INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF ENGINEERING UNITS AND

DIMENSIONS APPLICABLE TO THE FOOD INDUSTRY

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A physical entity, which can be observed and/or measured, is defined qualitatively by a dimension.

For example, time, length, area, volume, mass, force, temperature, and energy are all considered

dimensions. The quantitative magnitude of a dimension is expressed by a unit; a unit of length

may be measured as a meter, centimeter, or millimeter. Primary dimensions, such as length, time,

temperature, and mass, express a physical entity. Secondary dimensions involve a combination of

primary dimensions (e.g., volume is length cubed; velocity is distance divided by time). Equations

must be dimensionally consistent. Thus, if the dimension of the left-hand side of an equation is

“length,” the dimension of the right-hand side must also be “length”; otherwise, the equation is

incorrect. This is a good method to check the accuracy of equations. In solving numerical

problems, it is also useful to write the units of each dimensional quantity within the equations.

This practice is helpful to avoid mistakes in calculations.

1.2 ENGINEERING UNITS

Physical quantities are measured using a wide variety of unit systems. The most common systems

include the Imperial (English) system; the centimeter, gram, second (cgs) system; and the meter,

kilogram, second (mks) system. However, use of these systems, entailing myriad symbols to

designate units, has often caused considerable confusion. International organizations have

attempted to standardize unit systems, symbols, and their quantities. As a result of international

agreements, the Système International d’Unités, or the SI units, have emerged. The SI units consist

of seven base units, two supplementary units, and a series of derived units
1.2.1 Base Units

The SI system is based on a choice of seven well-defined units, which by convention are regarded

as dimensionally independent. The definitions of these seven base units are as follows:

1. Unit of length (meter): The meter (m) is the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum

of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p10 and 5d5 of the krypton-86

atom.

2. Unit of mass (kilogram): The kilogram (kg) is equal to the mass of the international prototype

of the kilogram. (The international prototype of the kilogram is a particular cylinder of platinum-

iridium alloy, which is preserved in a vault at Sèvres, France, by the International Bureau of

Weights and Measures.)

3. Unit of time (second): The second (s) is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation

corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-

133 atom.

4. Unit of electric current (ampere): The ampere (A) is the constant current that, if maintained in

two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed

1 m apart in vacuum, would produce between those conductors a force equal to 2 3 1027 newton

per meter length.

5. Unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin): The kelvin (K) is the fraction 1/273.16 of the

thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.

6. Unit of amount of substance (mole): The mole (mol) is the amount of substance of a system that

contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon 12.
 7. Unit of luminous intensity (candela): The candela (cd) is the luminous intensity, in the

perpendicular direction, of a surface of 1/600,000 m2 of a blackbody at the temperature of

freezing platinum under a pressure of 101,325 newton/m

Table 1.1 SI Base Units

Measurable attribute of phenomena or matter Name Symbol

Length Meter m

Mass Kilogram kg

Time Second s

Electric current Ampere A

Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K

Amount of substance Mole mol

Luminous intensity Candela cd

1.2.2 Derived Units

Derived units are algebraic combinations of base units expressed by means of multiplication

and division. For simplicity, derived units often carry special names and symbols that may be

used to obtain other derived units. Definitions of some commonly used derived units are as

follows:

1. Newton (N): The newton is the force that gives to a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2.

2. Joule (J): The joule is the work done when due to force of 1 N the point of application is

displaced by a distance of 1 m in the direction of the force.

3. Watt (W): The watt is the power that gives rise to the production of energy at the rate of 1

J/s.
4. Volt (V): The volt is the difference of electric potential between two points of a conducting

wire carrying a constant current of 1 A, when the power dissipated between these points is

equal to 1 W.

5. Ohm (Ω): The ohm is the electric resistance between two points of a conductor when a

constant difference of potential of 1 V, applied between these two points, produces in this

conductor a current of 1 A, when this conductor is not being the source of any electromotive

force.

6. Coulomb (C): The coulomb is the quantity of electricity transported in 1 s by a current of 1

A.

7. Farad (F): The farad is the capacitance of a capacitor, between the plates of which there

appears a difference of potential of 1 V when it is charged by a quantity of electricity equal to

1 C.

8. Henry (H): The henry is the inductance of a closed circuit in which an electromotive force

of 1 V is produced when the electric current in the circuit varies uniformly at a rate of 1 A/s.

