Linear Algebra

Chapter 1 - Logic, Sets, Maps and Complex Numbers

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD

Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics

Hanoi University of Science and Technology @[Link]

July 5, 2025

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About this course

1) 4 Credit points, 3 hours of lecture and 2 hours of exercise per week

2) Grade = MidtermScore ∗ 0.3 + FinalExam ∗ 0.7, where
MidtermScore = MidtermExam + bonus
max bonus = +2, min bonus = −2

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Overview

1 Logic

2 Sets

3 Maps

4 Algebraic Structures

5 Field of Complex Numbers

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Overview

1 Logic

2 Sets

3 Maps

4 Algebraic Structures

5 Field of Complex Numbers

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Propositions

Definition
Propositions, in logic, are statements that can be labeled as either true or
false, although we may not know which. It is often denoted by A, B, C , ...
or p, q, ...

Note that:
1 Any propositions has two possible truth values: 1 =true or 0 =false.
2 For notation simplicity, the symbol A may stand for the proposition A
or its truth-value, depending on the situation.

Example
1 p=”Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam”, V(p)=1
2 q=”Today is Tuesday”, V(q)=?

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Logical operations

1) Negation A

Example
Let A = ”1 < 2”. Then A = ”1 ≥ 2”.
A A
1 0
0 1
Note: A = 1 − A

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Logical operations

2) Conjunction A ∧ B

Example
A=”Bob likes apples”
B=”Bob likes oranges”
A ∧ B=”Bob likes apples and oranges”
A B A∧B
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
Note: A ∧ B = min{A, B}

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 7 / 61

Logical operations

3) Disjunction A ∨ B

Example
A=”Bob likes apples”
B=”Bob likes oranges”
A ∨ B=”Bob likes apples or oranges”
A B A∨B
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
Note: A ∨ B = max{A, B}

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 8 / 61

Logical operations

4) Implication A → B

Example
A=”Today is a holiday”
B=”The store is closed”
A → B=”If today is a holiday then the store is closed”
A B A→B
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 0
Note: A → B = max{1 − A, B}

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 9 / 61

Logical operations

5) Equality (biconditional) A ↔ B

Example
A=”1 < 2”
B=”1 + x < 2 + x”
A ↔ B=”1 < 2 if and only if 1 + x < 2 + x”
A B A↔B
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

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Properties of Logical operators
1) Double negative law
A⇔A
2) Identity law
A∨0⇔A
A∧1⇔A
3) Annulment law
A∨1⇔1
A∧0⇔0
4) Idempotent law
A∨A⇔A
A∧A⇔A
5) Complement law
A∨A⇔A
A∧A⇔A
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Properties of Logical operators
5) Commutative law
A∨B ⇔B ∨A
A∧B ⇔B ∧A
6) Associative law
A ∨ (B ∨ C ) ⇔ (A ∨ B) ∨ C
A ∧ (B ∧ C ) ⇔ (A ∧ B) ∧ C
7) Distributive law

A ∨ (B ∧ C ) ⇔ (A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ C )

A ∧ (B ∨ C ) ⇔ (A ∧ B) ∨ (A ∧ C )
8) DeMorgan law
A∨B ⇔A∧B
A∧B ⇔A∨B
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Properties of Logical operators

9) Property of the implication operator

A→B ⇔A∨B

10) Property of the equality operator

A ↔ B ⇔ (A → B) ∧ (B → B)

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Tautology and Contradiction

Definition
A tautology is a formula which is ”always true” — that is, it is true for
every assignment of truth values to its simple components.

Definition
The opposite of a tautology is a contradiction, a formula which is ”always
false”. In other words, a contradiction is false for every assignment of
truth values to its simple components.

Definition
Two propositions A and B are logically equivalent, denoted by A ⇔ B, if
they have the same logical content. That mean A ↔ B is a tautology.

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Examples

E1. Prove that the following propositions is a tautology?

a) [A ∧ (A ∨ C )] → C
b) (A → B) ↔ (A ∨ B)
c) [A ∧ (A ∨ B)] → B
E2. Prove that two propositions are logically equivalent? (p → q) ∧ p and
p ∧ q.
E3. Prove that two propositions (p → q) → r and p → (q → r ) are not
logically equivalent?

