Linear Algebra Notes

Linear Algebra: Notes, Exercises and PYQs

Eklavya Raman
er24ms024@[Link]

August 19, 2025

Contents

1 Groups and Vector Spaces 3

1.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Laws of Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Finite Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Selected Exercises from Artin’s Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Selected exercises from Hoffman Kunze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

List of Theorems

1.1 Theorem (Cancellation Law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Theorem (Span of any non-empty subset of a vector space is a subspace) . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Theorem (Dimension Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Theorem (Basis Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2
Chapter 1

Groups and Vector Spaces

1.1 Groups
1.1.1 Laws of Composition

Definition [Link]
Laws of Composition
A law of composition on a set S is a function which combines any two elements of the set and
gives another element of the set. Formally, a law of composition on S is a function -

∗:S×S →S

which takes two elements a, b ∈ S and gives another element c ∈ S such that c = a ∗ b. A law of
composition is a binary operation on the set S and is often denoted by symbols like ∗, +, or ·.

Example [Link] -
In context of linear algebra, consider the set of all n × n matrices over a field F . The law of composition
is matrix multiplication, which takes two matrices A, B ∈ F n×n and gives another matrix C ∈ F n×n
such that C = A ∗ B. We will later see that such a set with certain restrictions forms a group.

Definition [Link]
Monoids
A monoid is a set M with a law of composition ∗ such that:
1. Closure: For all a, b ∈ M , a ∗ b ∈ M .
2. Associativity: For all a, b, c ∈ M , (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).

3. Identity Element: There exists an element e ∈ M such that for all a ∈ M , e∗a = a∗e = a.

Example [Link] -
The set of natural numbers N under addition forms a monoid. The identity element is 0, and the
operation is associative. However, it does not have inverses for all elements, so it is not a group.

Definition [Link]
Groups
A group is a set G with a law of composition ∗ such that the following properties hold:
1. Closure: For all a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b ∈ G.
2. Associativity: For all a, b, c ∈ G, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).

3. Identity Element: There exists an element e ∈ G such that for all a ∈ G, e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a.

3
4 CHAPTER 1. GROUPS AND VECTOR SPACES

4. Inverse Element: For every element a ∈ G, there exists an element b ∈ G such that
a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e.

Example [Link] -
The set of all n × n invertible matrices over a field F , denoted as GL(n, F ), forms a group under matrix
multiplication. The identity element is the identity matrix In , and the inverse of a matrix A is its inverse
A−1 such that A ∗ A−1 = In .

Note [Link]
Note: The set of all n × n matrices does not form a group under matrix multiplication because
not all matrices are invertible. However, the set of invertible matrices does satisfy all the group
properties.

Definition [Link]
Abelian Groups
A group G is called an Abelian group if the law of composition is commutative, i.e., for all a, b ∈ G,
a ∗ b = b ∗ a.

Example [Link] -
The set of all n × n invertible matrices over a field F does not form an Abelian group under matrix
multiplication because matrix multiplication is not commutative in general. However, the set of all n × n
diagonal matrices with non-zero entries forms an Abelian group under matrix multiplication.
Example [Link] -
The set of all integers Z under addition forms an Abelian group. The identity element is 0, and the
inverse of any integer a is −a such that a + (−a) = 0.
Example [Link] -
A vector space over a field F can be viewed as an Abelian group under vector addition. The identity
element is the zero vector, and the inverse of any vector v is −v such that v + (−v) = 0.

Definition [Link]
Rings
A ring is a set R with two binary operations, addition + and multiplication ·, such that:
1. Additive Group: (R, +) is an Abelian group, meaning it satisfies closure, associativity,
commutativity, has an identity element (zero), and every element has an additive inverse.
2. Multiplication: The multiplication operation · is associative and distributes over addition,
i.e., for all a, b, c ∈ R, a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c and (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c.

3. Multiplicative Closure: For all a, b ∈ R, a · b ∈ R.

4. Multiplicative Identity (optional): If there exists an element 1 ∈ R such that for all
a ∈ R, 1 · a = a · 1 = a, then R is called a unital ring.