9. Weber (Wb): The weber is the magnetic flux that, linking a circuit of one turn, produces in

it an electromotive force of 1 V as it is reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 s.

10. Lumen (lm): The lumen is the luminous flux emitted in a point solid angle of 1 steradian

by a uniform point source having an intensity of 1 cd. Examples of SI-derived units expressed

in terms of base units, SI-derived units with special names, and SI-derived units expressed by

means of special names are given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3, respectively.
 Table 1.2. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed in Terms of Base Units

SI unit
Quantity Name Symbol

Area Square meter m2

Volume Cubic meter m3
Speed, Velocity Meter per second m/s
Acceleration Meter per second squared m/s2
Density/mass density Kilogram per cubic meter Kg/m3
Current density Ampere per square meter A/m2
Magnetic field strength Ampere per meter A/m
Concentration (of amount Mole per cubic meter Mol/m3
of substance)

Specific volume Cubic meter per kilogram M3/kg

Luminance Candela per square meter Cd/m2

Table 1.3 Examples of SI Derived Units with Special Names

Quantity Name Symbol Expression in terms Expression in terms of SI

of other units base units
Frequency Hertz Hz s-1
Force Newton N M kg s-2
Pressure, Stress Pascal Pa N/m2 m-1 kg s-2
Energy, work, Joule J Nm M2 kg s-2
quantity of heat
Power, radiant flux Watt W J/s m2kg s-3
Quantity of electricity, Coulomb C sA
electric charge
Electric potential, Volt V W/A m2kgs-3A-1
potential difference,
electromotive force
Capacitance Farad F C/V m-2kg-1s4A2
Electric resistance Ohm Ω V/A m2kg s-3A-2
Conductance Siemens S A/V m-2kg-1s3A2
0
Celsius temperature Degree C K
Celsius
Luminous flux Lumen Lm cd sr
2
Illuminance Lux Lx Lm/m m-2cd sr
 1.2.3 Supplementary Units

This class of units contains two purely geometric units, which may be regarded either as base

units or as derived units.

1. Unit of plane angle (radian): The radian (rad) is the plane angle between two radii of a circle

that cut off on the circumference an arc equal in length to the radius.

2. Unit of solid angle (steradian): The steradian (sr) is the solid angle that, having its vertex in

the center of a sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of a square with

sides of length equal to the radius of the sphere.

Determine the following unit conversions to SI units:

Example1. A density value of 60 lbm/ft3 to kg/m3

A composite conversion factor for density, 1lbm/ft3= 16.0185kg/m3,

Convert units of each dimension separately, since

1lbm= 0.45359kg

1 ft= 0.3048m
1
( 60lbm/ft3)(0.45359kg/lbm)0.3048 m/ft)3

= 961.1 kg/m3

An alternative solution involves the direct use of the conversion factor for density,

60𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑘𝑔
( )(16.0185 )
𝑓𝑡3 𝑚3
( = 961.1 kg/m3
1𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑓𝑡3)

Classwork

Determine the following unit conversions to SI units:

 (i). An energy value of 1.7x103 Btu to kJ

Note: 1 Btu= 1.055kJ

(ii). A viscosity value of 20 cp to Pa s

Note: 1 cp =10-3 Pa s

(iii). An enthalpy value of 2475 Btu/lbm to kJ/kg

Note: 1 Btu= 1.055kJ

1 lbm= 0.45359kg

1.3 SYSTEM

A system is any region prescribed in space or a finite quantity of matter enclosed by a boundary,

real or imaginary. The boundary of a system can be real, such as the walls of a tank, or it can be

an imaginary surface that encloses the system. Furthermore, the boundary may be stationary or

moveable. The composition of a system is described by the components present inside the system

boundary. Once we choose the boundaries of a system, then everything outside the boundary

becomes the surroundings. The analysis of a given problem is often simplified by how we select

a system and its boundaries; therefore, proper care must be exercised in so doing. A system can be

either open or closed. In a closed system, the boundary of the system is impervious to flow of

mass. In other words, a closed system does not exchange mass with its surroundings. A closed

system may exchange heat and work with its surroundings, which may result in a change in energy,

volume, or other properties of the system, but its mass remains constant. In an open system (also