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Propositions with quantifiers ∀, ∃

1) ”Every element x of the set S satisfies property P(x)”

∀x ∈ S, P(x)

2) ”There exists at least one element x of the set S that satisfies

property P(x)”
∃x ∈ S, P(x)

The negation of propositions containing quantifiers ∀, ∃

∀x ∈ S, P(x) ⇔ ∃x ∈ S, P(x)
∃x ∈ S, P(x) ⇔ ∀x ∈ S, P(x)

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Propositions with quantifiers ∀, ∃

E1. Find the negation the proposition p

a) p = ”∀ϵ > 0, ∃δ > 0 : ∀x, |x − x0 | < δ, |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ϵ”
b) p = ” lim xn = ∞ ⇔ ∀M > 0, ∃N ∈ N : ∀n ≥ N, |xn | > M”
n→+∞
c) p = ” lim xn = L ⇔ ∀ϵ > 0, ∃N ∈ N : ∀n ≥ N, |xn − L| < ϵ”
n→+∞

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Overview

1 Logic

2 Sets

3 Maps

4 Algebraic Structures

5 Field of Complex Numbers

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Concepts of sets

1) A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. The objects that

make up a set (also known as the set’s elements or members) can be
anything: numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so on.
2) Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters.

Example
- A set of students in an university
- A set of Vietnamese football club
- The set of real number, denoted by R

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Basic notations

1) Let E be a set. If a is an element of the set E , then we denote by

a ∈ E . Otherwise, we denote by a ∈ / E.
2) The empty set is a set containing no objects. It is written as pair of
curly braces with nothing inside {} or by using the symbol ∅.
3) There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of a set.
i) The first way is by by intensional definition, using a rule or semantic
description:
1 A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers.
2 B is the set of colors of the French flag.
ii) The second way is by extension, that is, listing each member of the
set.
1 C = {4, 2, 1, 3}
2 D = {blue, white, red}.

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Subset, two equal sets

1) Subset
By logical expression: A ⊂ B ⇔ (∀x, (x ∈ A) → (x ∈ B))
By Venn diagram: Note that ∅ ⊂ A, ∀A
2) Two equal sets
By logical expression: A = B ⇔ A ⊂ B ∧ B ⊂ A
Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 5}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {x ∈ N|0 < x < 5}
Hence, A ⊂ B and A = C

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Operations on sets

Let A, B be two sets.

1 Intersection A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
(
x ∈ A ∩ B ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∈ B
x∈/ A∩B ⇔x ∈ / A or x ∈
/B
By Venn diagram:
2 Union A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
(
x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ B
x∈/ A∪B ⇔x ∈ / A and x ∈
/B
By Venn diagram:

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 22 / 61

Operations on sets

Let A, B be two sets.

1) The difference of two sets A \ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}
(
x ∈ A \ B ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∈ /B
x∈/ A\B ⇔x ∈ / A or x ∈ B
By Venn diagram:
2) The symmetric difference of two sets A △ B = A \ B and B \ A
3) Complement A
If A ⊂ X , then A = X \ A and is called absolute complement of A

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 23 / 61

Operations on sets

Exercise
Let
A = {x ∈ R|x 2 − 4x + 3 ≤ 0}, B = {x ∈ R||x − 1| ≤ 1}
and
C = {x ∈ R|x 2 − 5x + 6 ≤ 0}
Determine
a) (A ∪ B) ∩ C
b) (A ∩ B) ∪ C
c) (A \ B) \ C
d) (A ∩ B) \ C
e) (A ∪ B) \ C

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 24 / 61

Properties of sets

1) Commutative law:
A∪B =B ∪A
A∩B =B ∩A
2) Associative law:
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C )
3) Distributive law:

A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C )

A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C )

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Properties of sets

4) Property of the complement

If A, B ⊂ X , then A \ B = A ∩ B
5) De Moorgan’s law

A ∩ B = A ∪ B, ∩Ai = ∪Ai

A ∪ B = A ∩ B, ∪Ai = ∩Ai

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The Cartesian product

Definition
1 Let A, B be two sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by
A × B, is given by

A × B = {(x, y )|(x ∈ A) and (y ∈ B)}

.
2 Let A1 , A2 . . . An be the sets. The Cartesian product of
A1 , A2 , . . . , An , denoted by A1 × A2 × . . . × An is given by

A1 × A2 × . . . × An = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )|xi ∈ Ai , where i ∈ [n]}

Note that if A1 = A2 = . . . = An = A, then

A1 × A2 × . . . × An = An

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The Cartesian product

Definition
1 two elements of A × B, then
If (a, b), (c, d) be (
a=c
(a, b) = (c, d) ⇔
b=d
2 If (a1 , . . . , an ), (b1 , . . . , bn ) be two elements
 of A1 × A2 × . . . × An ,
a1 = b1

then (a1 , . . . , an ) = (b1 , . . . , bn ) ⇔ . . .

