EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

QUESTION BANK
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT-1-INTRODUCTION
Part - A
1. List out the dynamic characteristics of any measurement system.
2. What are the types of error measurement system?
3. What are the static characteristics important?
4. What is standard? What are the different types of standard?
5. What is the function of manipulation element in a measurement system?
6. What are the primary standards? Where are they used?
7. What is primary sensing element?
8. What is calibration of an instrument?
9. Define the terms precision and sensitivity?
10. Define static error.
11. Distinguish re-productibility and repeatability.
12. Show the block diagram indicating functional elements of measurement system.
13. Distinguish between zero drift and span drift.
14. Define a dynamic response of an instrument.
15. What are the different calibration methodologies?
16. Define limiting errors and instrumental errors.
17. Mention any four static characteristics of measuring instruments.
18. Distinguish between direct and indirect methods of measurements.
19. What is the significance of calibration?
20. What is meant by accuracy and precision of an instrument?
21. List the different types of possible errors in measurements.
22. What is the difference between analog and digital instrument?
23. What are absolute instruments?
24. What is a secondary instrument?
25. How are secondary instruments classified?
26. The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 40 V. However the measurement
given a value of 39 V. Calculate the absolute error.
27. Define limiting errors. Derive the expression for relative limiting error.
28. Define linear time invariant and line time variant systems. Give examples.
29. Define resolution and precision.
30. Define Gross and random errors.
31. Give the international standards of instruments.
32. Define measuring lag and fidelity of dynamic characteristics of instrument.

Part - B

1. Draw the block diagram showing the basic functional elements of an instrument and explain the
functions of each. Draw the static and dynamic characteristics.
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

2. Define limiting errors. Derive the expression for relative limiting errors.
3. Explain in detail calibration techniques and draw the calibration curve in general.
4. Give the methods of using any three standard inputs being used for analyzing the dynamic
response of system with neat sketches.
5. Explain on the static and dynamic characteristics of a measurement system.
6. Describe in detail the different types of dynamic errors in a measurement system.
7. By using a micro meter screw the following readings were taken of a certain physical length.
8. A circuit was tuned for resonance by eight different students and the values of resonant
frequency in kHz were recorded as 532, 548, 543, 535, 531, 543 and 536. Calculate i) Arithmetic
mean ii) Deviation iii) Average deviation iv) Standard deviation.
9. i) How is the statistical analysis of measurement data performed?
ii) For the given data calculate any 3 statistically analyzed values x1=49.7, x2=50.1, x3=50.2, x4
= 49.6, x5 = 49.7.
10. i) Classify and explain the different types of standards and errors of measurements.
ii) Write a suitable illustration elaborates the significance of calibrations.
11. (i) In a test, temperature is measured 100 times with variations in apparatus and procedures.
After applying the corrections, the results are:
Temp 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405
Frequency of 1 3 12 23 37 16 4 2 2
occurrence
Calculate:
1. Arithmetic Mean, [Link] deviation, [Link] deviation.
(ii) By using a micrometer screw, the following readings were taken of a certain length:
1.34,1.38,1.56,1.47,1.42,1.44,1.53,1.48,1.40,1.59 mm. Calculate 1. Arithmetic Mean, [Link]
deviation, [Link] deviation, 4. Variance.

UNIT -II
Part – A
1. State any two applications of CT and PT.
2. State the purpose of shunts in the voltmeter.
3. A basic D’Arsonval movement with a full deflection of 50 µ A and internal resistance of 500
Ω is used as voltmeter. Determine the value of the multiplier resistance needed to measure a
voltage range of 0-10 V.
4. How are basic instruments converted into higher range ammeter?
5. List out the methods used for measurement of iron loss in ferromagnetic materials.
6. What is creeping and how it is prevented?
7. What is the working principle of wattmeter employed in measuring instruments?
8. How are the analog instruments classified on the basis of method used for comparing the
unknown quantity?
9. Give the advantages of moving iron meters.
10. What are different methods of measurement of frequency in the power frequency range?
11. Explain why it is necessary to make the potential coil circuit purely resistive in wattmeters.
12. What are the advantages of digital instruments over analog instruments?
13. How resistors are checked using digital multimeters?
14. What is auto ranging?
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