Example [Link] -
The set of integers Z forms a ring under the usual addition and multiplication. It has an additive
identity (zero) and a multiplicative identity (one). The integers are closed under both operations, and
multiplication distributes over addition.
Example [Link] -
The set of all n × n matrices over a field F forms a ring under matrix addition and multiplication. It
has an additive identity (the zero matrix) and a multiplicative identity (the identity matrix). However,
it is not commutative under multiplication in general.
Example [Link] -
The set of integers modulo n, denoted Z/nZ, forms a ring under addition and multiplication modulo n.
It has an additive identity (the equivalence class of zero) and a multiplicative identity (the equivalence
class of one). The operations are well-defined and satisfy the ring properties.
1.1. GROUPS 5

Definition [Link]
Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations, addition + and multiplication ·, such that:
1. Additive Group: (F, +) is an Abelian group, meaning it satisfies closure, associativity,
commutativity, has an identity element (zero), and every element has an additive inverse.
2. Multiplicative Group: (F \ {0}, ·) is an Abelian group, meaning it satisfies closure,
associativity, commutativity, has an identity element (one), and every non-zero element has
a multiplicative inverse.

3. Distributive Property: Multiplication distributes over addition, i.e., for all a, b, c ∈ F ,

a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c and (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c.

Example [Link] -
The set of rational numbers Q forms a field under the usual addition and multiplication. It has an additive
identity (zero) and a multiplicative identity (one). Every non-zero rational number has a multiplicative
inverse, and the operations are commutative and associative.
Example [Link] -
The set of real numbers R forms a field under the usual addition and multiplication. It has an additive
identity (zero) and a multiplicative identity (one). Every non-zero real number has a multiplicative
inverse, and the operations are commutative and associative.

Definition [Link]
Subgroups
A subset H of a group G is called a subgroup if it is itself a group under the same law of composition
as G. This means that:

1. H is non-empty.
2. For all a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b ∈ H (closure).
3. For all a ∈ H, there exists an inverse b ∈ H such that a ∗ b = e (identity and inverse).

1.1.2 Finite Groups

Definition [Link]
Finite Groups
A group G is called a finite group if it has a finite number of elements. Finite groups have specific
interesting properties, such as:
1. Every subgroup of a finite group is also finite.

2. Elements of a finite group have finite order, meaning for each element a ∈ G, there exists a
positive integer n such that an = e, where e is the identity element.
3. Finite groups can be classified into simple groups, solvable groups, and more.

Example [Link] -
The group of integers modulo n, denoted Z/nZ, is a finite group under addition modulo n. The order of
this group is n, and it has subgroups corresponding to the divisors of n.
Example [Link] -
The group of invertible matrices GL(n, Z/pZ) is a finite group under matrix multiplication.

Theorem 1.1 (Cancellation Law). In a group G, if a, b, c ∈ G and a ∗ b = a ∗ c, then b = c. Similarly,

if b ∗ a = c ∗ a, then b = c.
6 CHAPTER 1. GROUPS AND VECTOR SPACES

Proof. The cancellation law follows from the existence of inverses in a group and the associativity of the
group operation. If a ∗ b = a ∗ c, we can multiply both sides by a−1 (the inverse of a) to get b = c.
Similarly, if b ∗ a = c ∗ a, multiplying both sides by a−1 gives b = c.

1.2 Vector Spaces

We study vector spaces, which are fundamental structures in linear algebra. A vector space is a set of
vectors that can be added together and multiplied by scalars, satisfying certain axioms. We shall look
at subspaces of Rn and Cn , which are the most common examples of vector spaces.

1.2.1 Vector Spaces

Definition [Link]
Vector Space
A vector space over a field F is a set V equipped with two operations: vector addition and scalar
multiplication, satisfying the following axioms:
1. Closure under Addition: For all u, v ∈ V , u + v ∈ V .
2. Associativity of Addition: For all u, v, w ∈ V , (u + v) + w = u + (v + w).
3. Commutativity of Addition: For all u, v ∈ V , u + v = v + u.