an = bn


Three possible methods to prove set equality

1 Double inclusion
2 By using the properties
3 Membership table

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 28 / 61

The set equality

Four possible methods to prove two sets are equal

1 Double inclusion
2 By using the properties
3 Membership table
4 By using Venn diagram

Examples
Prove that A ∩ (B \ C ) = (A ∩ B) \ (A ∩ C )

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Overview

1 Logic

2 Sets

3 Maps

4 Algebraic Structures

5 Field of Complex Numbers

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Definition

Definition
Let X , Y be two nonempty sets. A map f from domain X to codomain Y
is an assignment of every element x ∈ X to an unique element y ∈ Y . We
denote by
f :X →Y
or
x 7→ y = f (x)

Examples
1 f : R 7→ R; f (x) = sin x, forallx ∈ R
2 f : X 7→ X ; f (x) = x ∀x ∈ X . This is called the identity map on the
set X , denoted by IX

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Image, Preimage

Definition
Let f : X 7→ Y be a map and A ⊂ X , B ⊂ Y .
1) The image

f (A) = {y ∈ Y |y = f (x) and x ∈ A} = {f (x)|x ∈ A}

2) The preimage
f −1 (B) = {x ∈ X |f (x) ∈ B}

x ∈ f −1 (B) ⇔ f (x) ∈ B

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Image, Preimage

Examples
2x + 3
Ex1. Given a map f : R \ {−1} 7→ R, f (x) = . Compute
x +1
a) f ((−1; 0])
b) f −1 ([4; 7])
Ex2. Let f : X 7→ Y .
a) f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B); A, B ⊂ X
b) f −1 (A ∪ B) = f −1 (A) ∪ f −1 (B); A, B ⊂ Y .
Ex3. Let f : R2 7→ R2 , f (x, y ) = (2x, 2y ) and
A = {(x, y ) ∈ R2 |(x − 4)2 + y 2 = 4}. Find f (A), f −1 (A).

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Maps

Injective, Surjective, Bijective maps

Let f : X 7→ Y be a map
1) The map f is called injective
i) ∀x1 , x2 ∈ X if x1 ̸= x2 , then f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ), or
ii) ∀x1 , x2 ∈ X if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 , or
iii) ∀y ∈ Y , the equation y = f (x) has at most one solution
2) The map f is called surjective
i) Y = f (X ), or
ii) ∀y ∈ Y , ∃x ∈ X , y = f (x), or
iii) ∀y ∈ Y , the equation y = f (x) has at least one solution
3) The map f is called bijective
i) if it is both injective and surjective, or
ii) the equation y = f (x) has a unique solution.

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Injective, Surjective, Bijective maps

Examples
Which of the following maps are injective, surjective, bijective?
1 f : R 7→ R, f (x) = 3 − 2x
2 f : (1, +∞) 7→ (−1, +∞), f (x) = x 2 − 2x
3 f : R 7→ R, f (x) = 3x − 2|x|
1
4 f : R \ {0} 7→ R, f (x) =
x

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 35 / 61

Composition of maps

Definition
Let f : X 7→ Y , g : Y 7→ Z be two maps. The map h : X 7→ Z which is
defined by h(x) = g (f (x)), ∀x ∈ X is called the composition of g and f .
We denote by h = g ◦ f .

Examples
x2 + 1
Given two following maps f : R 7→ R, x 7→ f (x) = and g : R 7→ R,
3
x 7→ g (x) = x 3 + 2. Determine g ◦ f and f ◦ g ?

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 36 / 61

Inverse map

Definition
Let f : X 7→ Y be a bijective map. The map f −1 : Y 7→ X such that
f −1 (y ) = x ⇔ f (x) = y is called the inverse map of f .

Properties
1 h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g ) ◦ f
1 f ◦ f −1 = f −1 ◦ f = Id
2 f ◦ Id = Id ◦ f = f
2 (g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1
3 (f −1 )−1 = f

Injectivity, Surjectivity, Bijectivity of the composition of maps

If f and g are injective, then g ◦ f is injective;
If f and g are surjective, then g ◦ f is surjective;
If f and g are bijective, then g ◦ f is bijective.

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Composition of maps, inverse map

Exercises
Let f : X 7→ Y and g : Y 7→ Z be two maps. Prove that
a) if f is surjective and g ◦ f is injective, then g is injective.
b) give an example to show that g ◦ f is injective, but g is not.
c) if g is injective and g ◦ f is surjective, then f is surjective
d) give an example to show that g ◦ f is surjective, but f is not.