15. Define resolution of DVM.

16. What are volt-ampere hour and watt-hour?
17. What is the purpose of instrument transformers?
18. What are the various principles of analog type electrical instruments?
19. Give the importance of iron loss measurements.
20. What is the reason for using MI on both A.C and D.C?
21. What is the precaution to be followed while using current transformer?
22. What is transfer instrument?
23. Why the PMMC instrument is not used for a.c measurements?
24. What is the principle of ramp type digital voltmeter?
25. Which torque is absent in energy meter? Why?
26. Explain the purpose of Schmitt trigger in digital frequency meter.
27. What are the essential parts of a ramp type digital voltmeter?
28. Define nominal rate of instrument transformer.
29. Explain the following term as applied to digital displays 3 ½ digit and 4-½ digit display.
30. Explain the principle of digital phase meter.
31. Draw the circuit of a basic DC voltmeter.
32. Discuss in brief about the hysteresis in B-H curve.
33. Write any four types of analog ammeter used for instrumentation.
34. Why PMMC ammeters are the most widely used instrument?
35. An absolute electrometer has a movable circular plate 10 cm in diameter. Determine the
potential difference across the plates if the plates during measurement are 6 mm apart and the
force of attraction is 4 x 10-3 N.

Part – B

1. Derive the torque equation of electrodynamometer type instrument.

2. Explain with neat circuit diagram the working of successive approximation type DVM.
3. Draw the circuit diagram of digital phase meter and explain its working.
4. Give the construction and principle of operation of single phase induction type energy meter.
5. Describe the construction and functioning of mechanical type frequency meter.
6. Explain the functioning of Ferro-dynamic type electrical resonance frequency meter.
7. Describe the construction and working of PMMC instrument. Derive the equation for
deflection if the instruments are spring controlled.
8. Derive the torque equation for an electro dynamometer type of wattmeter.
9. Write briefly with neat figures on (i) Principle of operation of a current transformer (ii) B-H
curve analysis of a magnetic circuit.
10. Explain the working of moving iron instruments.
11. Explain the function of 3 phase energy meter and wattmeter.
12. How the range of d.c. Ammeter and d.c voltmeter can be extended? Derive the expressions to
calculate shunt resistance and multiplier resistance.
13. Draw and explain the circuit diagram of digital frequency meter.
14. Explain the working of a digital multimeter with a schematic block diagram.
15. Explain the construction, working principle of a three-phase wattmeter. What is the
importance of deflecting torque in these analog instruments?
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

16. What are the main considerations in selecting a voltmeter. (8)

17. On what principle a digital frequency meter works? Explain with neat diagrams.
18. Write short notes on i) Current Transformer ii) Weston frequency meter
19. i) Discuss in detail, about the working principle and characteristics of CT with its phasor
diagram.
ii) Write a technical note on the magnetic measurements.
20. i). Describe the basic magnetic measurements using B-H curve.
ii). Explain the operating principle of instrument transformer.

UNIT-3
Part – A
1. List the various detectors used for AC bridges.
2. What is called a volt-ratio box?
3. What is a potentiometer? List it applications?
4. Mention the grounding techniques available in measurements.
5. With a neat circuit diagram, write the balanced equation of Wheatstone bridge.
6. Draw the circuit diagram write the expression for unknown inductance and its resistance of
Anderson bridge.
7. State the advantages of using the bridge circuits for the measurement.
8. What is the sensitivity of Wheat stone bridge?
9. What are the sources of errors in Wheat stone bridge?
10. Give the application and limitations of Wheat stone bridge.
11. Which measurement can be carried out by Maxwell bridge?
12. List the advantages of using standard capacitor in Maxwell bridge.
13. Give the advantage and limitations of Maxwell Bridge.
14. What is Hay’s bridge?
15. Compare Hay’s bridge with Maxwell bridge.
16. What is Wien’s bridge?
17. Give the classification of external interference signals.
18. What is capacitance interference?
19. What is electrostatic shielding?
20. What is inductive interference?
21. State the method of reducing inductive interference.
22. What is electromagnetic interference?
23. State the sources of EM waves, which can cause interference.
24. State the method of reducing ground loop interference.
25. What is the standardization of potentiometer?
26. Write the application of D.C. Potentiometers.
27. Write the application of a.c. potentiometers.
28. How does Hay’s bridge differ from Maxwell’s bridge? What is its uniqueness?
29. Which instrument is used for measuring very high resistances found in cable insulations?
30. What are the sources of Electromagnetic interference?
31. Draw the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a potential transformer.
32. What is meant by grounding?
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Part –B
1. Derive the bridge balance condition for the Maxwell bridge and Schering bridge
2. Explain in detail about the laboratory type DC potentiometer.
3. Describe about the multiple earth and earth loops.
4. Explain the different techniques of grounding.
5. Describe the circuit of Kelvin double bridge used for measurement of low resistance.
6. Explain how the inductance is measured in terms of known capacitance using Maxwell’s
bridge. Derive the condition for balance.
7. Explain the working of Schering bridge.
8. Which bridge is used to measure frequency and explain the measurement procedure?
9. With neat diagram explain in detail about Hay bridge.
10. Explain about the Anderson bridge.
11. i) Explain the theory and working principle of Wheatstone’s bridge. Derive the relation for
finding unknown resistance.
ii) Describe any one method for the measurement of high resistance.
12.i) Explain the comparison method of measurement of inductance by Maxwell’s LC bridge with
its balance equations.
ii) Explain the measurement of frequency by Wien’s bridge.
13. Explain the following:
i) Grounding techniques.
ii) Causes of electromagnetic interferences in measurements.
14. An unbalanced wheatstone bridge is given below. Calculate the current through the
galvanometer.

