, however, may promote the growth of plants that tolerate acidic conditions.

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Causes leaching of minerals resulting in loss of soil fertility.

(b) Aerosols
1. Most aerosols sprayed to control pests and diseases in plants and animals contain heavy metals
e.g Copper and Mercury. The chemicals fall on the soil and are taken up by plants where the
concentration increases. Toxicity increases in animals that eat the plants leading to death.
2. These chemicals in aerosols also kill nitrogen fixing micro-organisms in the soil and lower soil
fertility.
(c) Petroleum products
1. May result from oil spillage by oil tankers, refineries, burst pipelines and garages. It makes
soil organisms unable to obtain O2 in oil saturated soil leading to death.
2. Oil also coats plant leaves and respiratory surfaces of animals preventing gaseous exchange.
(d) Inorganic fertilizers
Contain phosphates and nitrates.
These increase soil acidity hence reducing soil micro-organisms e.g. saprophytes.
This reduces formation of organic matter in the soil, hence soil become exhausted reducing plant
and animal life.
In addition, soil structure is changed, this encourages soil erosion. (Soil structure refers to the
arrangement and organisation of soil particles and substances that constitute soil.)
(e) Solid waste
Community household waste and industrial waste forms solid waste.
Some are biodegradable e.g. food residues, old clothes and papers. Others are non-
biodegradable e.g. rubber, plastic containers, scrap metal and glass bottles.
Solid waste is a nuisance and may also be injurious e. glass bottles. They also destroy the
aesthetic value of the environment.
They offer breeding grounds for pests, rodents and insect’s vectors e.g. mosquitos which pose
health hazards to human beings.
Non-biodegradable solid waste limits soil aeration thus inhibiting microorganism’s activity.
CONTROL OF SOIL POLLUTION
1. Recycle solid wastes e.g. polythene papers, plastic containers, glass bottles, paper and scrap
metals.

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2. Household waste that are biodegradable can be disposed in compost pits to form compost
manure for organic farming.
3. Incineration: Combustible solid waste e.g. old clothes, sanitary towels, hair should be burnt
in incinerators.
4. Discourage excessive use of agrochemicals.
5. Use pesticides that break down easily to harmless substances within a few days to reduce their
accumulation in the soil.
6. Use biological control of pests and diseases using the following methods.
(a) Use of natural predators e.g. use of ladybird to control aphids and wasps to control army
worms in maize
(b) Use of bacteria and viruses to control insect larvae of vectors e.g. mosquito larvae can be
controlled by infecting them with bacteria that kill them.
(c) Crop rotation: involves planting different crops in succeeding years to remove the types of
crop that pest like it.
7. Encourage pipeline transportation of petrol to minimize oil spillage from tankers.
8. Enforce appropriate legislation on proper solid waste management.
Non-biodegradable wastes cannot be broken down by bacteria but can be managed through reuse
and recycling.
- Reuse of waste involves using a product or packaging material more than once in the same
system e.g. returnable milk glass bottles.
- Recycling is the using the waste materials to make similar new products or something different
e.g. pvc bottles into garden furniture or insulation materials for clothing.
Benefits of recycling
(i) It reduces wastes and thus the cost of waste disposal.
(ii) It lowers demands for raw materials for industries recycling paper, lowers the need for
cutting more trees.
(iii) It reduces pollution.
(iv) It saves money needed to make certain products e.g.
- It is cheaper to recycle scrap metals from old cars than to mine and process the same metal
from the ground.
- It is cheaper to make toilet paper from waste papers than to cut down trees as a source material
to make the toilet paper. Thus, contributing towards the economic development of a country.

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(v) Collection of materials that can be recycled is an important source of income for many poor
people who otherwise have no income. E.g. an environmental science club in a school can
collect paper and plastic for sale.
RADIOACTIVE MISSIONS
Nuclear emissions can also cause soil, air and water pollutions. Although nuclear energy is
available in limited quantity, it’s harnessing and management poses very high risks of damage to
life. It’s based on the destruction of the atom of matter to release energy that holds the
constituents of the atom.
The form in which this energy is released when atoms are broken down are generally called
radiations.
Such radiations have very great power and is very destructive if leaked accidentally. Such
energy is produced by radioactive or nuclear reactors.
Some common substances broken down to release nuclear energy are Uranium, Radium,
Plutonium and Germanium.
Uses of nuclear energy.
- Nuclear energy is used in the generation of electricity and propelling of nuclear war planes
- Nuclear – propelled ocean vessels, space ships and submarines.
Effects of radioactive emissions
1. Increased mutation rates with increased abnormalities some of which are inheritable.
2. Cause cancer such as bone tumors and Leukemia.
3. Excess doses cause death
Control
Dialogue between nations with nuclear energy on disposal nuclear waste and management of
nuclear energy.
HUMAN DISEASES
- A disease is a defect of a tissue, an organ, organ system or organism during which the
structure is unable to carry out its functions normally.
- In humans diseases result from:
 Genetic disorders e.g. sickle cell anaemia
 Nutritional deficiencies e.g. Iron deficiency anaemia
 Infection by other organisms and viruses.
 Physical factors e.g. accidents
 Chemical factors e.g. alcohol, drugs, foods

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- The study of diseases is important in order to understand what causes them, how they are
spread or transmitted and how they can be controlled or treated.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
1. CHOLERA
- This is an acute infection of the intestinal tract caused by a bacteria called Vibrio cholerae.

- These bacteria are normally found in infected water where they can survive for a long time
until they find a suitable host.
- They can be passed on by flies to food therefore contaminating the food.
- People living in unhygienic conditions where sanitation is poor and water is untreated can
easily contract the disease.
- The disease spread very quickly and an outbreak can result in an epidemic.
- Uncooked food, fruits and vegetables washed in infected water can easily spread the disease.
Cholera is a killer disease in the tropics.
Symptoms
1. The disease has an incubation period of between 1 to 6 days, depending on the magnitude of
the infection and state of health of the individual. Incubation period, is the period between
infection and the time when symptoms start showing.
2. Bacteria reach the intestines multiply rapidly secreting an enzyme called mucinase which
digests the inner lining/epithelium of the intestines. The exposed intestinal wall becomes
irritated and damaged by the toxins produced by the bacteria. This causes violent diarrhoea and
vomiting accompanied by severe abdominal pains.
3. The disease develops rapidly and leads to general body dehydration owing to high frequency
of defecation (diarrhoea) and vomiting accompanied by loss of large quantities of water.
4. Death by cholera can be rapid, within 24 hours of infection in extreme cases.
Prevention and Control
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1. Strict observation of personal and environmental hygiene.
2. Proper disposal of feaces.
3. Washing of hands after visiting toilets and before a meal with clean water and soap.
4. Drinking water should be boiled or chlorinated.
5. Infected people should be treated as soon as possible.
6. Public gatherings should be prohibited during an outbreak.
7. Vaccinations of people should be carried out whenever there is an outbreak.
Treatment
1. Through rehydration with water containing dissolved salts.
2. Injection with antibiotics such a Tetracycline, which kill bacteria.
TYPHOID
Is a serious bacterial disease caused by Salmonella typhi.

 The bacteria are passed out in urine or faeces.

 Poor disposal of sewage may cause contamination of water supply from rivers, dams and
lakes.
 Healthy individuals can be infected by taking contaminated water or food.
 The bacteria can be present in saliva and sweat and so the clothes and beddings of
patients can be sources of infections to others.
Symptoms
1. Incubation takes 2 weeks, after which a person experiences headaches, sore throat and fever.
2. Later, there may be muscular pains, diarrhea and loss of appetite.
3. After about 2 weeks, red spots develop on the chest and abdomen.
4. If untreated death may result.

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5. The bacteria attack the walls of the intestines and causes patches of sores; solid food may
irritate the sores and cause bleeding, hence patients are advised not to take solid food.
6. In severe attacks, sores may burst and cause perforation in the intestines. This may cause
death if the patient is not treated early enough.
7. Bacteria invade lymph glands around the intestines and pass into blood.
Patients do not develop immunity against this disease, hence one can be infected over and over
again.
Prevention and Control
1. Strict observation of personal and environmental hygiene.
2. Proper disposal of feaces and urine.
3. Drinking water should be boiled or chlorinated to kill the bacteria.
4. Fruits and vegetables should be washed with clean water before eating.
5. Food handlers should be clean and vaccinated.
6. Healthy people should be vaccinated with attenuated or weakened typhoid bacteria in order to
provide immunity for at least two years.
Treatment
Administration of antibiotics.

PROTOZOAN DISEASES
AMOEBIC DYSENTRY (Amoebiasis)
 Is caused/passed by the protozoan Entamoeba histolytica.
 When amoeba cysts are ingested, the cyst membrane is digested and the protozoa are
released.
 When they reach the colon, the E. histolytica multiply.

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Symptoms
Normally, E. histolytica live in lumen of colon and feed on bacteria without harming the host.
However, sometimes they invade the mucosal wall of the colon and produce an enzyme called
histolysin which dissolves the colon wall. This results in formation of ulcers on the colon wall.
The parasites then feed on red blood cells at the site of the ulcers. This leads to the following
symptoms:
1. Abdominal discomfort which later turns to severe abdominal pain.
2. Diarrhea with blood and mucus (dysentery)
3. Fever (rise in body temperatures).
4. Dehydration
The infection may then become systemic i.e. parasites invades the blood stream and may reach
other tissue and organs of the body e.g. liver, lungs and brain where they produce abscesses
which is fatal.
Abscess is a pocket of pus, it is a painful, swollen lump filled with pus.
Control
 Strict personal and environmental hygiene.
 Foods eaten raw e.g. fruits and vegetables should be properly washed and sterilized.
 Drinking water be boiled or chlorinated.
 Proper disposal of feces.
MALARIA
Caused by protozoa parasite plasmodium, which are of 4 different species. These are?

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 i. Plasmodium vivax
ii. Plasmodium ovale
iii. Plasmodium falciparum
iv. Plasmodium malariae

Plasmodium is transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person by the female anopheles
mosquito (vector)
When the mosquito bites an infected person, it sucks blood containing the parasites. Inside the
mosquito, the plasmodium develops into infective stages. When the same mosquito next bites a
healthy person, it passes on the ineffective plasmodia from the salivary glands into the
bloodstream of the healthy person.
The incubation period lasts for about 7-10 days. During this period, the parasite invades the liver
cells where they multiply. They are then released into the blood stream where they now attack
and destroy the red blood cells.

Symptoms
o High fever
o Profuse sweating punctuated by chills and fever.
o Headaches, muscle and joint pains are felt most of the time.

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o Lack of appetite and vomiting.
o Enlarged liver and spleen
o Anaemia because of red blood cells destruction.
o Convulsions in children may be seen in severe cases
Malaria is a killer especially in the tropics
Prevention and control
1. Drainage of pools that act as breeding grounds for mosquito
2. Pools that cannot be drained should be treated or sprayed with oil.
3. However, oil has been replaced with powdery treatment of water surfaces to reduce pollution by
oil.
4. Use of mosquito nets or mosquito repellant creams
5. Tall grasses and bushes which act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes should be cleared within
settlements.
6. Tins and plastic containers that hold water should be destroyed to reduce mosquito breeding
sites.
7. Use of insecticides.
8. Use of biological control methods
a. Fish that feed on mosquitos larvae may be introduced into ponds
b. Release of genetically sterilized male mosquitos to mate with females hence reduce the number
of mosquitoes.
9. People travelling to mosquito prone areas are advised to take antimalarial drugs for prevention.

Treatment
o Proper diagnosis should be done and full dosage of antimalarial drugs administered to prevent
drug resistance from occurring.
o Administration of drugs such as chloroquine which kills the parasite.

Malarias has been difficult to eliminate because of several factors.

a. Presence of large reservoir of parasites in other hosts such as monkeys and birds.
b. Warm, tropical conditions provide extremely suitable breeding conditions hence rapid
multiplication of mosquitoes.
c. Development of resistance to insecticide used to kill mosquitoes
d. Plasmodium also develops a resistance against antimalarial drugs
e. Financial constrains in many countries affected by regional conflicts where donors and
government funds are diverted to purchase weapons and other military ware.
The international Stockholm Convention of which Kenya is a signatory, restricts the use of DDT
as an insecticide to kill mosquitos. Kenya however advocates for the use of pyrethroids from
pyrethrum, which Kenya is a leading producer.

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 PARASITIC WORMS
a) Ascaris lumbricoides
o Are parasitic round worms belonging to phylum Nematoda.
o Found in small intestines of pigs and humans
o May also occur in other organs within the body
o Are yellowish in color with mouth parts having 3 lips
o Male are about 25cm long and 0.4cm in diameter.
o The female is longer 35cm and 0.5cm in diameter.

Mode of transmission
An adult female lays eggs in the small intestines of the host, these are passed out with faeces and
may be swallowed by new host through contaminated food and or through contaminated
vegetables and fruits which are not well cleaned.
Also, through direct infections from faeces to mouth through hands especially in children.
When eggs are swallowed by host, egg shells are dissolved releasing the larvae which penetrate
the intestines and enter the blood stream.
They move to the liver then the heart and lungs.
In the alveoli, they grow and moult twice. The larvae then migrate up to the trachea where they
cause irritation and so are coughed out and may be swallowed down into the oesophagus,
stomach and small intestines where they finally mature into adults.

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 Effects of parasites on the host
1. Damages the hosts skin when penetrating and this causes itching.
2. During migration of larvae, they cause irritation in the trachea that lead to lung damage and
infection with other diseases.
3. Consumes digested food in the intestines leading to malnutrition in the host especially in
children.
4. Cause anaemia since they feed on blood
5. Heavy infection leads to intestinal blockage when victims develop round large stomachs.
6. May also enter the bile duct, pancreatic duct and appendix causing further complications.

Adaptive characteristic of Ascaris lumbricoides to its parasitic mode of life.

1. It has two hosts i.e man and pigs this ensure it has a ready host for survival.
2. Lays many eggs to increase chances for survival
3. Eggs have protective shell to survive harsh environmental conditions.
4. Ascaris lumbricoides has a thick elastic cuticle which protects it against the digestive enzymes of
the host enabling it to survive in the alimentary canal

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5. It has tissues tolerant to low oxygen concentration in the gut
6. It has a muscular pharynx through which it sucks digested food from the host’s intestines into its
own gut.
Prevention and treatment
1. Proper sanitary disposal methods for sewage are required
2. Proper use of toilet facilities.
3. High standards of personal hygiene i.e. Washing hands after every visit to the toilet
4. Hygienic handling and cleaning of fruits and vegetables
5. Boiling drinking water
6. Treatment involves use of drugs to kill the warms or inactivate the eggs.

SCHISTOSOMA
Is a parasitic flat worm of the phylum Platyhelminthes found in human blood.
There are three different species of genus Schistosoma which infect the human beings.
These are Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma mansonii, Schistosoma haematobium
Adult worms are very thin and up to 2cm in length
Males are larger than females
Males have a groove along the front side of the body.
The female is usually found in this groove
It causes schistosomiasis or Bilharzia
Adults are found in fresh water canals, rivers, dams, rice grown areas, fields and similar habitats.

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 Mode of transmission
1. Through drinking of water contaminated by the larvae form called cercariae.
2. Parasites can also penetrate the skin when bathing or wading through water containing the larvae
3. They then get into the bloodstream and migrate to the liver where they mature into adults.
4. After the coupling of the adult worms, eggs are shed into the blood vessels and the alimentary
canal.
5. When the faeces or urine containing the eggs are disposed into the water, the eggs hatch into a
larvae called miracidia. Which penetrate water snails e.g Bulinus.
6. In the snail, the infective stage that cercariae emerge and can now affect human beings who
stand, bathe or drink such water.