called a control volume), both heat and mass can flow into or out of a system boundary (also called

control surface). Heat and water flow across the system boundary. Depending on the problem at

hand, the system selected may be as simple as just the wall of a tank, or several parts, such as a

tank, valve, and piping. A system boundary may even enclose an entire food processing plant.
When a system does not exchange mass, heat, or work with its surroundings, it is called an isolated

system. An isolated system has no effect on its surroundings. For example, if we carry out a

chemical reaction in an insulated vessel such that no exchange of heat takes place with the

surroundings, and if its volume remains constant, then we may consider that process to be

occurring in an isolated system. If either in a closed or an open system, no exchange of heat takes

place with the surroundings, it is called an adiabatic system. Although we are unlikely to achieve

perfect insulation, we may be able to approach near adiabatic conditions in certain situations. When

a process occurs at a constant temperature, often with an exchange of heat with the surroundings,

then we have an isothermal system.

Note: that the system boundaries do not have to be rigid; in fact, they can be flexible and expand

or contract during a process. An example of a piston and a cylinder illustrates the moving

boundaries of a system, consider a system boundary that encloses only the gas. The piston and the

cylinder therefore are surrounding the system. The system boundary in this case is flexible. When

the cylinder moves to the right, the system boundary expands; when it moves to the left, it

contracts. This is an example of a closed system, because no transfer of mass (gas) takes place

across the system boundary. As an extension of this example, we can also locate a heater under

the piston; because of heat transfer across the boundary, the gas will expand and the piston will

move to the right.

1.4 STATE OF A SYSTEM

Considering the state of a system, which refers to the equilibrium condition of the system. When

a system is at equilibrium, we can either measure its properties or calculate them to obtain a

complete description of the state of the system. At equilibrium, all properties of a system will have

fixed values. If any property value changes, then the state of the system will change. Consider an
apple with a uniform internal temperature of 100C; it is in thermal equilibrium. Similarly, if the

pressure in an object is the same throughout, it is in mechanical equilibrium. Although the

pressure may vary due to a gravity-induced elevation within the system, this variation in pressure

is often ignored in thermodynamic systems. When we have two phases, such as with solid crystals

in a saturated liquid, and their mass remains constant, we have phase equilibrium. Furthermore,

in situations when the chemical composition of a material remains constant with time, we have

chemical equilibrium. This implies that there is no chemical reaction taking place. For a system

to be considered in equilibrium, we must have all preceding conditions of equilibrium satisfied.

When a system undergoes a change of state, then a process is said to have taken place. The path

of the process may involve many different states. A complete description of a process involves

initial, intermediate, and final states along with any interactions with the surroundings. For

example, when the apple is placed in a 50C environment, it will subsequently attain a final state at

a uniform internal temperature of 50C. The apple in this example went through a cooling process

that caused a change in state. In this case, its temperature was initially uniform at 10 0C but was

changed to a final uniform temperature of 50C.

The previous example of the apple illustrates that we can always describe the state of any system

by its properties. To fix the state of a system, we specify the values of its properties. Properties

are those observable characteristics, such as pressure, temperature, or volume that define the

equilibrium state of a thermo-dynamic system. Properties do not depend on how the state of a

system is attained; they are only functions of the state of a system. Therefore, properties are

independent of the path by which a system reaches a certain state.

We can categorize properties as extensive and intensive.

1.4.1 Extensive Properties

The value of an extensive property depends on the extent or the size of a system. For example,

mass, length, volume, and energy depend on the size of a given system. These properties are

additive; therefore, an extensive property of a system is the sum of respective partial property

values of the system components. We can determine if a property is extensive by simply doubling

the size of the system; if the property value doubles, then it is an extensive property.

1.4.2 Intensive Properties

Intensive properties do not depend on the size of a system. Examples include temperature,

pressure, and density. For a homogeneous system, we can often obtain an intensive property by

dividing two extensive properties. For example, mass divided by volume, both extensive

properties, gives us density, which is an intensive property. There are also specific properties of a

system. Specific properties are expressed per unit mass. Thus, specific volume is volume/mass,

and specific energy is energy/mass.