4. Existence of Zero Vector: There exists a vector 0 ∈ V such that for all v ∈ V , v +0 = v.
5. Existence of Additive Inverses: For every vector v ∈ V , there exists a vector −v ∈ V
such that v + (−v) = 0.
6. Closure under Scalar Multiplication: For all c ∈ F and v ∈ V , cv ∈ V .

7. Distributive Property: - For all c, d ∈ F and v ∈ V , (c + d)v = cv + dv. - For all c ∈ F

and u, v ∈ V , c(u + v) = cu + cv.
8. Associativity of Scalar Multiplication: - For all c, d ∈ F and v ∈ V , (cd)v = c(dv).

Note [Link]
The zero vector 0 is unique in a vector space, and it serves as the identity element for vector
addition. The additive inverse −v is also unique for each vector v.
Any vector space forms an Abelian group under vector addition, and scalar multiplication is
compatible with the field operations.

Example [Link] -
The set of all n-tuples of real numbers Rn forms a vector space over the field of real numbers R. The
zero vector is the n-tuple of zeros, and scalar multiplication is defined as multiplying each component
by a scalar.
Example [Link] -
The set of all polynomials with real coefficients forms a vector space over R. The zero vector is the zero
polynomial, and scalar multiplication is defined as multiplying the polynomial by a real number.
Example [Link] -
The set of all continuous functions defined on a closed interval [a, b] forms a vector space over R. The
zero vector is the zero function, and scalar multiplication is defined as multiplying the function by a real
number.
Example [Link] -
The set of all n × m matrices with real entries forms a vector space over R. The zero vector is the zero
matrix, and scalar multiplication is defined as multiplying each entry of the matrix by a real number.
1.2. VECTOR SPACES 7

Definition [Link]
Subspace
A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace if it satisfies the following conditions:
1. W is non-empty (contains the zero vector).

2. W is closed under vector addition: For all u, v ∈ W , u + v ∈ W .

3. W is closed under scalar multiplication: For all c ∈ F and v ∈ W , cv ∈ W .

Note [Link]
A subspace of a vector space is itself a vector space under the same operations. The zero vector
of the parent vector space is also the zero vector of the subspace.
Subspaces can be thought of as ”smaller” vector spaces contained within a larger vector space,
although this makes sense only when the larger vector space is non-trivial (i.e., it contains more
than just the zero vector), and the subspace is not the entire vector space.

Example [Link] -
The set of all n-tuples of real numbers Rn is a subspace of the vector space of all functions from R
to R. The zero vector is the n-tuple of zeros, and scalar multiplication is defined as multiplying each
component by a scalar.
Example [Link] -
The set of all continuous functions defined on a closed interval [a, b] is a subspace of the vector space of
all functions from [a, b] to R. The zero vector is the zero function, and scalar multiplication is defined
as multiplying the function by a real number.

Definition [Link]
Span
The span of a subset S of a vector space V , denoted span(S), is the set of all linear combinations
of vectors in S. In other words,
( n )
X
span(S) = ci vi | n ∈ N, vi ∈ S, ci ∈ R .
i=1

Theorem 1.2 (Span of any non-empty subset of a vector space is a subspace). Let V be a vector space
and let S ⊆ V , S ̸= ϕ. Then span(S) is a subspace of V .
Proof. We check all the necesary conditions for span of a non-empty subset S of a vector space V to be
a subspace:
1. Non-Empty - Since S is a non-empty subset, span(S) is also non-empty by the definition of span.
2. Closure under addition - Let u, v ∈ span(S). Then there exist scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cn and
d1 , d2 , . . . , dm such that:
n
X m
X
u= ci vi and v = d j wj
i=1 j=1

for some vi , wj ∈ S. Then

n
X m
X
u+v = ci vi + dj wj ∈ span(S)
i=1 j=1

by the definition of span.