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 Effects of the parasite on host
1. Damages the hosts skin when penetrating and causes itching
2. In the blood Schistosoma releases a chemical substance which causes fever.
3. Adult worms have sharp spines which they use to tear through the veins and enter into the
intestines or urinary bladder. This causes blood to appear in the urine or stool and leads to
anaemia.
4. They also cause abdominal pains and diarrhoea.
5. If untreated the disease may result in death due to exhaustion or infection by other diseases due
to reduced body immunity.
Adaptive characteristics of Schistosoma
1. The parasites have suckers for attachment
2. It has 2 host; the secondary host (snail) and the primary host (human being) to increase chances
of transfer from place to another.
3. Cercariae and eggs have glands that excrete lytic enzymes which soften tissues to allow for
penetration into the host.
4. Some larvae are encysted (have cyst) which enable them to remain dormant and viable till they
come into contact in a human being.
5. It reproduces through larval forms eg. Miracidia and cercariae which increases chances for
survival and transmission.

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6. Adult worms produce chemical substances which protect it against host defense mechanisms
7. The male forms a gynecophoric canal in which the female is found. It ensures that eggs are
fertilized before they shed into blood vessels.
Prevention and Treatment
1. Proper sanitary disposal of faeces and urine.
2. Faeces and urine should not be disposed into rivers, dams and other water bodies.
3. All drinking water should be chemically treated or boiled.
4. People should not bathe or swim in water infested with snails.
5. People should wear protective shoes and clothes and avoid walking bare foot in swampy areas.
6. Snails should be killed by spraying the water with molluscicides.
7. People should receive proper medical treatment.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

In order for a particular species to continue existing the mature organisms must be able to give
rise young ones of the same species.
Reproduction is the process by which organisms give rise to young one’s (offspring) of the same
kind.
Reproduction is an essential basic characteristic of all organisms. There are two types of
reproduction exhibited by organisms.
Asexual reproduction
This is production of offspring without fusion of reproductive cells or gametes. Instead, parts of
the mature organism develop to new individuals.
Sexual reproduction
This involves the fusion of nuclei of a female and a male gamete to form a zygote in a process
called fertilization.
Importance of Reproduction
1. Perpetuation/continuation of the species. Reproduction ensures that a particular species
continues to exist hence prevents it’s extinction.
- To perpetuate is to sustain or maintain the existence of an organism. Extinction refers to the
disappearance of organism from earth (earth’s surfaced).
2. Quality improvement. Reproduction improves the quality of a species, this occurs in sexual
reproduction, where mixing of genetic material occurs.
This leads to variation among individuals in a species
Variation enables organisms to adapt better to changing environmental conditions thus they
continually improve becoming:
 More productive
 More resistant to disease

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  More resistant to drought
 More viable
CELL DIVISION
 Forms the basis of Reproduction in organisms.
 Most organisms start life as a single cell known as a zygote or a spore.
 For single – celled organisms, they then enlarge and differentiate to develop to maturity.
 In multicellular individuals, a single-cell or zygote divides repeatedly to produce many
similar cells.
 The cells then differentiate to give rise to a complex individual.
 During cell division, one cell, referred to a mother cell divides into two daughter cells.
Each of these two daughter cells divides to form two other daughter cells producing a
total of 4 and so on.
 Cell division begins with the division of the nucleus (Karyogamy) followed by that of the
cytoplasm cytogamy.
 In mature multi-cellular organisms, cell division can still occur where cells are young and
undifferentiated. This includes meristems in plants and Malpighian layer of the skin
(mammalian)
Chromosomes
 The nucleus of cells contains thread-like strands that carry hereditary material in form of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules. These strands are called chromosomes.
 Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called sister chromatids. Each pair of sister
chromatids is connected at one point by a structure called centromere.

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 In body cells, (somatic cells) chromosomes occur in pairs. Each pair of chromosomes has the
same length and shape and are called Homologous chromosomes. They are alike in appearance
but their genetic composition may be different.


 During sexual reproduction, each parent contributes one of the chromosomes in a homologous
pair. The condition where the chromosomes within a cell occur in pairs is called diploid state or
2n constitution. This is seen in normal body cells or somatic cells.
 In gamete cells or reproductive cells, the state of the cell is said to be haploid or has n
constitution since the number of chromosomes in the nucleus (of the gamete) is half of what is
present in the somatic cell.
 A gamete cell has only one member of the homologous pair e.g. in humans, body cells or
somatic cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) and are said to be diploid. The gametes i.e sperms
and ova have 23 chromosomes and are said to be haploid.
 Along the length of the chromosome is a series of structures called genes. They are made up of
DNA which is protein chemical substance that contains a set of instructions which determine the
particular characteristics of individual organisms.
There are two types of cell divisions:
I. Mitosis
II. Meiosis

MITOSIS
 Is a type of cell division in which the cell divides into two daughter cells each having the same
number of chromosomes as the parent or mother cell.
 It mainly (but not always) occurs in somatic / non- reproductive cells.

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 It ensures that all the cells in the body (apart from gametes) contains the same number of
chromosomes and therefore genes.
 Mitosis occurs in stages or phases which are continuous.
 Each phase smoothly merging with the next without affecting cellular functions. These phases
are:
(i) Interphase
(ii) Prophase
(iii) Metaphase
(iv) Anaphase
(v) Telophase
Interphase
- Usually described as the resting stage of the cell and Chromosomes are seen as a diffuse tangle
of threads called chromatin.
However, intense internal activities are taking place within the cell in preparation for cell
division. These activities include.
(i) Replication of genetic material or chromosomes in which each chromosome produces an
exact copy or replica of itself.

(ii) Formation of new cellular organelles e.g mitochondria, ribosomes e.t.c

(iii) Built – up of energy which is then stored in form of ATP which will be necessary to drive
the mitosis process.
(iv) Synthesis of more cytoplasm.

Prophase
This stage may be said to be the onset of mitosis.

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At this stage, the following events occur
 Chromosomes shorten and thicken and become visible as distinct bodies. Each
chromosome is seen to consist of two strands lying parallel to one another called
sister chromatics and joined together at the centromere (since the chromosomes have
already replicated)
 The replicated/duplicated centrioles (in animal cell) separate and move to opposite
poles of the cell.
 Spindle apparatus begin to form. Spindle are extremely thin thread-like strands
running from one centriole to the other.
 Nucleolus shrinks and disappears.
 Nuclear membrane begins to break down.

Metaphase
 The nuclear membrane disappears
 Spindle formation is complete.
 Spindle fibers lengthen and are attached to centrioles which are at both poles.
 Chromosomes align themselves at the equator of the cell and are attached to the spindle
fibers by their centromeres.
 Homologous chromosomes align themselves independently of each other i.e. they do not
associate in any way.
Anaphase
 For each chromosome, sister chromatids separate at the centromere.
 Each of the sister chromatids starts moving away from the other towards the opposite
poles. Movement starts at the centromere with the chromatid forming a V-shape.
Movement is believed to be brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibers.
 As the chromatids reach the poles, the spindle apparatus disappears.
 Cell membrane starts to constrict at the equator (in animal cells) as the cytoplasm begins
to divide.
Telophase
 Spindle fibers completely disappear.
 Chromatids collect together at the two opposite sides.
 Nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromatids which are now called
chromosomes.
 Chromosomes assume their original appearance i.e. they became less distinct as they
uncoil / unwind.
 The cell membrane constriction is completed as the cytoplasm becomes divided into two.
 A Nucleolus reappears in each nucleus of the daughter cells.
 Centrioles become less visible.

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 Chromosomes become extremely thin almost invisible thread like structures. Mitosis is
complete. Each daughter cell then enters interphase.
 In plant cells, instead of the constriction of the cell membrane during telophase a new
cell wall called cell plate forms at the equator of the cell thus dividing the cytoplasm
into two.
 [Link]

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Significance of Mitosis

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In mitosis each daughter cell formed has exactly the same number and types of chromosomes as
the mother cell.
If the mother cell is diploid, then the diploid state is maintained in daughter cells. This is
important as mitosis forms the basis of:
(i) Growth
E.g. the growth of a zygote to a mature organism.
- This means that all the cells resulting from the division of the zygote will have the same
number of chromosomes e.g. in humans all cells will have 23 pairs of chromosomes while in
drosophila (fruit fly), 4 pairs, 7 pairs in garden pea and 20 pairs in mouse.
(ii) Repair and replacement of worn- out tissues.
I.e. Mitosis is the kind of cell division that results in formation of cells for replacement of worn
out tissues.
(iii) Asexual reproduction
E.g. when amoeba undergoes binary fission or when a bud develops in yeast.

MEIOSIS
 Is the kind of cell division which usually occurs during the formation of reproductive
cells/gametes.
 Occurs in the testes and ovaries of animals, and anthers and ovaries of plants.

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  The diploid (2n mother cell) undergoes division to produce 4 daughter cells, each of
which is haploid (n) i.e. each has half the number of chromosomes.
 The stages of meiosis are essentially similar to those of mitosis with a few differences.
 Meiosis occurs in 2 successive divisions referred to as
(i) First meiotic division (Meiosis I)
(ii) Second meiotic division (Meiosis II)
Resulting in the formation of 4 daughter cells, each haploid.
 In the first meiotic division, homologous chromosomes separate and the cell divides into
two. This is called reduction division.
 In the second meiotic division, sister chromatids separate as the 2 cells divide to give rise
to a total of 4 cells. This is called equatorial division.

Each meiotic division is divided into a series of phase like in mitosis.

2 FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

Has the following phases
i. Interphase I

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 ii. Prophase I
iii. Metaphase I
iv. Anaphase I
v. Telophase I
1. Interphase I
As in mitosis the cell prepares itself for the division i.e.
 Chromosomes are replicated
 New cell organelles and cytoplasm are synthesized
 Energy build-up occurs
2. Prophase 1
1. Nucleolus disappears
2. Centrioles become more visible and move to opposite sides of the nucleus
3. Chromosomes shorten and thicken and become more visible as distinct rods
4. Homologous chromosomes come to lie side by side and become intertwined forming pairs
called bivalents in a process known as synapsis.
5. During synapsis, homologous chromosomes exchanged genetic material between one another.
This is called crossing over.
6. It involves the breaking of chromosomes at the point of entanglement called chiasmata
(singular chiasma). The broken pieces then cross over and join the other homologous
chromosome.
7. Spindle starts forming. Nuclear membrane begins to break down.

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3. Metaphase I
1. Nuclear membrane has disappeared hence chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm.
2. Spindle formation is completed.
3. Homologous chromosomes arrange themselves at the equator of the spindle apparatus.
NOTE: Homologous chromosomes continue associating as a bivalent and are arranged together
at the equator. The cell is ready for separation of homologous chromosomes.
4. Anaphase I
1. During the first anaphase of meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to
opposite poles with their centromeres leading. The movement is due to shortening of spindle
apparatus.
NOTE: Sister Chromatids do not separate.
5. Telophase I
 Chromosomes reach their respective poles.
 Cell membrane starts to constrict at the middle.
 Two new daughter cells form; may go into interphase but sometimes the chromosomes
remain condensed and the daughter cells go straight into the prophase of the second
meiotic division.

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3

4 SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

 The purpose of the second meiotic division is to separate the sister chromatids from
one another.
 It occurs in similar phases as in the first meiotic division and is normally similar to
mitosis.
Interphase II

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  After meiosis I, the daughter cells may go into a short interphase which is called
interphase II, however sometimes daughter cells go straight to prophase II.
Prophase II
 May or may not occur as some cells go straight to metaphase II since the chromosomes
are still condensed and thickened.
 If it takes place, the following occur:
(i) Centrioles move to opposite poles in each of the daughter cells.
(ii) Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
(iii) Each chromosome is short and thick and has two sister chromatids
(iv) Each cell develops its own spindle apparatus.
Metaphase II
 Spindle formation in each cell is complete.
 Chromosomes align themselves at the equator of the spindle apparatus.
 Chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers at the centromere
Anaphase II
 Sister chromatids separate from each other at the centromere and move to opposite poles
pulled by the shortening of the spindle fibers.
Telophase II
 Spindle apparatus disappear as chromatids reach the poles
 Nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane is formed around each set chromatids.
 Chromatids are now chromosomes of the daughter cell. They uncoil and regain their
thread like form.
 -The cell membrane in each of two cells constrict across the middle and cytoplasm
eventually divides.
 4 cells are formed referred to as Tetrad.
 Each cell has the haploid number of chromosomes (n)
 Meiosis is complete.

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Significance of Meiosis
1. Meiosis results in formation of gametes.
In meiosis, daughter cells formed contain only one member of the homologous pair of
chromosomes that was present in the parent cell, each daughter cells has half the number of
chromosomes that were present in the parent cell.
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 Meiosis is the kind of cell division that results in the formation of gametes (ova and sperm)
which have half the number of chromosomes (haploid)
During fertilization, the haploid sperm fuses with the haploid egg to form a diploid zygote.
If meiosis never occurred, fusion of gametes would result in doubling of chromosomes for each
successive sexually reproduced generation.
2. Meiosis provides opportunities for new combination of genes to occur in gamete cells
especially during crossing over.
This leads to genetic variation in offspring produced by the fusion of the gametes. New
combination of genes also occurs during independent assortment and segregation during
metaphase 1 and anaphase 1.

Differences between Meiosis and Mitosis

Meiosis Mitosis
[Link] chromosomes 1. Homologous chromosomes do not associate
associate with one another in with one another
meiosis 1
2. Occurs in two nuclear divisions 2. Occurs in one nuclear division
3. Produces four daughter cells 3. Produces two daughter cells.
4. Daughter cells are haploid or 4. Daughter cells are diploid or have exactly the
have half the number of same number of chromosomes as the mother cell
chromosomes as the mother cell
5. Occurs in reproductive organs 5. Occurs in somatic cells leading to growth
leading to formation of gametes
6. Chiasma formation takes place 6. No chiasma formation hence no crossing over
leading to crossing over hence therefore no recombination of genes
recombination of genes

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Is the production of offspring from a single parent without the fusion of gametes.
Meiosis is rarely involved. Offspring produced are identical to parents and to each other.
Binary fission
1. Fission refers to splitting of one cell into two or more daughter cells, all of which are similar.
2. Binary fission refers to splitting of one cell into two daughter cells, each of which then enlarges
and develops and matures into single celled organism.
3. Fission occurs when the organism attains maturity.

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4. Binary fission is the complex process that includes
i. Internal re-organization/Molecular division
ii. Division of nucleus, a process called karyogamy
iii. Division of cytoplasm, a process called cytogamy
5. During the division, the nucleus divides into two and then the cytoplasm divides.
Binary fission is seen in the following organism: amoeba, plasmodium, bacteria.
Binary fission in amoeba
Under favorable conditions e.g. favorable temperatures, enough food, the mature amoeba divided
by mitosis into two daughters cells in the following steps:
Step 1. Molecular division.
This involves re-arrangement and re-organization of cytoplasmic and nuclear material.
It occurs in order to avail sufficient material for the formation of 2 cells from one mother cell.
Step 2: Division of nucleus
Step 3: Division of cytoplasm
To do this, amoeba goes through the following;
i. Mature amoeba becomes stationary
ii. It retracts its pseudopodia attains oval shape
iii. Nucleus starts dividing by mitosis to form 2 identical nuclei each of which is diploid.
iv. Division of cytoplasm then occurs. The cytoplasm is shared equally by the two daughter
cells.
v. Daughter cells then grow into mature amoeba.

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 Spore formation (Sporulation)
A spore is a small reproductive unit which is usually microscopic and unicellular containing
small amount of cytoplasm and a nucleus.
Spore formation in Rhizopus (bread mold)
1. Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus which grows on substrates like bread, rotting fruit and other
decaying organic matter.
2. Its vegetative body is called mycelium which consists of many branched threads called hyphae
which are haploid. The horizontal hyphae are called stolons. Hyphae which grow vertically are
called sporangiophores. The tips of this upright hyphae swell up to form sporangium –sing
(spore bearing structures).
3. Inside the sporangium, the nuclei divide by multiple mitosis to form many haploid nuclei. Each
nucleus is then surrounded by little cytoplasm and cell wall, these form the spores.
4. Each sporangium has very many spores. When they are fully formed, it begins to mature and
appears black. When fully mature, it bursts open and scatters the spores. If conditions are

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 suitable i.e. presence of moisture, favourable temperature and food, each spore germinates and
grows to form new vegetative structure/mycelium.
5. Dispersal of spores may be by explosive mechanism (bursting of sporangia) wind and animals
eg, insects.