1.5 DENSITY

Density is defined as mass per unit volume, with dimensions (mass)/ (length)3. The SI unit for

density is kg/m3. Density is an indication of how matter is composed in a body. Materials with

more compact molecular arrangements have higher densities. Density of a given substance may

be divided by density of water at the same temperature to obtain specific gravity. There are three

types of densities for foods: solid density, particle density, and bulk density. The values of these

different types of densities depend on how the pore spaces present in a food material are

considered. If the pore spaces are disregarded, the solid density of most food particles is between

1400-1600 kg/m3, except for high-fat or high-salt foods. Particle density accounts for the presence
of internal pores in the food particles. This density is defined as a ratio of the actual mass of a

particle to its actual volume. Bulk density is defined as the mass of particles occupied by a unit

volume of bed. Typical values of bulk densities for some food materials are given in Table 1.5.

This measurement accounts for the void space between the particles. The void space in food

materials can be described by determining the porosity, which is expressed as the volume not

occupied by the solid material. Thus,

𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Porosity = 1 - …………………………1:1
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

The interparticle porosity may be defined as follows:

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Interparticle porosity = 1- …………………………1:2
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

The solid density of a food can be predicted from the product composition using coefficients

provided and the following expression:

𝑚𝑖
ρ = 1/ ∑( )……………………………1.3
𝑝𝑖

where:

mi = mass fraction of product components

ρi = density of individual product components

Equation (1.3) can be applied for any high moisture food and where overall porosity is zero. The

density values from the expression are a function of temperature based on the expressions for the

individual product components.

Table 1.4 Solid Densities of Major Ingredients of Foods

Ingredients Kg/m3 Ingredient Kg/m3

Glucose 1560 Fat 900-950

Sucrose 1590 Salt 2160

Starch 1500 Citric acid 1540

Cellulose 1270-1610 Water 1000

Table 1.5 Bulk Density of Selected Foods Materials

Material Bulk density (Kg/m3)

Beans, cocoa 1073

Coconut, shredded 320-352

Coffee ground 400

Corn shelled 720

Milk, whole dried 320

1.6 CONCENTRATION

Concentration is a measure of the amount of substance contained in a unit volume. It may be

expressed as weight per unit weight, or weight per unit volume. Normally, concentration is given

in percentage when weight per unit weight measurement is used. Thus, a food containing 20% fat

will contain 20 g of fat in every 100 g of food. Concentration values are also expressed as mass

per unit volume—for example, mass of a solute dissolved in a unit volume of the solution. Another

term used to express concentration is molarity, or molar concentration. Molarity is the

concentration of solution in grams per liter divided by the molecular weight of the solute. To

express these units in a dimensionless form, mole fraction may be used; this is the ratio of the

number of moles of a substance divided by the total number of moles in the system. Thus, for a

solution containing two components, A and B, with number of moles nA and nB, respectively, the

mole fraction of A, XA, is

𝑛𝐴
XA = 𝑛𝐴+𝑛𝐵…………………………….1.4

Concentration is sometimes expressed by molality. The molality of a component A in a solution

is defined as the amount of a component per unit mass of some other component chosen as the

solvent. The SI unit for molality is mole per kilogram. A relationship between molality, M’A, and

mole fraction, XA, for a solution of two components, in which the molecular weight of solvent B

is MB, is

𝑀′𝐴
XA= 𝑀𝐴+1000/𝑀𝐵…………………………………………1.5

Both molality and mole fraction are independent of temperature

1.7 MOISTURE CONTENT

Moisture content expresses the amount of water present in a moist sample. Two bases are widely

used to express moisture content; namely, moisture content wet basis and moisture content dry

basis. Moisture content wet basis (MCwb) is the amount of water per unit mass of moist (or wet)

sample.

Thus

mass of water
, MCwb = …………………….1.6
mass of moist sample
Moisture content dry basis (MCdb) is the amount of water per unit mass of dry solids (bone dry)

present in the sample.

Thus,

mass of water
MCdb = ……………………1.7
mass of dry solids

A relationship between MCwb and MCdb may be developed as follows:

mass of water
MCwb = ………………………………………………..1:8
mass of moist sample

mass of water
MCwb = mass of water+mass of dry solids
……………………….1.9

Divide both numerator and denominator of Equation (1.9) with mass of dry solids:

mass of water/mass of dry solids

MCwb = mass of water/ …………………………..1.10
mass of dry solids +1

MCdb
MCwb = …………………………………………………..1:11
MCdb + 1

This relationship is useful to calculate MCwb when MCdb is known. Similarly, if MCwb is

known, then MCdb may be calculated from the following equation:

MCwb
MCdb = ……………………………………………………………1:12
1 −MCwb

The moisture content values in the preceding equations are expressed in fractions. Note

that moisture content dry basis may have values greater than 100%, since the amount of

water present in a sample may be greater than the amount of dry solids present.