Where, R1=1 KΩ, R2 = 2.5 KΩ, R3 = 3.5 KΩ, R4 = 10 KΩ, Rg = 300 Ω and E=6 V.
15. Give the construction of a Anderson’s bridge and derive its balance conditions.
16. Draw the coordinate type AC potentiometer and explain its working principle.
17. Explain about (i). Electrostatic and electromagnetic interference.
(ii). Need for Grounding for measuring instruments.

UNIT-4
Part –A

1. What is the principle of operation of an inkjet printer?

2. Compare printers and plotters.
3. What are the techniques used in strip chart recorders?
4. What is LED?
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

5. What is the principle of Dot Matrix display?

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of FM method of magnetic tape recording?
7. What are the different types of amplifiers used for CRO’s?
8. Give the principle of LCD type display device.
9. Draw a neat diagram on X-Y recorder.
10. Write two advantages of LED on electronic displays.
11. What are the advantages of magnetic tape recorder?
12. What is isolation probe?
13. State the features of ink-jet printers.
14. What are the various methods of recording data?
15. In what way line printers are advantages over dot matrix printer?
16. What are the different types of magnetic recording?
17. What are the different materials used on LED?
18. What are data loggers?
19. What are the functions of data loggers?
20. What are the basic components of data loggers?
21. List the advantages of LCD.
22. What is the sweeper in oscilloscope?
23. List the controllers normally found on XY recorder.
24. What is a recorder? How are the classified?
25. Define the deflection sensitivity of CRT.
26. List the main parts of cathode ray tube.
27. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of PDM recording.
28. What is the basic operating principle of digital tape recording?
29. What are the basic components of a tape recorder?
30. What are the advantages of LCD over LED?
31. Distinguish between LED and LCD.
32. Reason out why today’s commercial LED monitor has become more popular than their LCD
counterparts.
33. Write the working principle of a digital plotter.
34. What are the various detectors that are used in a bridge network?
35. What are the various components of a recording instrument?
Part –B
1. Explain the FM method of magnetic tape recording and explain its advantages and
disadvantages.
2. Describe the principle of working and circuit diagram of a digital oscilloscope.
3. With neat figure explain the working principle of a digital CRO. What are its advantages of
analog CRO.
4. Explain in detail how the data stored in magnetic disk and tape.
5. Describe the construction and working of LCD’s , mention the difference between light
scattering and field effect types of LCD’s also explain the advantages of LCDs.
6. Discuss in detail about various types of recorders.
7. Discuss in detail about dot matrix displays.
8. Explain the various methods of magnetic recording.
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