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Overview

1 Logic

2 Sets

3 Maps

4 Algebraic Structures

5 Field of Complex Numbers

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Binary operations

Definition
Let G be a set. A binary operation is a map of sets:

∗:G ×G →G

For ease of notation we write ∗(a, b) = a ∗ b ∀a, b ∈ G

When we are talking about a set G , together with a fixed binary operation
∗, we often write (G , ∗)

Example
√
Let B = {a + b 2|a, b ∈ Q}. Determine whether the operations of
addition and multiplication are the binary operation on B.

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Binary operations

Properties of binary operations

Let ∗ be a binary operation on G
1) ∗ is said to be commutative if x ∗ y = y ∗ x ∀x, y ∈ G .
2) ∗ is said to be associative if (x ∗ y ) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z) ∀x, y ∈ G .

Examples
Determine whether the following binary operation ∗ is commutative,
associative?
a) x ∗ y = xy − 2 ∀x, y ∈ R
b) x ∗ y = x y ∀x, y ∈ R+
c) (x1 , x2 ) ∗ (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) ∀(x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) ∈ R2

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Groups

Definition
A group is a set G , together with a binary operation ∗, such that the
following hold:
1) (Associativity): (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G
2) (Existence of identity): ∃e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a ∀a ∈ G
3) (Existence of inverses): Given a ∈ G , ∃b ∈ G such that
a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e. The inverse element is denoted by a′

If (G , ∗) satisfies only (1)), then G is called a semigroup.

Definition
A group (G , ∗) is called Abelian if it also satisfies x ∗ y = y ∗ x ∀x, y ∈ G

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Properties of group

Properties
1) the identity element e is unique
2) the inverse element a′ of a is unique

Examples
Which of the following are groups?
1) (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +), (N, +)
2) (A = {±1}, .), (Q∗ , .), (R∗ , .)

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Rings
Definition
A ring is a set R with two binary operations ∗ and ◦ such that:
1) (R, ∗) is an Abelian group
2) The binary operation ◦ is associative ∀x, y , z ∈ R:

(x ◦ y ) ◦ z = x ◦ (y ◦ z)

3) ∗ and ◦ are related by the distributive law ∀x, y , z ∈ R:

(x ∗ y ) ◦ z = x ◦ z ∗ y ◦ z

x ◦ (y ∗ z) = x ◦ y ∗ x ◦ z

i) The ring is called commutative if the binary operation ◦ is

commutative.
ii) If ring R has the identity for the binary operation ◦, then R is called a
ring with identity.
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Rings

Examples
a) (Z, +, .), (Q, +, .) are commutative rings with identity.
b) (N, +, .) is not a ring.

Exercises
Determine whether the following sets with addition and multiplication are
rings ?
√
i) X = {a + b 2|a, b ∈ Z}
√
ii) X = {a + b 2|a, b ∈ Q}

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 45 / 61

Fields

Definition
Let (F , ∗, ◦) be a ring and e be the identity on ∗. We say that F is a field
if
i) F is a commutative ring with identity 1 on ◦, where 1 ̸= e
ii) ∀a ∈ F , a ̸= e, there always exist the inverse element x −1 such that
x ◦ x −1 = 1

Examples
a) (Q, +, .) is a field.
b) (Z, +, .) is not a field.

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 46 / 61

Fields

Exercises
Determine whether the following sets with addition and multiplication are
fields?
√
i) X = {a + b 2|a, b ∈ Z}
√
ii) X = {a + b 2|a, b ∈ Q}

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Overview

1 Logic

2 Sets

3 Maps

4 Algebraic Structures

5 Field of Complex Numbers

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Introduction

Let C = R × R = {(a; b)|a, b ∈ R} be a set such that:

(
a=c
i) (a; b) = (c; d) ⇔
b=d
ii) Two binary operations + and . on C are defined as follows:
a) (a; b) + (c; d) = (a + c; b + d)
b) (a; b).(c; d) = (ac − bd; ad + bc)

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Field of the complex numbers

Proposition
The set C with two above binary operations + and . is a field. We call it
the field of complex numbers.

Remarks
i) The additive identity is (0; 0).
ii) The multiplicative identity is (1; 0).
−b
iii) The inverse element of (a; b) ̸= (0; 0) is (a; b)−1 = ( a2 +b
a
2 ; a2 +b 2 ).

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 50 / 61

The canonical form of complex numbers

Let i = (0; 1). Hence,

i) z = (a; b) = (a; 0) + (0; b) = (a; 0) + (b; 0)(0; 1) = a + bi
ii) i 2 = (0; 1)(0; 1) = (−1; 0) = −1

Definition
For every complex number z ∈ C, z = a + bi, where a, b ∈ R and i 2 = −1.
Now z = a + bi is called the canonical form of the complex number z.
i) The real number a is called the real part of z and denoted by
a = Re(z).
ii) The real number b is called the imaginary part of z and denoted by
b = Im(z).
iii) i is called the imaginary unit.