3. Closure under scalar multiplication - Let c ∈ R and u ∈ span(S). Then there exist scalars
c1 , c2 , . . . , cn such that:
Xn
u= ci vi
i=1
8 CHAPTER 1. GROUPS AND VECTOR SPACES

for some vi ∈ S. Then !

n
X n
X
cu = c ci vi = (cci )vi ∈ span(S)
i=1 i=1

by the definition of span.

Hence, all conditions are satisfied, and we can conclude that the span of any non-empty subset S of a
vector space V is a subspace of V .
Corollary 1.2.1:
Suppose W is a subspace of a vector space V . Then, for any non-empty subset S ⊆ W , we have span(S)
is a subspace of W .
Proof. Follows directly from the fact that W itself is a vector space with S ⊆ W which implies span(S)
is a subspace of W from Theorem 1.2.

Note [Link]
The span of a non-empty subset S of a vector space V is the smallest subspace of V containing
S.

Definition [Link]

Spanning/Generating Set
A subset S of a vector space V is called a spanning/generating set if every vector in V can be
expressed as a linear combination of vectors in S. In other words, the span of S, denoted span(S),
is equal to the entire vector space V .

Example [Link] -
A simple example of a spanning set is the set S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }, where {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } is the standard
basis for Rn . The span of S is the entire space Rn , since any vector in Rn can be expressed as a linear
combination of the basis vectors. We define basis shortly after.

Definition [Link]
Linear Independence
A subset S of a vector space V is called linearly independent if the only linear combination of
vectors in S that equals the zero vector is the trivial combination where all coefficients are zero.
Formally, if {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ⊆ S and

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cn vn = 0

for some scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cn , then it must be the case that c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0.

Example [Link] -
A simple example of a linearly independent set is the set S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }, where {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } is
the standard basis for Rn . The only linear combination of these vectors that equals the zero vector is
the trivial combination where all coefficients are zero. Thus, S is linearly independent.

Definition [Link]
Basis
A subset B of a vector space V is called a basis for V if:
1. B is linearly independent.
2. The span of B is equal to V , i.e., span(B) = V .

Note that we maintain an ordering of the basis elements, which is important when working with
linear operators.
1.3. EXERCISES 9

Definition [Link]
Dimension
The dimension of a vector space V , denoted dim(V ), is the number of vectors in a basis for V .
If V has a finite basis, we say that V is finite-dimensional and its dimension is the cardinality of
the basis set. If no finite basis exists, we say that V is infinite-dimensional.

Theorem 1.3 (Dimension Theorem). Any two bases for a finite-dimensional vector space have the same
number of elements. In other words, the dimension of a finite-dimensional vector space is well-defined.
In other words, cardinality of all basis sets is the same.
Proof. Suppose two bases B1 and B2 of a finite-dimensional vector space V have different cardinalities,
say |B1 | = n and |B2 | = m, where n ̸= m. Without loss of generality, assume n < m. Then, since B1 is
a basis, it spans V , and we can express any vector in B2 as a linear combination of vectors in B1 .
However, since B2 has more vectors than B1 , at least one vector in B2 must be expressible as a linear
combination of the others in B2 , contradicting the linear independence of B2 . Therefore, we conclude
that |B1 | = |B2 |, and the dimension of V is well-defined.
Theorem 1.4 (Basis Theorem). A subset B of a vector space V is a basis for V if and only if any vector
in V can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of vectors in B.
Proof. Suppose B is a basis for V . Then, by definition, B is linearly independent and spans V . Let
v ∈ V . Since B spans V , we can express v as a linear combination of vectors in B:

v = c1 b1 + c2 b2 + . . . + ck bk

for some scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , ck and b1 , b2 , . . . , bk ∈ B. Since B is linearly independent, the representation

of v as a linear combination of vectors in B must be unique. Formally, assume a vector v can be expressed
as two different linear combinations of vectors in B -

v = c1 b1 + c2 b2 + . . . + ck bk = d1 b1 + d2 b2 + . . . + dk bk

for some scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , ck and d1 , d2 , . . . , dk . Since the basis is linearly independent, we can write -