BUDDING IN YEAST
 Yeast is a fungus which is single –celled. The yeast cell is made of cytoplasm which
contains a nucleus, a vacuole and other organelles and food reserves in form of glycogen
granules.
 The cytoplasm is surrounded by a thin cell wall, made of chitin

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
 Budding occurs when conditions are favourable, e.g. presence of moisture, sugar, oxygen
and optimum temperature
 When the conditions are favourable, the cell wall of a mature yeast cell softens at a small
area. This can occur at any point of the yeast cell. The weak point of the yeast then starts
protruding and bulging outwards to form a bud. The diploid nucleus then divides by
mitosis into two. One of the nuclei then moves into the bud which continues to grow and
forms new organelles.
 The cell wall at the point of attachment between the bud and the mother cell starts
constricting.
 Eventually, the bud starts to separates from the yeast mother cell. While this happens, the
bud starts developing another bud.
 The process of budding occurs very rapidly, hence when seen under the microscope,
yeast cells appear like short chains.

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5

CHECK YOURSELF: MEIOSIS vs. MITOSIS

Can you tell if the phrase refers to Mitosis, Meiosis, Neither, or Both?
a) Starts with one diploid cell, ends with 4 haploid daughter cells.
b) Starts with one cell, ends with two identical daughter cells.
c) Synapsis happens (crossing over & trading of pieces of the chromatid arms)
d) Has two divisions.
e) Bacteria use this process.
f) Makes autosomal body cells.
g) Makes gametes.
Answer the following questions as short answer.
h) During which stage of Meiosis do the bivalents line up in PAIRS along the equator of the cell
and trade pieces of chromosomes in a phenomenon called crossing over?
i) During which stage do homologues get separated from one another and migrate to opposite
centrioles?
j) Which part of Meiosis mimics mitosis, Meiosis I or Meiosis II?

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SPERMATOGENESIS

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OOGENESIS

10) In preparation for spermatogenesis and oogenesis, germ cells in the gonads go through
G1, S and G2. Look at both diagrams above. What is the obvious difference germ (stem)
sex cell and the primary spermatocyte/primary oocyte?
11) In spermatogenesis, where are the sperm created?
12) In spermatogenesis, where are the mature sperm kept until ejaculation?
13) In spermatogenesis, how is the secondary spermatocyte different than the primary
spermatocyte cell?
14) Look at oogenesis...what stage is released from the ovary during follicle rupture each
month AND how does it change on its journey between its release from the ovary and its
fertilization in the fallopian tube?
15 - 20) Spermatozoa are essentially motile haploid packets of DNA to be delivered to a
haploid egg. Once they merge sketch the series of changes that occurs in the fertilized egg
between fertilization and implantation into the uterus wall. Use all of these terms (morula,
blastocyst, zygote, cleavage) and refer to the diagram below. [6 pts]

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PROCESS OF DOUBLE FERTILISATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
1. Pollen grains lands on the sticky stigma.
2. The pollen grains are stimulated by the sticky. Substances and they germinate
to form a pollen tube.
3. The pollen tube grows through the style, absorbing nutrients from the tissues.
4. The pollen tube has two nuclei; the tube nucleus and generative nucleus.

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 NB The growth is chemotropic assisted by auxins in the style.
5. As the pollen tube grows down the style guided by the tube nucleus; the
generative nucleus divides through mitosis; to form two male gamete nuclei.
6. The pollen tube grows through the ovary wall, reaches the ovules; and enters
through the chalazae of the micropyle.
7. The pollen tube penetrates the embryo sac walls and the tube nucleus
degenerates.
8. The tip of the pollen tube burst open to release the two male nuclei which
enter the embryo sac.
9. The embryo sac contains eight nuclei: two synergids, a functional egg cell, two
polar nuclei and three antipodal cells.
10. One the male gamete nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a
triploid primary endosperm.
11. The other male gamete nucleus fuses with egg cell nucleus to form a zygote
that is diploid.
12. Double fertilization occurs.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS (ANGIOSPERMS)

The flower, which is a specialized shoot, is the reproductive structure in angiosperms.
The flower is attached to a branch by a flower stalk known as pedicel. The pedicel has a swollen
end called a receptacle, onto which other floral parts are attached.

5.1 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A FLOWER

A flower is made up of the following main parts:
i) Pedicel
ii) Receptacle
iii) Calyx (sepals)
iv) Corolla (petals)
v) Androecium (male part)
vi) Gynoecium (female part)

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Draw structure of the flower from the book

[Link] The pedicel

The flower stalk or pedicel is usually elongated and holds the main floral parts in position. It also
contains vascular bundles that transport materials to the flower.

[Link] The Receptacle

It provides a large surface area on which floral parts rest

[Link] Calyx
Is made up of leaf-like structures known as sepals, which are situated at the base of the flower on
the outside.
It protects the other parts of the flower especially during bud stage.
It also carries out photosynthesis, manufacturing food for the flower.
Transpiration also occurs through stomata on the sepals.
When the sepals are free or separate the calyx is said to be polysepalous eg in rose flower
When the sepals are fused, the calyx is said to be gamosepalous eg in morning glory flower.
In some plants, there may be another ring of sepal like structures below the calyx. This is called
epicalyx eg in hibiscus

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[Link] Corolla
Made up of petals
Petals are usually brightly coloured
Most corollas are large and conspicuous. Those that are small usually occur in batches known as
inflorescence eg flowers of sunflower.

If petals are fused, the corolla is said to be gamopetalous eg in morning glory flower
If the petals are free, the corolla is said to be polypetalous eg in hibiscus flower
Functions of corolla
i) Attract agents of pollination especially when they are brightly coloured
ii) Protect the female and male parts of the flower

[Link] Androecium
Is the male part of the flower and is made up of 1 or more stamens. Each stamen consists of a
stalk called filament and an anther which is attached to the filament.

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The anther consists of 4 pollen sacs, in which pollen grains are formed.
Pollen grains contain the male gamete formed by meiosis.
The stamens of a flower may either be fused forming a staminal tube eg in hibiscus or may be
free eg in Crotalaria or morning glory flower.

Draw stamen and pistil of hibiscus to show staminal tube

[Link] Gynoecium/Pistil
Is the female reproductive organ of the flower.
It consists of one or more carpels.
Each carpel consists of a stigma, a style and an ovary.
The Stigma- is found at the tip of the style.
It receives pollen grains and facilitates fertilization.
Style –Is a long stalk that leads from the stigma to the ovary.
Ovary –Is situated at the base of the flower. It has a hollow space or cavity which contains which
contains one or several ovules. Each ovule contains the female gamete known as egg cell.
The ovary can be described according to its position in relation to the receptacle, thus there are
three types of ovaries:
i) Inferior ovary-where the other floral parts are situated above the ovary level eg
ovaries of apple flower. The flower is said to be epigynous
ii) Superior ovary-where the other floral parts arise from below the ovary level eg in
hibiscus. The flower is said to be hypogynous

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iii) Perigynous Flower-where the ovary is surrounded by the receptacle and the other
floral parts arise from above the ovary, the ovary may be described as half inferior.

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The gynoecium which is also known as pistil can be of different types depending on the number
of carpels:
a) Monocarpous pistil-is a pistil that has only one carpel eg in morning glory, nandi flame &
bean flowers.
b) Polycarpous pistil-has 2 or more carpels. These pistils are of two types
i) Apocarpous pistil-have many carpels that are free i.e not fused, eg in flowers of
bryophyllum
ii) Syncarpous pistil-have many carpels that are fused eg in hibiscus flower.

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Make drawings of the above pistils from the book

[Link] Other terms used in describing flower

i) Essential parts of a flower-These are the stamens and the carpels which are the male
and female reproductive parts of the flower.
ii) Non-essential parts of the flower-Include the calyx(sepals) and the corolla(petals)
iii) Complete flower-Is a flower which has all the floral parts i.e. calyx, corolla,
androecium and gynoecium
iv) Incomplete flower-A flower lacking one or more of the floral parts
v) Unisexual flower-Is an incomplete flower with only one of the reproductive parts.
There are two types of unisexual flowers:
a) Staminate flower: a male flower, it contains only the male parts(androecium)
b) Pistillate flower: a female flower, it contains only the female parts(pistil or
carpels)
vi) Monoecious plant- A plant having both staminate(male) and pistillate(female) flowers
separately in the same plant eg maize
vii) Dioecious plant- A plant that bears either staminate or pistillate flowers only. The
plant is therefore called a male plant if it bears staminate flowers only, or a female
plant if it bears pistillate flowers eg in pawpaw plant
viii) Hermaphrodite/Bisexual flower-A flower that has both male and female reproductive
organs.
ix) Regular or Actinomorphic flower-A flower that can be divided into two similar
halves using any vertical plane/section passing through the center.
x) Irregular/Zygomorphic flower-A flower that can be divided into 2 similar halves
using only one plane eg Nandi flame, crotalaria
xi) Pedicillate flower- is a flower with a pedicel
xii) Solitary flower- a flower that occurs singly on the receptacle eg rose, nandi flame,
morning glory, hibiscus flower.
xiii) Inflorescence-Flowers that occur in clusters eg sunflower

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5.2 POLLINATION AND POLLINATING AGENTS
Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower. For
successful pollination to occur, so as to bring about fertilization, the plants have to be of the
same species. There are two types of pollination.
i) Self pollination
ii) Cross pollination

5.2.1 SELF POLLINATION

This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another
flower on the same plant.
In self pollination, there is no possibility of genetic mixing between different plants, hence
variation is reduced in offspring. Thus, self pollination is not a preferred form of pollination in
most plants because it results in continuous weakening of the species across successive
generations.

5.2.2 CROSS POLLINATION

This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower
on a different plant but of the same species. Cross pollination enables mixing of genetic qualities
between different plants, this improves the quality of the plant species. Eg, if a certain plant
species has a certain poor quality such as high susceptibility to a certain disease or pest, cross
pollination with a resistant plant is likely to result in offspring that are resistant.
Offspring resulting from cross pollination are more productive and more viable and are said to
have hybrid vigour.
Many plants have features that encourage cross pollination while reducing chances of self
pollination.

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[Link] Features and mechanisms that hinder self pollination and self –fertilisation
1. Dioecious plants: Since male and female flowers are located separately in different
plants, self fertilization is not possible.
2. Self sterility or self incompatibility: In maize plants, pollen grains are sterile on the
stigma of the same plant, this means that pollen grains do not germinate on the stigma of
the same plant.
3. Protandry and protogyny (Dichogamy): In some plants, stamens and carpels mature at
different times, this is known as dichogamy. When the stamens ripen earlier and are
ready to shed pollen grains before the stigma is mature, then the condition is referred to
as protandry. When the stigma matures earlier and is ready to receive pollen grains
before the anthers are ripe enough to shed them then the condition is referred to as
protogyny.
4. Heterostyly: This is the condition in some flowers of certain plants where styles and
fi8llaments are of different lengths in flowers of different individual plants to reduce self
pollination.

5.3 AGENTS OF POLLINATION

Pollination may occur without any agent of pollination getting involved. However many times,
flowers depend on agents eg insects, wind and birds for pollination.

5.3.1 Insect pollinated /Entomophilous flowers

Are flowers that are adapted for pollination by insects. At the base of insect pollinated flowers
are glandular structures known as nectaries that secrete a sweet/ sugary substance known as
nectar. Insects such as butterflies and bees visit the flowers to obtain nectar from the nectaries. In
the process some pollen grains stick onto the insect’s body. When the insect later visits another
flower in search of more nectar, pollen grains on the insect’s body land on the stigma of the
second flower. Examples of insect pollinated flowers are: Peas, beans, sunflower, hibiscus,
tomato, nandi flame.

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[Link].1 Adaptations of insect pollinated flowers/Endomophilous flowers
1. Large and conspicuous with brightly coloured petals, inflorescence or bracts to attract
insects.
2. Have nectaries which secrete nectar that acts as a bait for the insect to visit the flower.
Nectaries are situated at the base of the flower, hence the insect is able to rub against the
stigma or anthers as it moves to the nectries.
3. Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy and sticky so as to stick on to the insect’s body.
4. Stamens are short and situated inside the flower, with relatively small anthers that are
firmly attached on to the filament so that the insect can rub against the anthers as it
crawls to the nectaries.
5. The flowers are scented to attract insects.
6. The flower is specially designed, with a tubular corolla, honey guides, and some even
mimic the body form of the pollinating insect. These features ensure that the insect comes
in contact with the stamens and carpels when getting into the nectary.
7. Stigmas are relatively small and located inside the flower, so that the insect can rub
against it as it moves to the nectar.

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5.3.2 Wind pollinated/Anemophilous flowers
Include flowers of many grasses and other plants such as oak and willows.
Structure of a wind pollinated flower (grass flower)
They occur in groups called inflorescence.
They have no sepals or petals.
The flowers or florets are associated in groups of 2 or 3 forming spikelets. Each spikelet is
enclosed by leaf-like structures called glumes. Separation of glumes reveals individuals flowers
of the spikelet attached to a slender stalk.
Each individual flower is enclosed by a bract. Within the bracts are the male and female parts of
the flower.
The androecium consists of three stamens and the gynoecium consists of 2 fused carpels. The
carpels have long feathery stigmas.
Filaments are also long and slender and anthers produce very many pollen grains which are small
and light.
Draw the structures of grass flowers showing Inflorescence, individual spikelet, and a single
floret as shown in the KLB book

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Adaptations of wind pollinated flowers
1. The flowers are small with inconspicuous sepals, petals, bracts or inflorescence.
Mostly, petals and sepals are absent.
2. They have no nectaries and no scent
3. Stamens have long flexible filaments and anthers are often hanging out of the flower,
loosely attached to the filament and shake with the slightest wind to release pollen
grains.
4. Pollen grains are small light and smooth so that they can easily be blown by wind.

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 5. Anthers are large and produce many pollen grains to increase chance of pollination.
6. Stigmas are long feathery and hang outside the flower acting as nets to trap pollen
grains floating in the wind

5.4 FERTILISATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

[Link] Structure of gametes

a) THE MALE GAMETE
Is contained in the pollen grain which is produced in the anther. The anther contains pollen sacs
in which pollen grains are produced. Inside the pollen sacs are diploid cells known as pollen
mother cells. Each pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis to form four haploid daughter cells,
known as a tetrad. These are the young pollen grains. The haploid nucleus of each of the pollen
grains undergoes mitosis to form 2 haploid nuclei: Generative nucleus and Pollen tube nucleus.
The wall of the pollen grain then thickens and assumes different structures.

Draw a stamen showing pollen sacs and also draw a mature pollen grain showing the
generative nucleus and tube nucleus
b) THE FEMALE GAMETE
The ovary of the pistil has a hollow space or cavity which contains one or several ovules. Each
ovule contains a structure known as the embryo sac which contains the female gamete known as
the egg cell.
A stalk called the funicle, attaches the ovule to the placenta on the inner wall of the ovary.

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Each ovule contains a mass of cells called nucellus. On the outer parts of the ovule the nucellus
develops two layers of cells from the base which develop into inner and outer protective layers
called integuments. The integuments do not close completely but leave a tiny opening known as
the micropyle.
At the center of a mature ovule is a mature embryosac. It contains two polar nuclei at the center,
two synergids and an egg cell at the one end closest to the micropyle, and 3 antipodal cells at the
other end.

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Draw the detailed structure of the ovule showing embryo sac and all the cells inside it.