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 51 / 61

The canonical form of complex numbers

Operations of complex numbers in the canonical form

i) Addition: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
ii) Subtraction: (a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i
iii) Multiplication: (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i
a+bi (a+bi)(c−di)
iv) Division: c+di = c 2 +d 2
, where c 2 + d 2 ̸= 0

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The conjugate and the modulus of a complex number

Let z = a + bi, where a, b ∈ R, be a complex number

The conjugate of a complex number
The conjugate of z is defined by z = a − bi

The modulus of a complex number

√
The modulus of z is defined by |z| = a2 + b 2

Remark
1) |z| = |z| 4) z = z
2) z + z = 2Re(z) = 2a 5) zz = |z|2
3) z1 = |z|z 2

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 53 / 61

Properties of a complex number

Properties
i) z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 ; z1 z2 = z2 z1
ii) (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ); z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3
iii) z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
iv) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 ; z1 z2 = z1 z2
v) ( zz12 ) = z1
z2
vi) |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |; |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 ||z2 |

Examples
1+2i 1 3
E1) Compute A = 4−3i + 2i − 4
z1 −z2
E2) Given |z1 | = 1 and ∀z2 ̸= z1 . Prove that | 1−z 1 z2
|=1

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 54 / 61

The polar (trigonometric) form of complex numbers

Each complex number z = a + bi can be represented by a point M(a, b) in

the plane Oxy , where Ox is real axis and Oy is imaginary axis.
( −−→
r = |OM|
Let −−→ . Now z = a + bi = r (cos φ + i sin φ), where
φ = (Ox, OM)
√
i) r = |z| = a2 + b 2
ii) φ is called the Argument of z, denoted by Arg(z). Moreover,
cos φ = √ a ; sin φ = √ b
a2 +b 2 a2 +b 2

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 55 / 61

The polar (trigonometric) form of complex numbers

Examples
Determine the polar form of the following complex numbers
√
a) z = 3 + i
√
b) z = − 3 − i
c) z = −2
d) z = 3i

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Operations of complex numbers in the polar form

Operations of complex numbers in the polar form

Let z1 = r1 (cos φ1 + i sin φ1 ), z2 = r2 (cos φ2 + i sin φ2 be two complex
numbers.
i) Multiplication: z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos(φ1 + φ2 ) + i sin(φ1 + φ2 ))
Hence |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |, Arg(z1 z2 )=Arg(z1 ) + Arg(z2 ).
z1 r1
ii) Division: z2 = r2 (cos(φ1 − φ2 ) + i sin(φ1 − φ2 ))
|z1 |
Hence | zz12 | = z1
|z2 | , Arg( z2 )=Arg(z1 )−Arg(z2 ).

Examples
−π −π
Given z1 = 6(cos 5π 5π
12 + i sin 12 ), z2 = 4(cos 6 + i sin 6 ). Compute z1 .z2
z1
and z2

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 57 / 61

Operations of complex numbers in the polar form

Remarks
If z = r (cos φ + i sin φ), then
1 z = r (cos(−φ) + i sin(−φ))
2 z −1 = 1r (cos(−φ) + i sin(−φ))

Exponentiation (Moivre’s formula)

z = r (cos φ + i sin φ) ⇒ z n = r n (cos nφ + i sin nφ)
Clearly, |z n | = |z|n

Example
√
E1) Compute z = ( 3 + i)2019

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 58 / 61

Operations of complex numbers in the polar form

Definition
√
n
n-roots of a complex number z is denoted by z. If
z = r (cos φ + i sin φ) ̸= 0, then
√
n
√
n φ + k2π φ + k2π
z= r (cos + i sin ), k = 0, n − 1
n n
Each non-zero complex number has exactly n different n-roots.

Examples
Compute
E1) 3 8(cos π4 + i sin π4 )
p
√
E2) 3 8
√
E3) 1 + i

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 59 / 61

The field of complex numbers

Examples
E1) Compute the following complex numbers
√
a) (1 + i √3)2019√
b) (2 + i 12)5 ( 3 − i)11
E2) Solve the following equations
a) z 4 − 3iz 2 + 4 = 0
b) z 6 − 7z 3 − 8 = 0
(z+i)4
c) (z−i) 4 = 1

8
√
d) z ( 3 + i) = 1 − i

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 60 / 61

 The End

Trung Dung Nguyen, PhD (FAMI) Linear Algebra July 5, 2025 61 / 61