0 = (c1 − d1 )b1 + (c2 − d2 )b2 + . . . + (ck − dk )bk

=⇒ c1 = d1 , c2 = d2 , . . . , ck = dk
Hence, the representation of v as a linear combination of vectors in B is unique.
Conversely, suppose that any vector in V can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of vectors
in B. Then, B must be linearly independent; otherwise, we could find a nontrivial linear combination of
vectors in B that equals zero, contradicting the uniqueness of representation. Formally, we can write -

0 = c1 b1 + c2 b2 + . . . + ck bk

for some scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , ck . Since the representation is unique, it follows that c1 = c2 = . . . = ck = 0.

Furthermore, since any vector in V can be expressed as a linear combination of vectors in B, it follows
that B spans V . Thus, B is a basis for V .

1.3 Exercises
1.3.1 Selected Exercises from Artin’s Algebra
Groups: Laws of Composition
Exercise 1.1: Let S be a set. Prove that the law of composition ∗ : S × S → S, a ∗ b = a is associative.
For which sets does this law have an identity element?
Proof. To show that the law of composition ∗ : S × S → S defined by a ∗ b = a is associative, we need
to verify that for all a, b, c ∈ S, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c). We compute both sides for arbitrary elements
a, b, c ∈ S:
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ c = a
10 CHAPTER 1. GROUPS AND VECTOR SPACES

and
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ b = a
Since both sides equal a, the law is associative.
Now, for the identity element, we need an element e ∈ S such that for all a ∈ S, e ∗ a = a and a ∗ e = a.
The only candidate for such an identity element is any arbitrary element of S, since e ∗ a = e for all a.
Thus, there is no unique identity element unless S has exactly one element.
Exercise 1.2: Let N be the set of natural numbers. Show that the map defined by f : N → N,
f (n) = n + 1 is a law of composition on N. Show also that it has no right inverse and infinitely many
left inverses.
Proof. The map f : N → N defined by f (n) = n + 1 is a law of composition because it takes any natural
number n and maps it to another natural number n + 1. This operation is well-defined on N, as the
output is always a natural number (can be shown using induction)
To show that f has no right inverse, we assume there exists a function g : N → N such that f (g(n)) = n
for all n ∈ N. This would imply g(n) = n − 1, which is not defined for n = 1. Hence, no right inverse
exists.
For left inverses, consider the function h : N → N defined by h(n) = n − 1 for all n > 1 and h(1) = 1.
This function satisfies h(f (n)) = h(n + 1) = n, thus providing infinitely many left inverses.

Groups and Subgroups

Exercise 1.3: Let S be a set with an associative law of composition ∗ and with an identity element e.
Prove that the subset of consisting of invertible elements of S is a group under the law of composition
∗.
Proof. Let S be a set with an associative law of composition ∗ and an identity element e. We define the
subset H ⊆ S consisting of all invertible elements of S, i.e., elements a ∈ S such that there exists an
element b ∈ S with a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e. We need to show that H is a group under the law of composition ∗.
To show that H is a group, we need to verify the group properties:
1. Closure: Let a, b ∈ H. Since both are invertible, there exist c, d ∈ S such that a ∗ c = c ∗ a = e
and b ∗ d = d ∗ b = e. We need to show that a ∗ b ∈ H. Consider the element d ∗ c. We have:

(a ∗ b) ∗ (d ∗ c) = a ∗ (b ∗ (d ∗ c)) = a ∗ ((b ∗ d) ∗ c) = a ∗ (e ∗ c) = a ∗ c = e