9. Describe the pulse duration modulation (PDM) as used in magnetic tape recording and explain
its merits and demerits.
10. With neat figure explain the construction and working principle of a digital storage
oscilloscope. Compare its advantages over an analog CRO.
11. i) Discuss the working principle of a Magnetic tape recorder.
ii) Explain the construction and functionalities of various components of a CRT display.
12. i) Compare and contrast the construction, working principle and applications of applications
of LED and LCDs.
ii) Write a detailed technical note on Data loggers. Explain how they differ from Data
Acquisition systems.
13. With neat diagram, explain the basic components and working principle of Magnetic tape
recorder. Give examples.
14. Bring out how data loggers measure and record data effortlessly, accurately and quickly
explaining the working of them.
15. Explain the segmental display and dot matrices display for numeric and alpha numeric
displays.
UNIT-5
Part -A
1. What is meant by resolution for Analog Digital Converter?
2. Write the desired properties of thermocouple metals.
3. What are the two ways, which the DAS are used to measure and record analog signals?
4. Define transducer. Give an example.
5. What is the principle of operation of optimal transducers?
6. What is the difference between sensor and transducer?
7. Name some of the active transducers which are used in the measurement of temperature.
8. Define smart sensors.
9. What is telemetry?
10. Mention some advantages of electrical transducers.
11. Mention some basic requirements of a transducer.
12. What are the classifications of transducers?
13. What is primary transducer?
14. What is secondary transducer?
15. What is active transducer? Mention some example.
16. What is passive transducer? Mention some example.
17. What are analog and digital transducers?
18. What is inverse transducer?
19. What are the types of potentiometers?
20. What are the advantages and disadvantages of potentiometers?
21. Define strain gauges.
22. Define gauge factor.
23. Mention types of strain gauge.
24. What is resistance thermometer?
25. What are the advantages and disadvantages of resistance thermometers?
26. What is thermistor? State the advantage and disadvantages.
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

27. What is inductive transducer?

28. Mention some advantages and disadvantages of LVDT.
29. Mention the applications of LVDT.
30. What is the basic principle of capacitive transducer?
31. Mention some advantages and disadvantages of capacitive transducer.
32. What is piezo electric effect?
33. What are the materials used for piezo electric transducer?
34. What are the types of DAS? State the applications also.
35. What are the essential functions of digital DAC?
36. What are the types of ADC?
37. What are the types of DAC?
38. What is smart sensor? Mention some applications.
39. What is known as thermocouple effect and how do you use it in a transducer?
40. When do you call an instrument to be intelligent?
41. What are the factors to be considered for selection of transducer?
42. Mention any 4 types of Analog to Digital converter.
43. What is transducer? What is the difference between sensor and transducer?
44. What are the advantages of successive approximation type ADC?

Part –B
1. How the transducers are classified on the basis of principle of operation?
2. i) What is data acquisition system? With generalized block diagram, explain the functions of it.
(10)
ii) Write short notes on smart sensors. (6)
3. Describe the different modes of operation of piezo electric transducers.
4. Describe in details the successive approximation method of ADC.
5. Describe the different principles of working of capacitive transducers.
6. Explain the construction and principle of working of a LVDT.
7. Explain about the thermistor and thermocouples.
8. Discuss R-2R ladder type DAC.
9. Explain the resistive transducer with respective potentiometer.
10. Explain the principle of operation of piezo electric transducer.
11. Discuss in detail about optical encoder, Resistive encoder and shaft encoder.
12. Explain in detail about ADC and DAC converters.
13. i) Explain in detail, the working principle of piezo electric transducers.
ii) Discuss any one method of D/A converter.
14. i) Describe in detail, the working principle of capacitive microphone.
ii) Write a detailed technical note on smart sensors. Explain also the various built-in features of
them compared to conventional sensors.
15. Explain the classification of transducers and discus about the selection criteria for them.
16. Explain the following: i) Piezoelectric transducers ii) Smart sensors.
17. Explain successive approximation type ADC with its characteristics.
18. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Seeback effect. (ii) Resistance thermometers.