The process of fertilisation

This is the fusion of the male and female gamete in the embryo sac. Once the pollen grains land
on the stigma, the stigma secretes a sticky sugary fluid which causes the pollen grain to adhere to
it.
The fluid also stimulates the pollen grain to germinate i.e. to form a pollen tube which then
grows down the stigma into the style, obtaining nourishment from the tissues of the style and
secreting an enzyme which digests the tissues of the style.
As the pollen tube grows downwards, the tube nucleus assumes a position right behind its tip,
and the generative nucleus follows behind.
The generative nucleus then undergoes a single mitotic division to form 2 haploid nuclei known
as the male gamete nuclei. These are the male gametes.
The pollen tube continues to grow down the style to the ovary, with the tube nucleus and the
male gamete nuclei following behind. On reaching the ovary the pollen tube enters the ovule
mainly through the micropyle and penetrates the wall of the embryo sac. The tube nucleus then
disintegrates.
One of the male gamete nuclei then fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote.

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The other male gamete nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid primary
endosperm nucleus.
This constitutes double fertilization which is a unique feature of flowering plants.
Fusion of the male and female gamete nuclei constitutes fertilization.

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Draw a carpel showing the process of fertilization

5.5 SEED AND FRUIT DEVELOPMENT

After fertilization some changes occur in the ovary, the fertilized ovule and in the entire flower.
The external protective calyx dries and falls off or may persist and latter be used for dispersal.
The petals and stamens wither and fall off
The style and stigma wither leaving the ovary
Fertilised ovules start developing into seeds, and the ovary develops into a fruit.

5.5.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEED

After fertilization the following changes occur in the ovules
i) The diploid zygote divides by mitosis to form the embryo. This becomes
differentiated into a radical (embronic root), plumule (embryonic shoot) and one or
two cotyledons.
ii) The primary endosperm nucleus undergoes successive mitotic divisions to form the
storage tissue known as endosperm
iii) The fully developed ovule containing the embryo and the endosperm constitutes the
seed.
iv) The integuments undergo modification to form the seed coat/testa. The testa has a
scar called hilum which is the point of attachment to the funicle that attaches the
seed/ovule to the placenta. The testa protects the seed from organisms eg bacteria,
and also from mechanical damage.
v) The micropyle persists leaving a space through which water and oxygen enter the
seed.
Note:
In some plants eg peas and beans the embryo grows further absorbing and
transferring nutrients from the endosperm into the cotyledons which become thick
and fleshy.
In other plants eg maize and castor oil, the embryo remains small with the endosperm
occupying most of the space inside the seed.
After the changes above, the endosperm or cotyledon then losses water to remain at 15% water
by mass. The seed then becomes dormant as it awaits dispersal.

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[Link] Types of seeds
A. i) Cotyledonous or non-endospermous seeds
These types of seeds store their food reserves in the cotyledon. They include beans, peas and
acacia seeds.
Draw cotyledonous seeds from the book, external structure and internal structure of
longitudinal section of bean seed
iii) Non-cotyledonous or endospermous seeds
Such seed include those of maize and wheat. Their endosperm in which food reserves are stored
occupies most of the seed.
B. Seed maybe classified according to number of cotyledons it has.
i) Monocotyledonous seeds, have only one cotyledon eg seeds of most grasses eg maize
ii) Dicotyledonous seeds, have two cotyledons eg seeds of beans and peas

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Draw maize grain, its external structure and internal structure showing longitudinal section
of the grain

5.5.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRUIT

Soon after fertilization is complete the ovary starts developing into a fruit. This is brought about
by plant growth hormones called gibberellins. The hormones cause the ovary to enlarge, as well
as undergo differentiation and develop the various structures of the fruit.
The wall of the ovary becomes the fruit wall or pericarp. The pericarp is usually made of 3
layers. These are:
i) An outer epicarp or exocarp
ii) A middle layer called mesocarp
iii) An inner layer called endocarp
A fruit is described as a fully grown fertilized ovary containing fully developed seeds.
However, in certain plants such as pineapples and bananas, fruit development takes place
without fertilization. Therefore no seed development is noted. This is known as parthenocarpy.
One of the main differences between seeds and fruits is the number of scars.
i) Seeds have 1 scar, which is point of attachment to the funicle that attaches it to the
placenta in the ovary.
ii) Fruits have 2 scars, the point of attachment to the receptacle and the point of
attachment to the style.

5.6 TYPES OF FRUITS

Fruits may be classified in various ways as follows

1. True and false fruits

a) TRUE FRUITS

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Are fruits that develop from the fertilized ovary only. Most fruits fall in this category. They
include tomatoes, oranges, guavas, mangos, pods etc
b) FALSE FRUITS
These are fruits that develop from other parts of the flower as well as the ovary. They include
apples, and pears, which develop from the receptacle and ovary of the flower; and Pineapple
which develops from the receptacles and ovaries of several flowers of an inflorescence.

2. Fleshy and dry fruits

a) FLESHY/SUCCULENT/JUICY FRUITS
These are fruits that have a thick and juicy pericarp. There are four main types of Fleshy fruits:
i) Drupe
Has a thin epicarp, mesocarp is fleshy or fibrous, endocarp is hard and stony, endocarp encloses
the seed which is mainly one. Eg mango, avocado, coconut, plum.

ii) Berry
Is a juicy fruit whose epicarp forms the outer skin which is mainly thin. Both mesocarp and
endocarp are fleshy. The fruit has many seeds which are embedded in the endocarp.

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Eg tomato, guava, water melon, pawpaw, passion fruit

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 iii) Pome
Include the juicy fruits which are also referred to as false fruits, since they are formed from the
receptacle as well as the ovary. The pericarp and the seeds form the inner core which is the
actual fruit. Eg pears and apples.

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 iv) Hesperidium
These are a special type of berries. Include oranges and lemons. Their ovary has more than one
chamber. The epicarp and mesocarp are fused together to form a rind which can be separated
from the endocarp. Endocarp forms the chambers in which seeds are embedded.

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Draw cross and longitudinal sections of each of the following fruits: a) Mango for drupe, b)
Pawpaw for berry, c) Apple for Pome d) Orange for Hesperidium

b) DRY FRUITS
These are fruits whose pericarp is thin and not juicy or fleshy. The pericarp is not differentiated
to epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Eg Maize and wheat grains, pea and bean pods, castor oil
and simsim.
Some dry fruits are dehiscent, while others are indehiscent.
a) Dry dehiscent fruits
They dry up and burst to release seeds. The fruit wall has lines of weakness (sutures). The
sutures split to release seeds.
(i) Legume (pod)
The fruit wall (pericarp) is not differentiated
The fruit is usually flattened sideways
When the fruit is ripe, the pericarp dehisces longitudinally along sutures on both
sides to liberate the seeds. The seeds are usually arranged along one of the margins
of the fruit

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(ii) Capsule
The fruit contains many chambers each with a number of seeds
The fruits split open mainly along longitudinal axis when mature e.g capsule of
datura, poppy and cotton.

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(iii) Schizocarp
A dry fruit containing several seeds ( 2 or more)
At maturity it splits into parts each containing one seed e.g castor oil and desmodium

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 (iv) Follicle
The fruit develops like a pod but splits open along one margin.
It contains one or many seeds. E.g Nandi flame.

Draw a legume, capsule and schizocarp.

b) Dry indehiscent fruits

i) Caryopsis/Grain
The seed coat and the pericarp are fused together to form a thin covering over the entire seed. Eg
maize grain.

ii) Cypsela
One seeded fruit which is formed from an inferior ovary, with the calyx or perianth which is
above the ovary persisting to form a pappus (parachute-like hairs) or hooks which are later used
for dispersal. Eg fruits of Bidens, Tridax and Sonchus

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 iii) Nut
A fruit with a hard and woody pericarp, which is separate from the seed coat. Eg Macadamia
nuts, Cashew nuts

iv) Samara
Contains one or more seeds with wing-like extensions.

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Draw Caryopsis of maize, Cypsela of Bidens, Nut of Macadamia

5.7 PLACENTATION
The arrangement of ovules in an ovary/ seeds in a fruit
i) Marginal placentation
The placenta appears as one ridge on the ovary wall and the ovules are attached to the placenta in
a row along the margin of the ovary eg beans or peas in a pod
ii) Basal Placentation
The seed/ seeds are attached to the placenta located at the base of the ovary eg in drupes such as
mango, plum, peach and avocado. And some berries such as green pepper
iii) Parietal placentation
Several ovaries fuse together and the dividing walls disappear leaving a single lobulus. The
placenta from each ovary appears as a ridge on the inner surface of the ovary wall. The seeds are
attached to the placenta on the inner part of the ovary wall. Eg in pawpaw, goose berry, passion
fruit
iv) Axile placentation
The seeds are attached to the placenta which forms a soft central core in an ovary that has several
chambers/ lobuli eg in tomato, orange, banana
v) Free central placentation

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Placenta appears at the center of the ovary which has only a single lobulus. Seeds are arranged

around the placenta.

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 Draw diagrams showing the various types of placentation

6 FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL

This is the scattering of fruits and seeds so that they land on some distance away from the parent
plant.
Importance of fruit and seed dispersal:
1) It reduces overcrowding and competition.
When plants are overcrowded, there is increased completion for available resources including
light and mineral salts.
2) It enables plants to colonize new habitats.
MODES OF DISPERSAL
Plants have adaptations to various modes of dispersal aided by various agents as follows:

a) Animal dispersal
Fruits and seeds are adapted in various ways for dispersal by animals. These include:

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  Some fruits have hooks on the ovary wall. The hooks are mainly formed from a persistent
calyx. These hooks stick onto the fur on the coat of passing animals, enabling the fruit to
be dispersed some distance away from the parent plant.
 Some fruits are succulent, brightly coloured and scented to attract animals which feed on
them and carry them away from the parent plant
 Some fruits have seeds with tough, indigestible seed coats so that they pass though the
digestive system undigested and are passed out with faeces some distance away from the
parent plant

b) Wind dispersal
 Most fruits and seeds dispersed by wind are small and light to enable them to float on air
so they can be carried away by wind
 Censor mechanism: Some seeds are contained in a capsule held by the leaves on a long
flexible stalk. Any slight air currents causes the shaking of the stalk and the capsule. As
the capsule looses moisture, it dries up and eventually splits open to expose the seeds.
When the wind blows shaking the capsule, the seeds are scattered and dropped some
distance away from the parent plant eg in simsim and Mexican poppy.
 Extended pericarp: Some fruits and seeds have developed hairy and feather-like
projections which increase their surface area so that they can be blown by wind and
dropped some distance away from the parent plant eg in cotton. Other fruits and seeds
have wing-like extensions that also increase their surface area so that they can be blown
by wind

c) Water dispersal
 Fruits and seeds dispersed by water need to be light to float on water.
 Most have their seed coat or fruit pericarp being water proof hence the seeds or fruit can
remain afloat without taking in water/soaking and sinking
 Some fruits like coconut, have a fibrous and spongy mesocarp which traps air to enable
them to float on water which carries them away from the parent plant
 In some plants like water lily, seeds trap air bubbles which enable the seed to float on
water and be carried away from the parent plant.

d) Self dispersal mechanism

This method of dispersal occurs in fruits with dry pericarp such as legumes. After the pod
dries, the seeds get detached from the placenta and remain inside the dry fruit. Eventually the
pod builds up tension or pressure from within. This causes the pod to split violently along lines
of weakness/ sutures. In the process, seeds are thrown some distance away from the parent plant.
Eg in beans, peas and castor oil

7 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Sexual reproduction in animals involves fusion of gametes. In most animals two individuals are
involved, a male and a female. The male produces gamete known sperm/spermatozoa (singular

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spermatozoon) and the female produces gametes known as ova (singular Ovum). Gamete
production occurs in reproductive organs called gonads. Male gonads are known as testes where
sperms are produced. Ova are produced in female gonads known as ovaries. Fertilisation
involves the fusion of the haploid sperm and haploid ovum to form a diploid zygote.
Fertilisation may be external or internal.

7.1.1 EXTERNAL FERTILISATION IN AMPHIBIANS

External fertilization is only possible in water. Most amphibians live on dry land but breed in
water. The female lays eggs in water and the male sheds sperms over them, resulting in
fertilization outside the body.
Breeding season in frogs coincides with the onset of the rainy season. The courtship behaviour of
frogs involves croaking of males to attract females. The male then mounts a female by clasping it
using the forelimbs. At this time the abdomen of the female is swollen with eggs. The male
compresses the female resulting in release of eggs. Egg are laid in long strands of slippery jelly-
like substance which has the following functions:
 Provides protection to the eggs against mechanical damage, micro-organisms and
temperature fluctuations.
 Prevents predators from feeding on the eggs.
 Separates the eggs from each other allowing for good aeration
 Attaches the eggs to water plants
 Enables the eggs to float/provides buoyancy.
As the eggs are laid, the male sheds seminal fluid onto them. Seminal fluid contains sperms
which swim to the eggs and fertilize them.

7.1.2 INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

Occurs in reptiles, birds and mammals
Fertilization occurs inside the body of the female. Internal fertilization has advantages over
external fertilization in the following ways:

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  Chances of fertilization are higher
 Wastage of gametes is reduced
 There is better protection of zygote
 It is not dependent on water

7.2 REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

Fertilisation in mammals occurs internally. There are three types of reproductive processes in
mammals:
i) Oviparity
In monotremes, after fertilization, the fertilized egg is laid to develop outside the body. Such
mammals are said to be oviparous eg in the spiny ant eater and the duck billed platypus.
ii) Oviviparity: Seen in some fish and reptiles where the egg is fertilized internally and
embryo develops within the females body where its nourished by egg yolk. They give
birth to live young ones
iii) Mammals such as the kangaroo give birth to offspring that are not fully developed.
The young one is kept in a pouch/ marsupium on the mother’s abdomen where
growth and development continues to take place. The young one feeds from the
mothers mammary glands. When sufficient development has taken place, the young
one is released from the pouch. These animals are called marsupials.
iv) Viviparity
In most mammals the fertilized ovum develops inside the female body, after which they give
birth to live young ones. This is known as viviparity and occurs in placental mammals which
have a placenta. After birth, the young one feeds from the mothers mammary glands.

7.2.1 REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Human beings belong to the placental group of mammals since the female develops a placenta
during pregnancy.

7.3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Draw the front and side view of the male reproductive system
TESTES (SING. TESTIS)
There are a pair of testes, both of which lie outside the main body below the abdominal cavity in
the scrotal sac. The position of the testes outside the body is significant as it provides a cooler
environment for production, development and survival of sperm. By the time a baby boy is born,
the testes should have descended down to the scrotal sac.

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Functions
i) Production of sperms
ii) Production of male hormones called androgens
The testes are made up of several highly coiled tubes known as seminiferous tubules which
produce sperm. (draw i) cross section of a seminiferous tubule and ii) several seminiferous
tubules showing interstitial cells)
The lining of these tubes consist of actively dividing cells called the germinal epithelium which
give rise to sperm. Inside the tubules are also sertoli cells which support and nourish
spermatozoa. Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells/leydig cells which produce
male hormones known as androgens.