Similarly, we can show that (d ∗ c) ∗ (a ∗ b) = e. Thus, a ∗ b is invertible and belongs to S [since ∗

is a law of composition on S] which implies that a ∗ b ∈ H.
2. Associativity: Since the law of composition on S is associative, it follows that for all a, b, c ∈ H,
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
3. Identity Element: The identity element e is in H since it is invertible with itself as its inverse.
4. Inverse Element: For every element a ∈ H, there exists an inverse element in H, which is defined
by the property of invertibility. Specifically, if a has an inverse b, then both are in H.
Therefore, the subset of invertible elements of S forms a group under the law of composition ∗.
 
a 0
Exercise 1.4: Is the set of of 2 × 2 matrices of the form where a ∈ R a subgroup of GL(2, R)?
0 0
Justify your answer.
 
a 0
Proof. No, the set of matrices of the form where a ∈ R is not a subgroup of GL(2, R). To be a
0 0
subgroup, it must satisfy the group properties under matrix multiplication.
   
a 0 b 0
1. Closure: Let A = and B = be two matrices in the set. Their product is given
0 0 0 0
by:      
a 0 b 0 ab 0
A∗B = ∗ =
0 0 0 0 0 0
Since ab ∈ R, the product A ∗ B is also of the same form and belongs to the set.
1.3. EXERCISES 11

 
1 0
2. Identity Element: The identity element in GL(2, R) is the matrix I = . However, this
0 1
 
a 0
matrix is not of the form , so the identity element is not in the set.
0 0
 
a 0
3. Inverse Element: For a matrix A = to have an inverse in the set, there must exist
  0 0
b 0
a matrix B = such that A ∗ B = I. By properties of the inverses of matrices and
0 0
determinants, we can determine that since the determinant of A is 0 (as the second row and
column are zero), it does not have an inverse in GL(2, R). Therefore, not all elements in the set
have inverses in the set.

Exercise 1.5: Let G be a group with an identity element e. Show that any subgroup H of G is a group
with the same unique identity element e.

Proof. We first prove that the identity element e is unique in the group G. Suppose there are two identity
elements e1 and e2 in G. By the definition of an identity element, we have:

e1 ∗ e2 = e2 (since e1 is an identity)

and similarly,
e2 ∗ e1 = e1 (since e2 is an identity)
Therefore, by the law of cancellation and commutativity of the identity element, we have:

e1 = e2

This shows that the identity element is unique.

Now, since H is a subgroup of G, it inherits the group structure from G. In particular, the identity
element e of G is also the identity element of H. To see this, let h ∈ H. Then we have:

h∗e=h (since e is an identity in G)

and
e∗h=h (since e is an identity in G)
Thus, e acts as the identity element in H as well.
Therefore, any subgroup H of G is a group with the same unique identity element e. [This works
because the identity element is unique in any group and every subgroup inherits the group structure and
must have an identity element for the same group operation.]

Vector Spaces
Exercise 1.6: Prove that the scalar product of a vector with the zero vector is zero, i.e., for any vector
v ∈ V and scalar c ∈ F , c0 = 0.

Proof. Suppose the contrary that there exists a vector v ∈ V, v ̸= 0 and a scalar c ∈ F such that c0 = v.
Then we can write, by distributive properties of scalar multiplication over vector addition -

c0 = c(0 + 0) = c0 + c0 = v

=⇒ 2c0 = v
But we assumed that v = c0, which implies that 2v = v. This is a contradiction if v ̸= 0. Hence
proved.

Exercise 1.7: Prove that if w is an element of a subspace W of a vector space V , then −w is also an
element of W .
12 CHAPTER 1. GROUPS AND VECTOR SPACES

Proof. Let W be a subspace of a vector space V , and let w ∈ W . By the definition of a subspace, W is
closed under scalar multiplication and contains the zero vector. Since w ∈ W , we can consider the scalar
multiplication of w by −1:
−w = (−1)w
Since W is closed under scalar multiplication, it follows that −w ∈ W . Therefore, if w is an element of
a subspace W , then its additive inverse −w is also an element of W .

