Human Performance
The Eye
Rods and Cones
● Rods - they are responsible for vision at low light levels (scotopic
vision). They do not mediate color vision, and have a low spatial
acuity.
Scotopic Vision - uses only rods to see, meaning that objects
are visible, but appear in black and white.
● Cones - they are active at higher light levels (photopic vision),
are capable of color vision and are responsible for high spatial
acuity.
Photopic Vision - uses cones and provides color.
Rods
● The rods on the retina are concentrated in a ring around the cones
● There are virtually no rods at all in the center of the eye
● Because rods are mostly located away from the fovea, they are responsible for
peripheral vision
● This requires a pilot to look off center to see an object at night
● Unable to discern color but are sensitive on low lights
● In the absence of normal light, the process of night vision is placed almost
entirely on the rods
● They detect objects (shapes), particularly those that are moving, but do not give
detail or color-only shades of gray
● Contain rhodopsin, called visual purple, which is especially sensitive to light
● Once fully adapted to darkness the rods are 10,000 times more sensitive to light
● Low acuity
Cones
● The cones on the retina are responsible for all colors, fine detail,
and far away objects
● Cones are most concentrated toward the center of the field of
vision (focal)
● Function in day and night (moonlight)
● Unlike at night, objects can be seen best by looking directly at it
● High acuity
Day Vision
Night Vision
Dark Adaptation
Rods are able to detect images in the dark because they
create a chemical called rhodopsin, also referred to as visual
purple.
● As visual purple is formed, the rods can take up to 30
minutes to fully adapt to the dark.
Note: To keep your eyes adapted to the dark, avoid any
bright light sources such as headlights, landing lights, strobe
lights, or flashlights for 30 minutes before a night flight.
Flicker Vertigo
A light flickering at a frequency of 4 to 20 flashes per
second or it can occur when you are looking through a
slow-moving propeller toward the sun or when the sun is
behind you, reflecting off the propeller.
● It can result in nausea, dizziness, headache, panic,
confusion, and in rare cases — seizures and loss of
consciousness, which could result in a pilot's loss of
control of an aircraft.
Disorientation
A state of temporary confusion resulting from misleading
information being sent to the brain by various sensory organs.
● It is an incorrect mental image of your position, attitude, or
movement in relation to what is actually happening to your
aircraft.
● Awareness of your body's position is a result of input from three
primary sources: vision, the vestibular system located in your
inner ear, and your kinesthetic sense.
Visual Illusions
● Autokinesis
● False Horizon
● Landing Illusion
Autokinesis
If you stare at a single point of light against a dark
background, such as a ground light or bright star, for more
than a few seconds, the light may appear to move.
False Horizon
Landing Illusion
Spatial Disorientation
An incorrect mental image of your position,
attitude or movement in relation to what is actually
happening to your aircraft.
Kinesthetic Sense
It is the term used to describe an awareness
of position obtained from the nerves in your skin,
joints, and muscles.
Vestibular System
Vestibular Illusions
● The Leans
● Coriolis Illusion
● Graveyard Spiral
● Somatogravic Illusion
● Inversion Illusion
● Elevator Illusion
Motion Sickness
Since vestibular disorientation can produce severe and
intense feelings of instability, it often is the cause of motion
sickness.
● Common symptoms of airsickness are general
discomfort, paleness, nausea, dizziness, sweating, and
vomiting.
Respiration
The function of respiration in the human body is to get
oxygen into the body and deliver it to the cells and to take
carbon dioxide from the cells and remove it from the body.
Note: This process is composed of two primary activities:
*External Respiration and Internal Respiration.
Hypoxia
It occurs when the tissues in the body do not receive enough oxygen.
Symptoms of Hypoxia:
● Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips)
● Headache
● Decreased response to stimuli and increased reaction time
● Impaired judgment
● Euphoria
● Visual impairment
● Drowsiness
● Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
● Tingling in fingers and toes
● Numbness
Different types of Hypoxia
● Hypoxic Hypoxia
● Hypemic Hypoxia
● Stagnant Hypoxia
● Histotoxic Hypoxia
Hypoxic Hypoxia
This type of hypoxia is commonly called altitude hypoxia.
Pilots may experience hypoxic hypoxia when flying at altitude in an
unpressurized aircraft.
● With increasing altitude, the molecules of oxygen in ambient air
get farther apart and exert less pressure.
Hypemic Hypoxia
When your blood is not able to carry a sufficient amount of
oxygen to the cells in your body.
● This type of hypoxia is a result of a deficiency in the blood,
rather than a lack of inhaled oxygen and can be caused by a
variety of factors.
For example: Anemia and Carbon Monoxide Poisoning.
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Since it attaches itself to the hemoglobin about 200 times
more easily than does oxygen, carbon monoxide (CO) prevents
the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells.
Blood Donation
Hypemic hypoxia also can be caused by the loss of blood
that occurs during a blood donation. Your blood can take
several weeks to return to normal following a donation.
● Although the effects of the blood loss are slight at ground
level, there are risks when flying during this time.
Stagnant Hypoxia
It is an oxygen deficiency in the body due to the poor
circulation of the blood. Stagnant hypoxia can be the result
of pulling excessive positive G’s.
● Several different situations can lead to stagnant
hypoxia such as shock, the heart failing to pump
blood effectively, or a constricted artery During flight.
Histotoxic Hypoxia
The inability of the cells to effectively use [Link]
oxygen may be inhaled and reach the cell in adequate amounts,
but the cell is unable to accept the oxygen once it is there.
● This impairment of cellular respiration can be caused by
alcohol and other drugs such as narcotics and poisons.
Prevention of Hypoxia
You should not assume that if you learn the early symptoms
of hypoxia that you will be able to take corrective action
whenever they occur.
● Since judgment and rationality can be impaired when you
are suffering from hypoxia, prevention is the best approach.
Pressurization
Pressurization is the maintenance of a cabin altitude lower
than the actual flight altitude by a system which compresses air.
Decompression occurs when the aircraft's pressurization
system is unable to maintain its designed pressure schedule due to
a malfunction in the pressurization system or structural damage to
the aircraft. The primary danger of decompression is hypoxia.
For Example: If your aircraft decompresses above 30,000 feet
MSL, you will become unconscious in a very short time unless
you use supplemental oxygen equipment.
Supplemental Oxygen
As a general rule, consider using supplemental
oxygen when you fly above 10,000 feet MSL during
the day or above 5,000 feet MSL at night.
Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation is rapid or deep breathing which can be
caused by emotional tension, anxiety, or fear. Hyperventilation
can occur while breathing supplemental oxygen.
Treatment:
● Slow Breathing rate
● Talk aloud
● Breathe into a Paper Bag
5 Hazardous Attitudes