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EPIDIDYMIS
Seminiferous tubules finally unite to form epididymis which is a much coiled tube that measures
about 6m when stretched. The epididymis lies on the outside of each testis. It’s walls have cilia
that move in a wave like manner to propel sperm, and also has smooth muscle that contract and
relax to also propel sperm.
Function
i) Stores sperm and provides for its maturation.
VAS DEFERENS/SPERM DUCT
Is a narrow tube connecting the epididymis to the urethra. It has muscular walls.
Function: Its muscular walls contract to propel the sperm to the urethra.
URETHRA
Originates from the urinary bladder and traverses the penis. The two sperm ducts open into the
urethra at the junction of the urethra and the urinary bladder.
Function: Allows passage of the sperm during coitus. Also allows passage of urine.
PENIS
Is an intromittent organ that introduces the sperm into the female’s reproductive tract. It is made
up of spongy tissue called erectile tissue, muscles and many blood vessels. The penis has a
retractable skin called prepuce covering the end region known as the glans penis. The glans is
highly sensitive. At the time of sexual activity, the penis erects by having the spaces in the
erectile tissue filled with blood. This enables it to penetrate the female’s vagina during coitus.
Once the penis is inserted into the female’s vagina, its continued stimulation results in
ejaculation. Ejaculation is the rhythmical contractions of the various tubes in the male
reproductive tract which propels the semen into the female’s reproductive tract.
ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS
Include seminal vesicles, prostate gland and cowper’s gland. These glands produce seminal fluid.
Seminal fluid contributes 60% of semen. The fluid is viscous and has an alkaline medium.
Seminal vescicles: are 2 blindly ending sacs which open to the sperm duct. They produce an
alkaline fluid that which nourishes spermatozoa.
Prostate gland: Secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acidic vaginal fluid, and also
activates the sperm.
Cowpers gland: Secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acidity of the urethra caused by
pH variation of urine.

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The fluid from these accessory glands is called seminal fluid and combine with sperm to form
semen
Note: Seminal fluid and sperm together form Semen
Seminal fluid adds to the volume of sperm.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The human female reproductive system consists of the following structures

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OVARIES
These are two cream coloured structures measuring about 3.5cm in diameter and found on either
side of the lower abdomen in the female. They are held in place by membranes of connective
tissue.
Functions
1. They produce the female gametes known as ova (sing. Ovum)
2. They produce female reproductive hormones
Blood is supplied to each ovary by an ovarian artery, and is removed by an ovarian vein. The
ovary has an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex is made up of a compact substance
that contains follicles which contains ova. Each follicle comprises an immature ovum surrounded
by epithelial cells known as follicle cells. Such follicles are called primary follicles. There are
about 400,000 primary follicles in the ovaries of a new born baby girl. Only about 400 of them
will eventually mature.
After puberty, during each monthly cycle, one of the primary follicles enlarges greatly and
develops a large fluid-filled cavity. The follicle is now called a graafian follicle and contains a
mature ovum. The graafian follicle later raptures to release the mature ovum during ovulation.

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OVIDUCTS/FALLOPIAN TUBES
These are tubes with an expanded funnel-shaped opening which connects the ovary to the uterus
Functions
1. Conduct the ovum from the ovary to the uterus
2. Site where fertilization occurs.
They have a funnel shaped opening to receive the ovum released by the ovaries during ovulation.
Their walls are lined with cilia which propel the ovum towards the uterus. The walls also have
smooth muscle which contract to move the ovum towards the uterus.
THE UTERUS
Is a hollow elastic muscular pear shaped organ within which the embryo develops. It is located in
the lower abdomen of the female between the urinary bladder and rectum. It is about 8cm long
but expands considerably during pregnancy due to its elastic nature. It is held in position by
strong ligaments which prevent it from collapsing. The bladder and the pelvis also give extra
support. The uterus consists of an outer muscular wall known as myometrium, and an inner wall
known as endometrium, where the embryo burrows after fertilization in a process known as
implantation.
Functions
1. The site where the embryo burrows and develops during pregnancy
2. Contracts to expel the fully developed foetus at birth

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CERVIX
At the lower narrow end of the uterus, which leads to the vagina, is the cervix. It is a ring of
muscle that separates the uterus from the vagina. It is also made of dense connective tissue
fibres.
Function
1. It secretes a thick mucus plug which prevents entry of pathogens into the uterus
especially during pregnancy.
2. It dilates and widens during birth to allow the foetus to pass through the birth canal
VAGINA/BIRTH CANAL/COPULATORY CANAL
Is an elastic muscular canal linking the uterus to the outside.
Function
1. Site where sperm is deposited during coitus/copulation/sexual intercourse.
2. Conduit for menstrual flow out of the uterus
3. Canal through which the birth of a fully developed foetus occurs
The vagina has elastic walls which stretch during intercourse and during the birth of a foetus.
The vagina together with the urethra open into the vulva, whose walls contain vestibular glands
that release mucus when the female is sexually excited. This helps to lubricate the penis during
coitus.

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7.3.1 STRUCTURE OF THE MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES
THE HUMAN SPERM

Male gametes / sperms are formed in the seminiferous tubules of the testis by meiosis. A sperm
cell consists of an oval head, a short neck, a middle piece and a tail.
Head: Contains a large haploid nucleus. At the tip of the head is an acrocome containing lytic
enzymes. The enzymes digest and soften the membranes of the ovum to enable the sperm to
penetrate into the cytoplasm of the egg.
Short neck: Contains centrioles which form the sperm flagellum.
Middle piece: Contains a large number of mitochondria which produce large amounts of energy
necessary for propulsion of the sperm through the females reproductive tract by lashing action of
the tail.
Tail: Propels the sperm forward by its side to side lashing action.
THE HUMAN OVUM
The process of egg formation begins in the ovaries of a female foetus before birth. At birth there
are about 400,000 potential egg cells/ova in the ovaries of a baby girl. The eggs are enclosed by
layers of epithelial cells (follicle cells), forming primary follicles. Follicle cells provide
nourishment to the eggs. After puberty one of the primary follicles develops into a graafian
follicle. During ovulation the graafian follicle bursts open to release the mature ovum
surrounded by follicle cells.
The mature ovum is spherical in shape, with a diameter of about 120 micrometres. It contains a
large haploid nucleus surrounded by an abundant cytoplasm, containing yolk droplets which
nourish the zygote after fertilization. The cytoplasm is enclosed by a plasma membrane, which in
turn is surrounded by another membrane known as the vitelline membrane. Surrounding the
vitelline membrane is a jelly like substance known as the zona pellucida.

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 Draw the structure of a mature ovum from KLB

7.4 FERTILISATION
This is the process where the haploid nucleus of a male gamete (sperm) fuses with the haploid
nucleus of a female gamete (ovum), to form a diploid zygote. In humans it occurs in the upper
part of the oviduct. Spermatozoa are introduced into the female’s vagina during coitus. The
sperm then swim through the watery mucus of the vagina, through the uterus to the upper parts
of the oviducts. For movement, the sperm relies on:

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 i) Propulsion by the lashing action of the tail. Energy needed for this, is supplied by the
mitochondria located in the middle piece.
ii) Suction force employed by the uterus and the cervix.
If ovulation has taken place, the egg and the sperm may meet in the upper part of the oviduct.
The ovum secretes some chemical substances which attracts sperm and have to be neutralized
by those produced by the acrosome before the sperm penetrates the ovum.
Once the sperm come into contact with the egg, their acrosomes burst open to release lytic
enzymes. These enzymes disperse the follicle cells around the ovum and soften the zona
pellucida and vitelline membrane. The acrosomes of several sperms then turn inside out each
forming a fine filament that is used by the sperm to penetrate the ovum. One of the spermatozoa
then pushes it’s way through the membranes into the cytoplasm of the ovum. Only the head and
middle piece enter the cytoplasm, the tail is left outside.
Once the sperm is in the cytoplasm, the vitelline membrane undergoes a change and thickens
rapidly preventing other sperm from entering the egg. The head of the sperm then bursts open to
release the nucleus which fuses with the nucleus of the ovum to form a diploid zygote.
Note: Sperms can remain viable/fertile in the female reproductive tract for 12 to 48 hours, while
the eggs can remain viable for 8 to 24 hours, hence there is a short period of about 3 days, of a
monthly cycle, during which fertilisation can occur.
Millions of sperm are released in a single ejaculation but only one fertilizes the ovum.

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(Draw female reproductive tract showing the process of fertilization, also head of sperm
showing rupture of acrosome and formation of the filament, also the eggs from when the
sperm encounters the egg until one sperm enters the egg and ovum nucleus fuses with that
of the sperm)

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7.5 IMPLANTATION

After fertilization the zygote undergoes rapid mitotic divisions to form a tiny mass or ball of cells
called morula. As the morula moves down the oviduct, it enlarges and develops a fluid filled
cavity. This fluid filled structure is now known as a blastocyst.

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Implantation is the partial borrowing or embedding of the blastocyst into the endometrium of the
uterus. This occurs seven days after fertilization. Note: Zygote takes seven days to reach the
uterus. By this time the uterine endometrium will have thickened and developed a rich blood
supply.
When the blastocyst reaches the thickened uterine endometrium, it develops finger like
projections known as trophoblastic villi which project or grow into the soft spongy
endometrium. The villi anchor the blastocyst into the endometrium and enable it absorb
nutrients. After implantation, the blastocyst is now called an embryo. [Link]
B3pqAZw?si=as8-FWvs57Mtt9Ng
Occasionally the zygote fails to move down the oviduct to the uterus, and instead gets implanted
into the walls of the oviduct where it develops. This condition is called ectopic pregnancy and is
fatal if allowed to develop to term in most cases.

7.6 FORMATION OF THE PLACENTA

Some of the cells of the developing embryo form three membranous layers. These are the:
i) Amnion
ii) Chorion
iii) Allantois
The Chorion
Is the outer most layer. It develops finger like projections called chorionic villi which grow into
the endometrium. These villi form the sites for material exchange between the embryo and
maternal blood vessels in the endometrium.
The amnion
Is the inner membrane surrounding the embryo and enclosing it within an amniotic cavity. It
secretes amniotic fluid which fills amniotic cavity within which the embryo lies.
Functions of amniotic fluid:
i) Provides a fluid environment which suspends the foetus and provides it with support.
ii) It acts as a shock absorber hence protects and cushions the foetus against mechanical
injury
iii) Lubricates the foetus providing friction free movement inside the uterus.
iv) Also provides lubrication in the birth canal during birth
The placenta
The chorionic villi, allantois and endometrium where the chorionic villi are embedded, forms the
placenta. Each of the chorionic villi is lined by a thin membrane enclosing a network of embryo
blood capillaries. The blood vessels in the villi are in close but not direct contact with maternal
blood in the endometrium.

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The foetus lies in the fluid filled amniotic cavity and is connected to the placenta by an umbilical
cord, which contains two umbilical arteries and an umbilical vein. Arteries carry blood from the
foetus to the placenta, while the vein carries blood from the placenta to the foetus. When the
placenta is fully developed, the embryo is now called the foetus (at about 3 months of
pregnancy)

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 Draw the uterus showing a fully formed placenta and a foetus. Make a separate drawing of
the placenta only

The role of the placenta

The placenta is the point of exchange of materials between the foetal blood system and maternal
blood system
1. Site where food materials such as amino acids, glucose, vitamins, fatty acids and
glycerol, and mineral salts pass by diffusion or active transport from maternal blood to
foetal blood. These nutrients are needed for the healthy growth and development of the
foetus.
2. Site where gaseous exchange occurs between maternal blood and foetal blood. Oxygen
diffuses from maternal blood to foetal blood while carbon (IV) oxide diffuses from foetal
blood to maternal blood for excretion through the lungs.
3. Site where excretion of nitrogenous waste materials from foetal blood to maternal blood
occurs, for excretion by the mother
4. Production of hormones such as progesterone and oestrogen which play an important role
in pregnancy
Major functions of human oestrogen and progesterone during pregnancy
Oestrogen Progesterone
Growth of mammary glands Growth of mammary glands
Inhibits follicle stimulating hormone release Inhibits follicle stimulating hormone release
Inhibits release of prolactin Inhibits prolactin release
Prevents infection in the uterus Inhibits contraction of the myometrium
Increases the size of uterine muscle cells

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Increases ATP and cretinine phosphate
formation
Increases sensitivity of myometrium to
Oxytocin hormone

5. The placenta acts as a filter preventing entry of harmful bacteria from maternal blood to
foetal blood. It also protects the foetus against infection by producing phagocytic white
blood cells which destroy pathogens. It also allows antibodies from the mother’s blood to
pass to the foetus blood. These antibodies are partially responsible for the passive
naturally acquired immunity of the newborn.
The placenta also protects the foetus’ delicate blood capillaries against injury by the
mother’s high blood pressure since foetal and maternal blood are not in direct contact.
Possible agglutination of red blood cells due to blood group difference is also prevented
The placenta is however not an effective barrier against the passage of micro-organisms
like viruses such as HIV and harmful chemicals such as drugs, toxins, alcohol and
nicotine. Pregnant women are advised to avoid smoking, alcohol consumption and using
all kinds of drugs apart from those prescribed by a doctor.

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7.7 TWINNING
Fertilization can at times result to twins who are born soon after each other. There are two kinds
of twins:
i) Fraternal
ii) Identical
Fraternal twins
Result when two eggs happen to be released into the oviduct simultaneously, and each is
fertilized separately. Such twins do not look very much alike and may even be of different sexes.
Identical twins
Develop when soon after fertilization, the zygote/ blastocyst divides mitotically and forms two
separate cell masses, each of which develops into a separate embryo. Such twins are genetically
identical and hence their external appearance is very similar.
Triplets and quadruplets are formed in the same way as twins, ie there might be multiple
ovulations or blastocyst may split into several masses each of which develops into a separate
embryo.

7.8 GESTATION
This is the duration of pregnancy from fertilization to birth. In humans gestation period is nine
months, in mice 22 days, rabbits 30 days, and elephant, 18 months.
During gestation, the zygote develops into a morula, then a blastocyst, then an embryo and
finally into a foetus.
By the time the embryo is three weeks old, the three embryonic membranes ie allantois, amnion
and chorion have been formed.
Embryo now appears as a bump on the uterine wall. The embryo then develops tissues and
organs.
By the end of the third month, the following will have developed:
 Circulatory system consisting of the heart and blood vessels.
 Spinal cord, brain and tail.
 Skeleton
 Limbs show signs of development
 Most vital organs start to develop eg stomach, liver, and kidneys
By the end of six months, the following are well developed:
 Limbs, hence foetal movements can be felt
 Alveoli and nostrils
 Genital organs
 Vocal cords

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By the end of nine months, all the organs and systems are fully developed such that they are fully
functional at birth. The head of the foetus is directly above the cervix. Birth occurs after nine
months.
If birth occurs before six months, the baby will not survive and is referred to as a miscarriage. If
foetal development is interfered with either chemically or physically such that the foetus is
expelled, this is called an abortion.
If birth occurs after 7 months, but before full term, it is called a premature birth and the baby
may require specialized care in an incubator.

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7.9 BIRTH/PARTURITION
The onset of birth is signaled by reduction in progesterone levels in mother’s blood. This
triggers the posterior pituitary gland of the mother to release hormone oxytocin.
Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterine myometrium. This marks the beginning of
labour. Oxytocin is released in waves which are gradual at first, but become more frequent later.
As a result, the uterine contractions/labour pains are spaced at first but become more frequent as
labour continues. The placenta also releases a hormone known as relaxin, which has two main
functions:
i) Dilates the cervix
ii) Relaxes the ligaments in the pelvis allowing it to widen to allow the baby to pass
through.
iii) It stimulates rupture of amnion and the chorion hence amniotic fluid is released
through the cervix.
Following rapture of the membranes, the uterus contracts more powerfully accompanied by
severe pain. The pain causes abdominal muscles to contract. The combined effect of abdominal
and uterine contraction pushes the foetus downwards and expels the baby head first through the
widened cervix and vagina and the baby is born.
After a few minutes, when the pulsations of the umbilical cord stop, it is then cut and tied and the
placenta is expelled as afterbirth.

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7.10 ROLE OF HORMONES IN HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Hormones are chemical substances secreted by special glands in the body known as endocrine
glands. They are transported by blood to specific organs known as target organs. Hormones then
cause specific effects in target organs to regulate body activities.
Hormones control the entire process of reproduction from development of secondary sexual
characteristics at puberty to menstrual cycle to birth.