Exercise 1.8: Prove that the set of all n×n matrices over a field F forms a vector space over F . Further
show which of the following sets are subspaces of this vector space:

1. The set of all symmetric matrices.

2. The set of all invertible matrices.

3. The set of all upper triangular matrices.

Proof. To show that the set of all n × n matrices over a field F , denoted as Mn (F ), forms a vector space
over F , we need to verify the vector space axioms:

1. Closure under Addition: For any two matrices A, B ∈ Mn (F ), their sum A + B is also an n × n
matrix, hence A + B ∈ Mn (F ).

2. Associativity of Addition: Matrix addition is associative, i.e., (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) for

all A, B, C ∈ Mn (F ).

3. Commutativity of Addition: Matrix addition is commutative, i.e., A + B = B + A for all

A, B ∈ Mn (F ).

4. Existence of Zero Vector: The zero matrix 0n×n serves as the additive identity in Mn (F ).

5. Existence of Additive Inverses: For any matrix A ∈ Mn (F ), its additive inverse is given by
−A, which is also an n × n matrix.

6. Closure under Scalar Multiplication: For any scalar α ∈ F and matrix A ∈ Mn (F ), the
product αA is also an n × n matrix.

7. Distributive Property: Scalar multiplication distributes over matrix addition and scalar addi-
tion, by definition.

8. Associativity of Scalar Multiplication: Scalar multiplication is associative with respect to

field multiplication.

Thus, Mn (F ) is a vector space over the field F . Now we check which of the following sets are subspaces
of this vector space:

1. The set of all symmetric matrices: A matrix A is symmetric if AT = A. This set is closed under
addition and scalar multiplication. If A, B are symmetric matrices, then (A + B)T = AT + B T =
A + B, and for any scalar α, (αA)T = αA. The zero matrix is symmetric, and the additive inverse
of a symmetric matrix is also symmetric. Therefore, the set of all symmetric matrices is a subspace
of Mn (F ).

2. The set of all invertible matrices:

 This setis not a subspace
  because it is not closed underaddition.

1 0 −1 0 0 0
For example, the matrices and are both invertible, but their sum is
0 1 0 −1 0 0
not invertible. Therefore, the set of all invertible matrices is not a subspace of Mn (F ). Further
the zero matrix is not included in the set of all invertible matrices.

3. The set of all upper triangular matrices: A matrix is upper triangular if all entries below the main
diagonal are zero. This set is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. If A and B are upper
triangular matrices, then (A + B) is also upper triangular, and for any scalar α, (αA) is also upper
triangular. The zero matrix is upper triangular, and the additive inverse of an upper triangular
matrix is also upper triangular. Therefore, the set of all upper triangular matrices is a subspace of
Mn (F ).
1.3. EXERCISES 13

Hence proved.
Exercise 1.9: Let V be a vector space over an infinite field F . Prove that V is not a union of finitely
many proper subspaces.

Proof. Let us assume the contrapositive statement. Let us assume we can express the vector space V as
the union of finitely many proper subspaces. Let Wi be the ith proper subspace of V we consider. Then,
for some n ∈ N, we can write -
[n
V = Wi
i=1

By the definition of a proper subspace we have that -

∀i, ∃vi ∈ V : vi ∈
/ Wi

Consider the set of all such vectors vi for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. This set is non-empty since for each i, we can
find a vector vi not in the corresponding subspace Wi . Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. Now, since F is an
Sn
infinite field, we can find a linear combination of the vectors in S that is not in the span of the Wi .
i=1
This contradicts the assumption that V is the union of the Wi . Therefore, our initial assumption must
be false, and V cannot be expressed as a union of finitely many proper subspaces.

1.3.2 Selected exercises from Hoffman Kunze

Subspaces
Exercise 1.10: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of a vector space V such that the union of the two is
also a subspace. Prove that one of W1 and W2 is contained in the other.
Proof. Suppose the contrary that neither of them contain the other. That is -

∃v1 ∈ W1 ∧ ∃v2 ∈ W2 : v1 ∈
/ W2 ∧ v2 ∈
/ W1