Example: Convert a moisture content of 85% wet basis to moisture content dry basis.

Solution

(i) MCwb = 85%

(ii). In fractional notation, MCwb = 0.85

 (iii). From equation

MCwb
MCdb = 1 −MCwb

0.85
= 1- 1−0.85

=5.67

MCdb = 567%

Classwork

(iv). A bin holds 2000 kg of wet grain containing 500 kg of water. Determine the wet basis

and dry basis moisture contents of the grains.

1.8 TEMPERATURE

Temperature is one of those properties that defies a precise scientific definition. We generally

perceive temperature as a measure of our physiological response to “hotness” or “coldness.”

However, physiological response is subjective, and it does not provide us with an objective

measure. For example, holding a block of steel at 400C gives a much colder sensation than holding

a block of wood also at 400C. An accurate measure of temperature is possible because of the way

the properties of many materials change due to heat or cold.

Furthermore, these changes are both reliable and predictable a necessary prerequisite to accurate

measurement of temperature. A thermometer is a commonly used instrument to measure

temperature; simply, it gives us a numerical measure of the degree of hotness. Typically, in a glass

thermometer, a material such as mercury or alcohol is present inside a glass capillary. This material

expands in response to heat. Its coefficient of expansion is much higher than that of glass. The
movement of this material in the glass capillary on a preselected scale, gives us the measure of

temperature. Other instruments used in measuring temperature include thermocouple resistance

temperature detector, thermistor, and pyrometers. The thermodynamic basis for the thermometer

is the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, first described by R. H. Fowler in 1931. According to this

law, “if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal

equilibrium with each other.” This implies that if the third body is selected as a thermometer, and

the temperature of the two bodies is the same, then the two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with

each other, even when they may not be in contact with each other. The statement of the Zeroth

Law of Thermodynamics appears rather trivial; however, it cannot be deduced from the other two

laws of thermodynamics. The temperature scale according to the SI units is the Celsius scale named

after a Swedish astronomer, Celsius. In the English system of units, we use the Fahrenheit scale,

named after the German instrument maker G. Fahrenheit. Both these scales use two reference

points. The ice point is a temperature of ice and water mixture in equilibrium with saturated air at

one atmospheric pressure. The ice point for the Celsius scale is 00Cand320F in the Fahrenheit scale.

The boiling point, when a mixture of liquid and water vapor are in equilibrium at one atmospheric

pressure, is 1000C in the Celsius scale and 2120F in the Fahrenheit scale. In addition to the

temperature scales, there is a thermodynamic temperature scale that does not depend on the

properties of any material. In SI units, the scale is the Kelvin scale, with a temperature unit of

kelvin (K not 0K, according to convention). On the Kelvin scale, the lowest temperature is 0 K,

although this temperature has not actually been measured. A corresponding scale in English units

is the Rankine scale, with the temperature unit expressed as R. The Kelvin and Celsius scales are

related by the following function:

T(K) =T(0C) + 273.15………………….1.13

In most engineering calculations, the number in this equation is rounded off to 273.

It is also important to recognize that the actual scale division in the Kelvin and Celsius scales is

exactly the same. Therefore, if we are concerned with difference in temperature, then either the

Celsius or Kelvin scales may be used. Thus,

ΔT(K)= ΔT(0C)…………………………….1.14

For example, consider a liquid food whose specific heat value is reported as 3.5 kJ/(kg 0C). The

units of specific heat, kJ/(kg 0C), suggest that 3.5 kJ of heat are required per kilogram of the liquid

food to raise its temperature by 10C. Therefore, whenever we have temperature in the denominator,

we are actually considering a unit difference in temperature, since 10C change in the Celsius scale

is the same as a unit change in the Kelvin scale. Therefore, the specific heat of the given liquid

food may also be reported as 3.5 kJ/(kg K).