7.10.1 Development of secondary sexual characteristics

These are physiological, structural, and mental changes which are associated with femininity and
masculinity. They occur at the onset of puberty which is about age 12 in girls and age 14 in boys.
Puberty marks the beginning of sexual maturity.
Secondary sexual characteristics in Males
The development of these characteristics in males is controlled by hormones.
At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus (part of the brain) stimulates the pituitary gland (also
found in the brain) to release Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone
(LH)
FSH and LH are called gonadotrophic hormones because they stimulate the gonads.
FSH stimulates production and maturation of sperms in the seminiferous tubules.
LH also known as interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) in males, stimulates interstitial
cells or leydig cells of the testes to release male hormones known as androgens. One of the main
adrogens is testosterone. Testosterone stimulates spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules
and also stimulates development of secondary sexual characteristic in males. These
characteristics include the following:
i) Enlargement and maturation of the testes and penis in males
ii) The body becomes more muscular
iii) Deepening of the voice as a result of enlargement of larynx (voice box).
iv) Growth of hair on the pubic and armpit regions and a little later on the chin and chest
v) Shoulders broaden
Secondary sexual characteristics in females
These are stimulated by hormones produced by the pituitary gland under the influence of the
hypothalamus. The pituitary gland produces Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing Hormone (LH).
FSH stimulates the ovary to release the hormone Oestrogen. Oestrogen stimulates the onset of
secondary sexual characteristics in females. They include:
i) Growth of breasts due to deposition of fat
ii) Enlargement of pelvic girdle and widening of hips
iii) Growth of hair in the pubic and armpit regions

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 iv) Ovaries mature and girls begin to ovulate and menstruate

7.11 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

After the onset of puberty, the female reproductive tract undergoes cyclic changes known as the
Menstrual cycle.
The events of the menstrual cycle include:
i) The ovarian cycle- activities in the ovaries
ii) The Uterine cycle- activities in the uterus.
These events are regulated by hormones produced by the pituitary gland and the ovary. These
hormones are:
i) Follicle Stimulating hormone
ii) Luteinizing Hormone
Both produced by the pituitary gland, and
iii) Oestrogen
iv) Progesterone
Both produced by the ovary.
The most obvious sign of the menstrual cycle is menstruation, also known as menses.
Menses is the shedding of the uterine lining and blood through the vagina in females. During
menstrual cycle the uterus is prepared for implantation, by thickening of endometrium and
increase in blood supply to it. However if fertilization does not occur, the thickened part of the
endometrium lining is shed off together with unfertilized eggs and blood. These are discharged
as menses through the vagina.
The average length of the cycle is 28 days.
The first day of menses is regarded as the first day of the cycle. Just after the start of menses the
anterior pituitary gland secretes Follicle Stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH has two effects:
i) It stimulates the development of the graafian follicle in the ovary. In this case, one of
the primary follicles enlarges and develops a fluid filled space to form a structure
known as graafian follicle.
ii) Stimulates the ovary to secrete oestrogen
Oestrogen
Is released by follicle cells in the ovary, and has the following functions:
i) Stimulates healing and repair of the endometrium which had been shed off during
menses.
ii) Accumulation of oestrogen to certain high levels, stimulates the anterior pituitary
gland to produce Luteinizing hormone.

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Luteinizing Hormone
Is produced by the pituitary gland. It has the following effects:
i) Stimulates the maturation of the graafian follicle
ii) Stimulates ovulation, this is the bursting of the graafian follicle to release the ovum
on about 14th day of the cycle.
iii) Stimulates reorganization of the remnants of the graafian follicle to form a corpus
luteum (yellow body)
iv) Stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete hormone progesterone
Progesterone
i) Stimulates the thickening and increased blood supply to the endometrium. This
prepares the uterus for implantation.
ii) If fertilisation occurs, levels of progesterone continue to rise in the blood, high levels
of progesterone inhibits further production of FSH.
If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum disintegrates at about the 22nd day, hence levels
of progesterone in the blood drops. As a result the thickened part of the endometrium is shed off
and menses occurs. This completes the cycle on about the 28th day as the pituitary gland starts to
secrete FSH and the new cycle begins.

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7.12 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
These are infections that are transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person during
sexual intercourse. They include the following:

a) Gonorrhoea
Is a disease of the genital organs caused by a gonococcus bacteria called Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
It infects the urethra in males and the vaginal tract in females.
Mode of transmission
 Through sexual intercourse, ie direct sexual contact with the mucus membranes and
secretions of urethra, cervix, vagina and anus of an infected person.
 Infected mother to child during birth. If the mother’s vaginal secretions come into contact
with the baby’s eyes it may cause severe conjunctivitis and even blindness.
Incubation period
It takes 2-14 days.
After this period, symptoms manifest in form of itching of the urethra, a yellowish discharge and
pain when urinating in males.
Signs and symptoms
 Vaginal discharge with a bad oduor
 Penis becomes sore at the tip.
 Urination becomes difficult and painful
 If untreated, the infection may spread to the rest of the reproductive organs, blocking the
passages and eventually resulting in infertility.
 May also affect the spinal cord and bladder
Control
 If one of the partners is infected then both must be treated.
 Public education on the dangers of indiscriminate sexual contacts
 Regular screening and treatment of infected people
Treatment
 Administration of antibiotics eg Penicillin which are effective in curing gonorrhea,
especially at the early stages of infection, it can be treated completely
Prevention
 Avoiding indiscriminate sexual behavior
 Being faithful to ones married partner
 Abstaining from sexual intercourse, especially if infected
 Using condoms to reduce infection

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7.12.1 Syphilis
This is an acute disease which affects the genital organs of both males and females.
It is caused by a spiral shaped bacterium called Treponema pallidum
Mode of transmission
 Unprotected Sexual intercourse with an infected person
 Blood transfusion of infected blood
 Infants may contract it during birth/ through the placenta if the mother is infected and has
not been treated before the seventh month of pregnancy.
Incubation period is from 7-90 days but more often, 3 weeks.
Signs and symptoms
These follow three major stages
1. Primary stage
 Painless sores/ulcers (chancre) resembling blisters at the penis or urethra, cervix in the
female.
2. Secondary stage
 Infectious white mucus patches appear in the lining of the mouth, nose and rectum
 Macules (discoloured spots) and papules (solid pimple- like lesions) may appear on
hands, feet, oral cavity, lips and genital areas.
 Fever, body pain and hair loss.
3. Tertiary stage
 Is the last stage of infection and can be fatal
 Brain and spinal cord may get affected causing insanity, paralysis and blindness
 The heart and major blood vessels may also be affected leading to death
Control
 Avoid indiscriminate sex
 Use of condoms
 Encouraging positive behavioural change
Treatment
Administration of antibiotics such as penicillin, erythromycin, or tetracycline. The disease is
curable especially if it is detected early and treatment started when the infection is at primary
stage. Re-examination should be done after every 6 months to a year to ensure infection is
cleared.
Prevention
 Avoid indiscriminate sexual behavior
 Abstinence from sex before marriage
 Faithfulness to one’s married partner

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  Infected persons should abstain from sexual intercourse to avoid infecting their partners

7.12.2 Trichomoniasis
Is caused by the protozoan, Trichomonas vaginalis which infects the vagina and urethra in
females. The parasite thrives well in a less acidic vaginal canal. In males it infects the urethra.
Mode of transmission
 Sexual intercourse
 Contaminated linen
Sign and symptoms
 Itching of the urethra in males, vaginal itching in females
 Smelly greenish/yellowish vaginal discharge in females
 In males the penis produces a discharge which is not easily noticed
 Heavy lower abdominal discomfort
 Frequent urge to urinate
 Pain during urination or sexual intercourse
Treatment
With antibiotics eg Flagyl
Control
 Avoid indiscriminate sex
 Abstinence from sex if not married
 Being faithful to one married partner
 Avoiding sharing of personal linen
 Using condoms

7.12.3 Candidiasis/Thrush
This is a fungal disease that occurs mainly in females and is called vaginal candidiasis.
Causative agent
Caused by a yeast like fungi called Candida albicans, and Candida vaginalis.
Mode of transmission
 Sexual contact
 Sharing underwear, towels, and bath tubs
Signs and symptoms
 Itching and burning of the genital organs (inflammation of the genital area)
 White odorless discharge from the vagina
 Fluffy white patches on the affected area

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The fungus can exist in the vaginal canal and cause no harm. The problem arises when it’s
population increases due to factors such as change in pH in the vaginal canal, or use of
antibiotics which kill bacteria that keep Candida population in control.
Treatment
 Use of antifungal drugs
Control
 Avoiding use of strongly scented, medicated soap or disinfectants that might alter the pH
medium of the birth canal.
 Wiping oneself from front to back after going to the toilet to prevent Candida from being
transferred from the bowel to the vagina.
 Use of loose cotton underwear to ensure proper aeration of the genital area
 Observing proper hygiene
 Avoiding indiscriminate sexual behaviour
 Avoiding oral sex as Candida can be transferred from the mouth to the genitals
 Avoid frequent use of broad spectrum antibiotics which kill even the good bacteria that
keep the population of Candida under control
Women with diabetes mellitus often get infected by Candiasis as the high concentrations of
glucose provide very good conditions for Candida.
Candida is also an opportunistic infection affecting people with HIV.

7.12.4 Hepatitis B
Causative agent
Is caused by a DNA containing virus
Mode of transmission
 Sexual contact
 Sharing contaminated body piercing instruments
 Blood transfusion
Symptoms
 Nausea
 Severe loss of appetite
 Jaundice
 Flu-like symptoms
 Fever (rare)
The rate of mortality is high for people suffering from hepatitis B and is more common in adults
than in children. The virus is present in body fluids like urine, saliva, semen, milk, and even
placental transmission is possible.

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Incubation period is between 2-6 months
Control
 The best control is using vaccines especially in children because once infected the virus is
difficult to clear by use of antibiotics.
 Observe high standards of personal hygiene
 Avoiding indiscriminate sexual contact

7.12.5 Genital herpes

Causative agent: Herpes simplex virus II (HSV II)
Mode of Transmission:
 Sexual intercourse
 Kissing
 Using contaminated body piercing instruments such as needles and syringes.
Signs and symptoms
Incubation period is 4 to 5 days
 Tingling or itching sensation in the genital or anal area.
 Flu-like symptoms such as headache., fever and backache
 Blisters on or around the genital area, which heal within a week or 2. In males the
painless blisters are found on the head of the penis
 Pain or burning sensation when passing urine
Treatment
There are a number of drugs that can be used to ease the pain and even ward off further attacks.
However there is no specific cure for the disease.
Control
 Avoiding indiscriminate sex
 Abstinence
 Being faithful to one married partner
 Avoid use of contaminated needles and syringes.

7.12.6 HIV/AIDS
HIV stands for Human immunodeficiency virus. It causes a serious condition known as
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
HIV is found in body fluids, such as blood, semen and vaginal fluids of infected people.
Mode of transmission
 Through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
 Blood transfusion or organ transplant from an infected donor

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  Infected mother to her child during birth or during breastfeeding
 Sharing of body piercing or cutting instruments such as surgical blades or needles and
syringes with an infected person
Once HIV enters the body, it multiplies in the lymph nodes and begins to destroy a type of white
blood cells known as T-helper cells or CD4 lymphocytes, which coordinate the immune system
of the body. This lowers the immunity of the body making it susceptible to other infections. This
leads to a condition known as AIDS.
Symptoms of HIV infection
After infection with HIV, a person typically goes through different stages each with different
symptoms.
Stage 1: Primary or window stage
This stage starts about 9 days after the day of infection and lasts up to 6 months. During this
stage, the infected person shows several symptoms which include:
 Fever
 Sore throat
 Body rush
An HIV test at this stage usually comes out negative, however the infected person can still pas
the virus to another person.
Stage II: Asymptomatic stage
This stage can last from six months to ten years after infection. During this stage the infected
person show no major symptoms though the lymph nodes might be swollen. An HIV test done
during this stage comes out positive.
Stage III: Symptomatic stage
At this stage, there is severe damage to the immune system. This is the stage where symptoms
start appearing. The symptoms include:
 Severe loss of weight
 Persistent fever
 Development of painless, flat lumps on the skin or in the mouth
 A cough that lasts more than a month
 Diarrhoea that goes on for more than a month
 Oral thrush
 Development of itchy rushes on the skin
 Swollen lymph nodes, especially in the neck and armpits
 Shortness of breath that lasts several weeks
Stage IV: Full blown AIDS

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At this stage the infected person’s body is now susceptible to other infections since the immune
system has been destroyed by the virus. The CD-4 cell count in the blood is very low. Such
infections that affect the patient due to lowered immunity are called opportunistic infections.
They include pneumonia, tuberculosis and intestinal, brain, eye infections and skin diseases.
Prevention and control of HIV/AIDS
 Abstaining from sex until marriage
 Being faithful to one’s spouse or partner
 Practicing safe sex using condoms
 Using sterilized syringes and surgical instruments
 Not sharing needles, blades and other body cutting or piercing instruments
 Screening blood before transfusion
 Wearing disposable gloves when handling body fluids such as blood
 Going for voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) to determine one’s HIV status
 Those infected should eat a balanced diet, exercise regularly and use antiretroviral drugs
to reduce the effect of HIV in the body.
 Sex education on the socio-economic effects of HIV/AIDS
 Public interventions to curb the spread of HIV e.g. by providing meaningful engagements
like public discussions and creating support groups for people living with HIV/AIDS
 Encourage people to know their HIV status, esp by going for voluntary counselling and
testing.
 Use of antiretrovirals during pregnancy and after birth to reduce mother to child
transmission.
 Enforce laws that make it an offense to spread HIV intentionally
 Public education on the risk of contracting HIV through surgical and body piercing
instruments
 Promote male circumcision to reduce the risk of contracting HIV

7.13 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION
Advantages of asexual reproduction
 Offspring are identical to parents, therefore they inherit all their good qualities. It is
possible to obtain several generations of a particular organism with certain desired
qualities.
 Early maturity, organisms produced asexually mature faster
 Does not require two parents ie a male and a female, this is an advantage as two parents
may not always be present
 Does not depend on processes such as pollination and dispersal of fruits and seeds which
occur only by intervention of external agents
 In most cases offspring are able to obtain nourishment from their parents hence able to
survive temporarily under unsuitable conditions

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  In plants it does not result in indiscriminate and widespread distribution of the plants
through seed dispersal hence does not result in wastage of offspring.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
 Since offspring are identical to parents, they also inherit the poor qualities
 There is no variation, hence offspring do not adapt well to changing environmental
conditions
 Since many offspring are produced within a short time, this may result in overcrowding
hence competition.
 Asexual reproduction gradually reduces the vigour and strength of succeeding
generations.
Advantages of sexual reproduction
 It results in variation in organisms, due to fusion of gametes from 2 different parents,
hence mixing of genetic material. Variation enables organisms to adapt better to changing
environmental conditions.
 Variation in organisms provides basis for evolution
 Offspring that are produced Sexually often, though not always, show hybrid vigour.
 Dispersal of fruits and seeds reduces overcrowding and competition in plant species
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction
 It is dependent on fusion of gametes from 2 different parents, this may fail if only one
parent is available eg if organisms are isolated.(Requires two parents who may not
always be available)
 Reproduction process takes a longer time. For example in plants there has to be
pollination, then fertilization, then seed and fruit formation, then dispersal of fruits and
seeds.
 May produce organisms showing undesirable qualities.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth- it is the quantitative permanent increase in body size. For growth to take place
the following aspects must occur;
1. Cell division by mitosis which results to the increase in the number of cells(cell
multiplication).
2. Cell expansion- leads to enlargement, increase in volume and size of organism.
3. Assimilation of nutrient hence enlarge.
Development- it is the qualitative aspect of growth which involves differentiation of cells in
order to form specialized cells, tissues and organs to perform specific functions.

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Development is assessed in terms of increase in complexity of the organism e.g development
of leaves, flowers and roots, as it is not possible to measure actual aspects of development
quantitatively.
Development involves:
 Cell division
 Cell differentiation
 Cell organisation

Mammals begin life as a single cell: The zygote formed after sexual reproduction. The
zygote then divides rapidly i.e. to 2, 4, 8, 16 etc till it forms a mass of cells called morula.
These first cell divisions are called cleavages.
The morula then develops a hollow fluid filled part, resulting into a structure called blastula
(blastocyst). Later the blastocyst cells differentiate into an inner layer (endoderm) and outer
layer (ectoderm).

This 2 layered structure then implants itself into the uterine endometrium and is now
called an embryo. As the embryo grows and develops, changes occur in cell size and
number (growth) and cell types (development). These processes lead to morphological
and physiological changes in the developing young organism resulting into an adult that
is more complex and efficient.
Note: In the early stages, all the cells of the embryo are similar, but later cells are
differentiated and modified resulting in formation of specialized cells and tissues that
perform different functions. Tissues then form organs and organs form organ systems.
This constitutes development.
In animals, growth takes place all over the body but the rates differ in the various parts of the
body and at different times.
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 In plants, the growth mostly takes place at the root tip just behind the root cap and stem apex.
This is referred to as apical growth which leads to the lengthening of the plant/ or
increase in height.
Plants also grow sideways and this leads to an increase in width (girth) by the activity of
cambium cells. This increase in girth is termed as secondary growth.
o MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH
Growth in organisms can be estimated by measuring some aspects of growth of the
organism such as height, weight, volume, or length over a specific period of time at
regular intervals. Measurements obtained in this manner eg of height or mass, if plotted
against time results in a growth curve. The pattern of growth in most living organisms is
similar. For most organisms including seedlings, when measurements are plotted against
time they give an S- shaped curve called a sigmoid curve e.g.

 This pattern is due to the fact that growth tends to be slow at first and then speeds up and
finally slows down as adult size is reached.
 A sigmoid curve may be divided into 4 parts i.e.
a) Lag phase (slow growth)
 -This is the initial phase during which little growth occurs. The growth rate is slow due to;
-Number of cells dividing are few.
-The cells have not yet adjusted to the surrounding environmental factors.
b) Exponential phase
 This is the 2nd phase during which growth is rapid. The high growth rate is due to;
-Large number of cells dividing.
-The cells have adjusted to the surrounding
-There is sufficient amount of nutrients, oxygen and other factors are not limiting hence
cells are not competing for resources.
-Rate of cell increase is higher than the rate of cell death.
c) Decelerating phase

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 This is the 3rd phase during which growth slows down. The growth rate is slow due to;
-Few cells still dividing as most cells are fully differentiated.
-Having produced many cells, there is little space to accommodate more.
-Limiting environmental factors (External and (Internal) such as;
 Shortage of oxygen and nutrients due to the high demand by the increased number of cells.
 Accumulation of metabolic waste products inhibits growth.
 Limited acquisition of CO2 as in the case of plants.
d) Plateau (Stationary) phase
 This is the 4th phase which marks the period when there is no further change in the size of the
organism. Growth is nil. This is due to;
-The rate of cell division equals the rate of cell death.
-Nearly all cells and tissues are fully differentiated hence no further increase in the
number of cells. The cells dividing are only to replace those that are old and worn out.
-The organism has matured.
 The nature of the curve during this phase may vary e.g.
 In some cases the curve may continue to increase slightly until the organism dies. e.g. in
monocotyledonous plants, many invertebrates, fish and certain reptiles. This indicates
positive growth.
 In other cases the growth curve flattens out indicating no change in growth.
 In other cases the growth curve may tail off (drop) indicating a period of negative growth
rate e.g. many mammals. This is a sign of physical senescence associated with increasing
age.
NB the sigmoid curve does not apply to some organisms e.g. Arthropods.
Intermittent growth curve
 In insects and other Arthropods, an intermittent/discontinuous growth curve is obtained if
length or volume measurements are plotted against time. The intermittent growth curve in
insects is due to the fact that, they have an exo-skeleton which must be shed for the insect to
grow. This shedding process is known as ecdysis or moulting e.g.

 Cell division continues to take place during inter-moult phase but the expansion of tissues is
limited by the unshed skeleton.
 Growth can be measured by investigating various factors e.g.
Length

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Increase in length denotes growth. The parts of a plant which can be used to measure growth are;
o -Leaves
o -Stems
o -Internodes on stems
Width
Area
Used as measurement of growth of parts of plants such as leaves. Increase in the area of the leaf
lamina can be worked out by tracing the leaf outline on a graph paper. The area of outline is then
calculated. Measurement can be made at intervals over duration of time.
Fresh mass
Dry mass
o It’s used to measure growth of small organisms such as germinating wheat. A
batch of seedlings is weighed and placed in oven at 110° to desiccate the
seedlings. The seedlings are cooled and weighed again. The procedure is repeated
until a constant weight is obtained.
Advantages of using dry mass
Collection of data is easy.
The data collected is an accurate measure of irreversible increase in weight.
Disadvantages of using dry mass
The method involves killing the organisms. And thus has limited usage.
A large number of organisms are used hence the method is wasteful.
Growth and Development in plants
o Structure of the seed
 It consists of the following structures.
o Seed coat
 It is the outer covering which is made up of two layers;
o -Outer testa- it’s thick
o -Tegmen- it’s the inner layer and it’s a transparent membraneous tissue
 The two layers protect the seed from bacteria, fungi and other organisms which may damage
it.
 Hilum- it’s a scar on one part of the seed. This is the point where the seed had been attached
to the seed stalk or funicle.
 Micropyle- it’s a tiny pore that allows water and air into the embryo.
o The embryo
 Its made up of;
-One or two seed leaves/cotyledons
-Plumule (Embryonic shoot) which is covered by a protective sheath called coleoptile
-Radicle (Embryonic root), which is covered and protected by a sheath called coleorhiza.

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 The tip of the radicle is opposite the Micropyle.
 In some seeds the cotyledons are swollen as they contain stored food for the growing
plumule and radicle. Such seeds are called non- endospermic seeds.
 In other cases, the seeds have their food stored in the endosperm and are called endospermic
seeds.
 Seeds with one cotyledon are referred to as monocotyledonous while those with two are
referred to as dicotyledonous.
 Endosperm
Is the part that surrounds the cotyledons. It is more prominent in monocotyledonous seeds such
as cereals eg maize and wheat, in which it is swollen with stored food. Their cotyledon is small
and is called a Scutellum. In dicots, endosperm is very tiny with hardly any food stored in it.
In monocotyledonous endospermic seed, endosperm is surrounded by a special one- cell thick layer,
called aleurone layer. It’s main function is to nourish the embryo enclosed in the seed. It is protein rich
coat formed by the outermost layer of endospermic cells.

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 Seed viability
It is the ability of the seed to survive and develop into a new plant. It is influenced by:
a) Maturity of the embryo: A seed can only survive and develop into a seedling if the
embryo is fully developed
b) Storage conditions: some conditions where seeds fall or are stored may destroy the
cells in the seed, or denature enzymes eg exposure to high temperatures.
c) Storage time: some seeds can maintain viability for a long time eg wheat, up to 15
years, others loss viability if kept for long.
Seeds Dormancy
 Seed dormancy is a state of relative inactivity in the seed during which growth slows down or
stops completely. A seed undergoing dormancy will not germinate even if it is provided with
the necessary conditions.
Importance of dormancy
 Provide the seeds with enough time for dispersal so that they can germinate in a suitable
environment.
 Allows the embryo to sufficiently develop and mature making it more viable.
 May ensure that germination only occurs when conditions are favourable.
 Enables seeds to survive during adverse environmental conditions without depleting their
food reserves.

Factors that cause dormancy

Immature embryo

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 The embryo may have parts which are not well developed e.g. radical or Plumule, in this
case the seed will not germinate even if all the environmental conditions are available.
Presence of germination inhibitors
These are substances which prevent germination e.g. abscisic acid.
Low concentrations of hormones and enzymes
E.g. Gibberellins and enzymes such as diastase, protease and lipase. If absent or in low
concentration, this will reduce the ability of seeds to germinate.
Absence of light: In some seeds, the absence of certain wavelengths of light makes them remain
dormant e.g. in some lettuce plants.
Tough seed coat
Prevents the entrance of water and oxygen into the seed e.g. wattle seeds. Also prevents
radical and plumule from emerging.
Low temperatures
Freezing of seeds during winter lowers the enzymatic activities rendering them dormant.
Ways of breaking dormancy.
In agriculture, dormancy in seeds is broken using the following ways, however, this also
happens naturally in seeds.
1. Storing immature seeds until the embryos are mature to enable them germinate.
2. Exposing the seeds to growth hormones e.g. gibberellins, auxins and cytokinin which
stimulate germination. Concentration of growth hormones also increases naturally in
seeds, as the seed matures.
3. Providing favourable environmental factors such as water, oxygen and suitable
temperature.
4. Exposing seeds to certain wavelengths of light that trigger the production of
hormones e.g. gibberellins leading to breaking of dormancy.
5. Scarification- This is the breaking/weakening of the testa to allow water and oxygen
to enter the seed so that germination can occur. It is often achieved naturally by
saprophytic bacteria and fungi. But can also be done in the following ways
a) Burning or boiling of seeds.
b) Soaking the seed in water to soften the seed coat and dilute germination inhibitors
c) Mechanical breakdown of the seed coat using a sharp hard object.

Seed Germination
It is the process by which the seed develops into a seedling. At the beginning of
germination, water is absorbed into the seed through the micropyle in a process called
imbibition. This causes the seed to swell and seed coat raptures. The absorbed water
activates enzymes and dissolves food. Enzymes hydrolyse or breakdown the stored
food substances in the cotyledons in presence of water. The soluble food substances

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are transported to the plumule and radicle which are undergoing rapid cell division
leading to growth. In the plumule and radicle, food is used for respiration to supply
energy for cell division. Food is also used for formation of cellular material for the
diving cells. The radicle emerges first from the seed through the micropyle and grows
downwards into the soil to form the root system. The plumule then emerges and
grows upwards into a shoot.
The radicle develops root hairs and begins to absorb water and mineral salts for the
plant. The shoot develops foliage leaves and begins to photosynthesize. Cotyledons
wither away as food is exhausted.

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Conditions necessary for germination
The conditions can either be internal or external.
a. External conditions
1. Water
Is needed for the following
 To activate the enzymes
 To provide medium for enzymes to act
 To dilute germination inhibitors
 For hydrolysis of stored food into soluble form.
 To dissolve food materials.
 It’s a medium of transport of dissolved food substances through the various cells to
the growing regions.
 It softens the seed coat which later burst to facilitate the emergence of the radicle.
2. Oxygen
It’s required for oxidation of food to produce energy during respiration. The energy is
used for cell division and growth in the plumule and radicle.
3. Optimum temperature
Cell protoplasms and enzymes work best within the optimum temperature of 30º C. At
higher temperature (above 47º C) the protoplasm is killed and enzymes in the seed are

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denatured.
At very low temperatures the enzymes become inactive.
Rate of germination increases with increase in temperature up to the optimum
temperature. Beyond optimum temperature, rate of germination drops.
b) Internal Conditions
1. Enzymes
The complex insoluble food stored in the seeds is converted into simple soluble
form by the enzymes i.e.
Carbohydrates (starch) are broken down into glucose by the diastase enzyme/amylase
Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by lipase enzyme.
Proteins are broken down into amino acids by protease enzymes.
2. Hormones
They act as growth stimulators e.g. gibberellins, auxins and cytokinins
Hormones also counteract the effect of germination inhibitors.
3. Seed Viability
Only seeds whose embryo is alive and healthy will be able to germinate and grow.
Seeds stored for long periods lose their viability due to depletion of their food
reserves and destruction of their embryos by pests and diseases.
Activity; investigating condition necessary for germination
Materials
Dry cotton wool
4 conical flasks
Bean seeds
Labels (4)
Water
Pyrogallic acid mixed with NaOH
Ignition tube
Procedure
Put some dry cotton wool at the bottom of 4 conical flasks.
In each flask place 5 healthy bean seeds on top of the cotton wool.
Label flasks A, B, C and D.

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Flask A
Moisten the cotton wool by adding water.
Place Pyrogallic acid mixed with NaOH in an ignition tube in the conical flask.
Cork the conical flask to make sure its airtight
Put flask A in a corner of the classroom at room temperature
Flask B-Use dry seeds and dry cotton wool, Place the flask at room temperature at a corner of
the lab.
Flasks C- moisten the cotton wool and keep the flask in a refrigerator.

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Flask D- moisten the cotton wool and keep the flask at room temperature at the corner of the
lab.
Observation
Flask A- No germination due to absence of Oxygen, Pyrogallic acid mixed with NaOH absorbs
Oxygen present in the flask. Flask is airtight so no Oxygen enters into the flask
Flask B- No germination due to absence of water.
Flask C- No germination/ seeds took long time to germinate due to low temperature.
Flask D- Germination occurred due to presence of Oxygen, water and favourable temperature.

Types of germination
a. Epigeal germination
It’s the type of germination in which the cotyledons are pulled above the soil
[Link] germination the radicle grows out through the micropyle then grows downwards
into the soil as a primary root.
The hypocotyl, part between the cotyledon and the radicle, then elongates/grows rapidly
and curves upwards, pushing itself through the soil. It pulls the cotyledons that enclose and
protect the delicate plumule above the soil. The hypocotyl then straightens. The two cotyledons
then turn green (form seed leaves) and start photosynthesizing for the growing seedling.
Cotyledons then spread out exposing the first foliage leaves with the terminal bud between
them. The foliage leaves then expand and start carrying out photosynthesis.
This type of germination occurs mainly in dicotyledonous plants.

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 b. Hypogeal germination
It’s the type of germination in which the cotyledons remain underground. Occurs
mainly in monocotyledonous plants. In maze, the endosperm provides food to the embryo
which begins to grow. The radicle which is covered by a protective covering called
coleorhiza grows out of the seed.

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 The epicotyl, part of the embryo between the cotyledon and the plumule, then
elongates rapidly and pushes the plumule upwards through the soil. At this time the plumule
is covered by a protective sheath called the coleoptile. Once the plumule emerges, the
coleoptile then opens at the tip to expose the first foliage leaves, which begin to
photosynthesise for the young plant.
The seedling now begins to produce its own food and the endosperm soon shrivels.

Differences between Epigeal and Hypogeal germination

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 Epigeal Hypogeal

Cotyledons are pulled above the soil Cotyledons remain within the soil

Hypocotyl elongates rapidly lifting the Epicotyl elongates rapidly pushing the
cotyledons above the ground plumule vertically through the soil
Cotyledons form seed leaves which Seed leaves are not formed,
photosynthesize for the plant before the photosynthesis begins only when first
first foliage leaves are formed foliage leaves emerge from coleoptile
Plumule is protected by the cotyledons as Plumule is protected by the coleoptiles as
it is pulled out of the soil it pushes through the soil

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH

Growth in plants is restricted to specific regions known as meristems. These
regions of growth have undifferentiated cells known as meristematic cells.
Meristematic cells have the following characteristics:
a) They are small
b) Have dense cytoplasm with many mitochondria
c) Have thin walls
d) Lack vacuoles
e) Undergo rapid mitotic divisions.
Meristematic cells divide by mitosis to give rise to new cells that bring about increase in height,
length and width of the plant. There are 3 main types of meristems in flowering plants; These are
a) Apical meristems- located at the tips of roots and shoots and is responsible for primary
growth
b) Cambium meristems- located in vascular cambium and cork cambium bring about
secondary growth
c) Intercalary meristems-Located at bases of the internodes

Primary growth
It occurs at the tips of roots and shoots and is brought about by the apical meristems
which originate from the embryonic tissues (plumule and radical). Primary growth results

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 in increase in height of the shoot and increase in length of the root.
Regions of growth at shoot tip and root tip.

There are three regions of growth at the root and shoot tip as shown below:

a. Region of cell Division

It’s an area of actively dividing meristematic cells. These cells are found at the tip of the
root and tip of the shoot. Each of the cells divides by mitosis to form 2 cells. One cell
remains meristematic while the other forms part of the cells in the region of cell
elongation.
b. Region of cell elongation
Here cells enlarge/expand as cell walls stretch, due to:
i) Cells assimilate food substances
ii) Cells take in water and form vacuoles and stretch their cell walls resulting in increase
in size.
This expansion contributes to the elongation of the root and shoot.
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 c. Region of cell Differentiation
Cells have enlarged and attained their permanent size.
Have large vacuoles.
Thickened cell walls
Cells undergo modification to form various tissues such as xylem, phloem, and cortex,
for specific functions.
Behind the zone of cell differentiation is the zone of permanent tissues.
NB primary growth results in an increase in the height of shoots and length of roots.
Note: The stem tip is slightly different from the root tip. On either side of the shoot tip,
the apical meristem gives rise to a structure called the leaf primordium. Cells of the leaf
primordium divide mitotically to form the leaves. The leaves(older leaf primordia)
enclose new leaf primordial. The angle between the main stem and the leaf is called axile.
It consists intercalary meristem which divide to form the axillary bud, which develops
into lateral branch or side branch. The region where the leaf is attached to the stem is
called a node and the part between two nodes is called Internode.

d) Activity; To investigate region of growth in a root

Take a germinating pea seed which has produced a radical that is about 1cm in length.
Place the pea on a ruler and make markings on the radicle using ink. The markings
should be 2mm apart and should start from the tip of the radicle.
Draw the seedling showing the 2mm markings
Place the seedling in a beaker with moist cotton wool or water. The seedling is then left
to grow for 24 hours.

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 Measure the intervals between the markings after 24 hours and record your readings.
Draw the root with the markings as it appears after 24 hours next to the diagram you
made in iii above. Join the corresponding markings of the two diagrams using straight
lines.
Observation

The readings show that the first few ink marks especially between the 2nd,3rd, 4th and 5th
marks (region B) show significant increase in lengths. This shows that growth has
occurred just behind the tip of the root, especially at the region of cell elongation.
The section far from the tip labeled A shows no increase in length. This is the Region of
cell differentiation.
Rate of growth=Final length of interval -Initial length of interval(2mm)
Time
Secondary growth
This is the increase in width /girth/ thickness of the stem or root due to the activity of
cambium. In Secondary growth new tissues are formed by vascular cambium which is
located between xylem and phloem, and cork cambium formed just beneath the
epidermis. Secondary growth occurs only in dicotyledonous plants which have cambium
tissue.
In monocotyledonous plants there are no cambium cells in the vascular bundles. The
growth in diameter is due to enlargement of the primary cells.
Secondary growth in dicotyledonous plants begins with the division of the vascular
cambium to produce new cambium cells, known as interfascicular cambium, between the

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vascular bundles. This results in formation of a continuous cambium ring in the stem.
Cambium cells then divide, to the inside to form cells which differentiate to form secondary
xylem, and to the outside to form cells that differentiate to form secondary phloem.
Secondary xylem pushes the primary xylem towards the central core of the stem, while
secondary phloem pushes primary phloem towards the periphery of the stem.
More secondary xylem is formed as compared to secondary phloem. Due to rapid
accumulation of xylem, the cambium and phloem are pushed outwards. Xylem also becomes
highly lignified for support of the stem,
The interfascicular cambium also divides to give rise to secondary parenchyma which is
inserted between the vascular bundles forming medullary rays
As a result of the increase in volume of the secondary tissues, pressure is exerted on the
outer cells of the stems. This results in stretching and rupturing of the epidermis. In order
to replace the protective outer layer of the stem, a new band of cambium cells are formed
in the cortex just beneath the epidermis. These cells are called cork cambium or
phellogen,and originate from the cortical cells. The cork cambium divides to produce
new cells on either side. The cells on the inner side of the cork cambium differentiate into
secondary cortex and those produced on the outer side become cork cells.
Cork cells are closely packed together and have thickened walls. Cork cells then become
covered by a waterproof fatty material known as suberin, which renders the cells
impermeable to water and gasses, causing them to die. Cork cells increase in number and
form the outer bark of the stem which prevents excessive loss of water, infection and
damage by insects.
The corky bark is also resistant to fire and thus acts as an insulatory layer.
At certain parts of the stem, cork cells form a loose mass known as lenticels. The lenticels
make it possible for gaseous exchange to take place freely between the inside and the
outside of the stem. Lenticels also allow transpiration.
In mature trees:
 the pith occupies the inner core at the center of the stem,
 the rest of the wood is formed by xylem,
 cambium occupies the position between the wood and the bark
 secondary phloem forms the inner bark
 suberized cork cells form the outer bark

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Growth layers in secondary xylem
The rate of secondary growth in a stem varies with seasonal changes. During the rainy
season, xylem cells are formed in large numbers. These cells are large, have thin walls
and the wood has a light colour.
In dry season, xylem cells are formed in small numbers. These cells are small, have thick
walls and wood has a dark colour. This results in the development of alternating dark and

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 light coloured layers on the secondary xylem of the stem. These layers are called growth
rings or annual rings.
NB it’s possible to determine the age of a tree by counting the number of annual rings.
Climatic changes of the past years can be inferred from the size of the ring.

Role of growth hormones in plants

Plant hormones are chemicals produced in very small amounts within the plant body and play an
important part in regulating plant growth and development.
Most growth hormones are produced at the tip of a shoot and root, and are then transported to
other parts of the plant. The shoot apex secretes relatively higher concentrations of the hormones
than the root apex. The hormones that control plant growth and development, include the
following:

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Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, abscisic acid, florigens.
Plant hormones
o AUXINS eg Indole Acetic Acid (IAA)
 Are mainly produced at the shoot tip and root tip.
 Exert more influence in plant growth and development when other growth hormones eg
gibberellins are also available.
 Stems or shoots are stimulated by higher concentrations of auxins than roots.
 The best known auxin is Indole Acetic Acid (IAA).

Effects of auxins in plant growth and development

 Promotes cell division and elongation. In presence of other hormones, cell division is
more efficient.
 Influences the tropic responses. These are growth responses in plants to external stimuli
acting from a given direction.
 Stimulate/induce the development of the ovary into a fruit without fertilisation having
taken place, ie they induce parthenocarpy.
 Falling levels of auxins promote the formation of abscission layer, hence induce leaf fall
 Auxins initiate cell division of the cambium and cell differentiation during secondary
growth.
 Auxins in association with cytokinins induce the formation of callus tissues which causes
healing of wounds.
 They also stimulate the growth of adventitious roots from stems. Cuttings develop roots
faster if dipped in a solution of IAA.
 Induce apical dominance by inhibiting growth of lateral buds into side branches.
Apical Dominance
Refers to the inhibition of lateral bud development by the higher concentration of auxins
produced by apical bud or terminal bud. The apical bud produces auxins in higher
concentrations. Such higher concentrations of auxins inhibit the growth of lateral buds into
lateral branches.
Lateral buds near the tip are more suppressed or inhibited by apical dominance than those far
away from the tip, because concentration of auxins is lower further away from the shoot tip.
Removal of apical bud or terminal bud leads to growth of more lateral branches because the
source of auxins has been removed.
This forms the basis of pruning in agriculture to increase the growth of lateral branches, hence
increase yield in plants such as tea and coffee.
Hedges are also pruned to encourage a thick growth of lateral branches for a thicker hedge.

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 A synthetic auxin, 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid(2,4-D), induces distorted growth and
excessive respiration leading to death of some plants hence it can be used as a selective
weed killer for broad leafed weeds, but does not affect cereal crops and grasses.

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 o Gibberellins
 Also a group of plant growth hormones, the most important being gibberellic acid.
Gibberellins are produced in small amounts at various parts of the plant eg chloroplasts,
embryo of the seed and in young leaves. They work in conjunction with auxins but
sometimes work against them.

Effects of gibberellins
 They stimulate elongation of internode in stems, this makes the stem longer or taller.
They are distinguished from auxins by their stimulation of rapid cell division and cell
elongation in dwarf plants. Application of gibberellins to dwarf plants, makes them grow
3 to 4 times tall.
 Promote parthenocarpy. By initiating the formation of IAA in unfertilized ovaries.
 Induce fruit formation after fertilization. Ie induce the growth of ovary into fruit after
fertilization
 Promote breaking of dormancy in buds hence promote formation of lateral/side branches.
 Inhibit the growth of adventitious roots.
 Break seed dormancy by activating enzymes involved in breakdown of food substances.
 Retard formation of abscission layer hence reduce leaf fall
 Stimulate flowering in some plants
 Affect leaf expansion.


o Cytokinins /Kinetin
Work with auxins to promote plant growth.

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 Functions
 It breaks seed dormancy in some species
 Promotes cell division in presence of Auxins.
 Promote cell enlargement in a lateral way hence promote thickening of the stem
 Stimulate formation of callus tissue
 Stimulate the formation of adventitious roots
 Influences flower formation
 Stimulate development of lateral buds in shoots
 In low quantities, they encourage leaf senescence
 In higher concentrations they stimulate cell enlargement in leaves.
o Abscisic acid (ABA)
It’s effects are inhibitory in nature and include:
 Induces dormancy in seeds hence inhibits germination
 Inhibits sprouting of buds from the stem
 Inhibits cell elongation
 Causes the abscission of leaves and fruits(leaf and fruit fall), hence reduce water loss
 High concentrations of ABA cause the stomata to close, hence enables the plant to reduce
water loss.
 ABA also promotes flowering in pineapples.
o Ethylene / Ethene
Produced in plants in gaseous form, from various parts eg at the flower, outer
leaves and fruit covering.
Effects
 Causes flower development
 Stimulates ripening and falling of fruit and leaves. In its absence fruits ripen slowly
 Stimulates formation of abscission layer, leading to fruit and leaf fall
 Stimulates the thickening of stem by stimulating cell division and differentiation at the
cambium
 Inhibits stem elongation.
 Stimulates breaking of seed dormancy

Florigens
Promote flowering
Traumatin
Plant hormone produced in response to injury.
Stimulates the formation of callus tissue leading to wound healing.

Growth and Development in animals

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 In most animals growth occurs throughout their life till they die. This type of growth is
called continuous growth.
 Arthropods e.g. insects show rapid growth immediately after moulting with long periods
when no growth increase occurs. This is called discontinuous growth.
 Insects exhibit 2 types of reproductive processes i.e.
i) -Sexual reproduction –This is where the ova in the female are fertilized by the
spermatozoa from the male. e.g. Moth and butterfly.
ii) -Asexual reproduction- The eggs are usually produced without being fertilized and
are able to hatch and grow into adult insects. This type of asexual reproduction is referred
to as parthenogenesis [Link] black and green aphids.
 Growth and Development in insects
Metamorphosis in insects
The fertilized eggs of most insects hatch into larvae that are very different from the adult
in both structure and behavior.
After a period of growth and development, the larvae suddenly change to adults. This
sudden change in body form is known as metamorphosis. It involves:
i) Increase in size
ii) Cell differentiation and reorganization
iii) Reforming of body parts

There are two types of metamorphosis:

i) Complete metamorphosis
ii) Incomplete metamorphosis
COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
Involves four stages: Egg → Larva → Pupa → Adult /Imago
Eggs hatch to larvae
o Larva stage
 Depending on the insect species a larva is referred to as;
 -Grub-Beetle
 -Maggot- Housefly
 -Caterpillar- Butterfly
 Generally, the larva is very active, it moves a lot, feeds actively and grows rapidly
It sheds its cuticle several times until it reaches full size to become a pupa. During each
moult, the insect sheds the old exoskeleton and a new one forms, but before the new one
hardens the insect takes in air and water to increase its volume. Hence the new
exoskeleton is much larger and gives the insect room to grow.
Each stage between two moults is called an instar. The last moult often takes longer and
the insect changes into a pupa.
Since larva actively feeds, it is often a destructive stage to plants.
Most have chewing and sucking mouth parts.

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 Some larvae eg mosquito larvae is food for fish
o Pupa stage
 It’s a physically inactive stage, since the insect does not move or and does not feed.
 However the insect is physiologically very active due to:
Extensive breakdown and re-organization of body tissues occuring inside the body of the
insect. During this stage the tissues that were in the larva are broken down and
reorganized to form adult structures.
 The insect is surrounded by a case called cocoon or puparium.
 When the process of reorganization is complete, the cocoon opens and the fully
developed adult emerges. In butterflies, the wings are delicate but then they harden,
expand and the insect flies off.
 The pupa stage enables the insect to survive harsh/extreme environmental conditions eg
drought since the insect is non-feeding at this stage and is covered by a cocoon.
o Adult stage
This is the stage of sexual maturity in the insect (reproductive stage). Once the insect
emeges from the cocoon, it starts feeding. The female then mates with the male, and
lays eggs which hatch to larvae.
 Examples –Housefly, Butterfly, Moth, Mosquito.

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
 Development in a housefly
o Egg
 When the egg of a housefly is laid, it measures about 1mm in length.
 Eggs are laid in batches of between 100-150. They hatch into larvae.
o Larva
 They have a worm-like in appearance. They may have chewing or sucking mouth parts
which they use for feeding mainly on decaying matter.
 Housefly larva is referred to as maggot.
 It undergos a number of moults by shedding the exoskeleton.
 After moulting (ecdysis) several times a larva reaches about 1cm in length. This takes
about 5 days.
 Pupa
 It’s enclosed in a pupal case called puparium.
 It does not feed, its externally inactive.
 Takes about 3 days
 Adult /Imago
 After emerging from the pupal case the adult takes about 2 weeks of feeding and growing
to attain sexual maturity i.e. males can mate and females are able to lay eggs.

 Incomplete metamorphosis.
 Egg→ Nymph → Adult

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 Occurs in insects like cockroaches, Locusts, Grasshopper, Dragonfly
 It involves the egg hatching into a nymph which closely resembles the adult in every
form except for size, lack of wings in some and lack of sexual maturity.
Egg stage
Eggs develop inside the egg case
Eggs then hatch into nymphs
Nymph stage
Closely resembles the adult but is small in size.
Also lack certain features such as wings.
In grasshoppers and cockroaches, young nymphs lack wings and reproductive structures.
Later wings start to develop as young buds.
Nymphs are very active, they move around and feed actively. They mould several times
and grow in size. Stages between moulds are called instars. Final moult brings about
changes that makes the last instar an adult. (draw development stages of grasshopper
from the book)

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 Development in a cockroach
 Cockroaches produce eggs enclosed in a case known as ootheca in groups of between 10-
15. Ootheca is made up of chitin and is usually deposited in moist, warm and dark places
e.g. cracks of furniture or crevices in walls. Ootheca measures about 8mm in length.
 The eggs hatch after about 4-6 weeks and wingless nymphs emerge and are said to be in
the 1st instar.
Nymph
 It’s similar to the adult in shape; however, it is white, smaller and has no wings.
 The nymph feed and moults about 10 times with the total nymphal period lasting 16 days
during which the adult features become fully developed.(draw development stages of
cockroach from the book)

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 o

o
o Role of hormones in insect metamorphosis.
 In insects metamorphosis is controlled by hormones which are produced in 3 glands i.e.
 Neuro-secretory cells in the brain ganglia.
 A pair of corpora allata (Corpus allatum) located in the mandibular segment.
 Prothoracic glands in the thorax.
 Neuro-secretory cells in the brain release Ecdysotrophin/ Moulting stimulating hormone
which stimulates the Prothoracic glands to produce moulting hormone /Ecdysone.
 Ecdysone-i) stimulates moulting
ii) Stimulates metamorphosis
 The corpora allata (Corpus allatum) produces juvenile hormone or Neotonin in young
larvae. It inhibits metamorphosis by prolonging the larval stage. I.e it leads to the
formation of larval cuticle therefore moulting does not go beyond the larval stage. When
the larva matures the Corpus allata disintegrate, hence little or no juvenile hormone is
released and metamorphosis occurs.

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