Unit I Introduction
Part A
1. What are the two major methods of measurements?
Direct methods, indirect methods.
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

2. What is meant by an instrument?

Instrument is used as a physical means of determining quantities or variables. The instrument serves as an
extension of human faculties and enables the man to determine the value of unknown quantity or variable
which his unaided human faculties cannot measure. So an instrument in simple case consists of a single
unit which gives an output reading or signal according to the unknown variable applied to it.
3. What is a transfer instrument? May 2007
A transfer type instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c. source and then used without
modification to measure a.c. This requires the transfer type instrument to have same accuracy for both d.c.
and a.c.
4. What are the classifications of instruments?
Absolute instruments, Secondary instruments.
5. Enlist the applications of the measurement systems.
Monitoring of processes and operations: They simply indicate the value of condition of parameter under
study and their reading do not serve any control functions. (ex.) ammeter, voltmeter, water & electrical
energy meters in homes.
Control of processes and operations: A very useful application of instrument is in automatic control
systems. In this method, both measurement and control are included.
Experimental Engineering Analysis: For solution of engineering problems, theoretical and experimental
methods are available.
6. What is a variable conversion element?
The output of primary sensing element is to be converted into some other suitable form while preserving
the information content of the original signal. For example suppose the output of primary sensing element
is in analog form and the next stage of the accepts the input only in digital form and therefore an A/D
converter will have to be used for converting the signals from analog to digital form. This conversion
element is called variable conversion element.
7. What is an interfering input?
Interfering inputs represent quantities to which an instrument or a measurement system are not desired to
respond to interfering inputs but they give an output due to interfering inputs on account of their principle
of working, design and many other factors like the environments in which they are placed.
8. What is data presentation element? Give any two examples for data presentation elements.
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the
instrument or the system for monitoring, control or analysis to the personnel or to the intelligent
measurement system. This function is done by data presentation element.
For indicating: analog and digital indicating instrument (ex) ammeters and voltmeters.
For recording: magnetic tape, high speed camera, TV equipment, storage type CRT, printers, analog and
digital computers and microprocessors.
9. What is data manipulation element?
The data manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the original nature if
the signal.
10. What is a standard in measurement?
A standard in measurements is a physical representation of an unit of measurement. The term standard is
applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical quantity. They are used for the
purpose of obtaining the values of the physical properties of other equipments by comparison methods.
11. What are the classifications of Standards of measurements? May 2007
International Standards, Primary standards, Secondary standards, Working standards
12. What is unit? Classify them.
The result of measurement of a physical quantity must be defined both in kind and magnitude. The
standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is called a unit. They are classified into:
Absolute units, Fundamental and derived units, C.G.S system of units, Practical units, M.K.S system of
units, SI units.
13. Define accuracy in measurements.
It is defined as the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity
being measured. Accuracy means conformity of truth. The accuracy may be specified in terms of
inaccuracy or limits of error and can be expressed in point accuracy or percentage of full scale or
percentage of true value.
14. Define precision. (Dec 2013)
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

It is a measure of reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a
measure of the degree of agreement with in a group of measurements.
15. Define resolution of an instrument.
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) input value, it will again be found that
output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution or
discrimination of the instrument. Thus resolution refers to the smallest measurable input change
16. Define static sensitivity. (Dec 2012, 2013)
It is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal or response to the magnitude of the output signal or the
quantity being measured.

Static sensitivity =
17. Define reproducibility.
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It may be specified in
terms of units for a given period of time.
Define signal to noise ratio.

18. Define dead time.

It is the time required by a measurement system to begin to respond to a change in the measurand.
19. Define dead zone.
It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the instrument.
20. Name two dynamic characteristics of measurement systems.
Speed of response, Measuring lag, Fidelity, Dynamic error
21. Define transfer function.
Transfer function is defined as the ratio of laplace transform output variable to the laplace transform of
input variable with zero initial conditions.
22. Define rise time and peak time.
Rise time: it is the time required for the system to rise from 0 to 100 percent of its final value.

Rise time (for 2nd order system) =

Peak time: it is the time required for the output to reach the peak of time response or peak overshoot.

Peak time (for 2nd Order system) =

23. What is meant by loading effect?
Under practical conditions, it has been found that introduction of any element in a system results invariably
in extraction of energy from the system thereby distorting the original signal. This distortion may take the
form of attenuation, waveform distortion or phase shift. The incapability of the system to faithfully to
measure, record or control the input signal in undistorted form is called Loading effect.
24. How loading effects measuring instruments can be minimized. Give an example.
Loading effects can be minimized by designing the instrument in such a way that it should not extract any
power from the source. Example: When voltmeter is connected across source to measure the voltage drop,
its impedance is high enough to avoid the power extraction. When ammeter connected in series with the
source to measure the current in the circuit, it should be designed in such a way that its impedance is zero.
25. Define static error in measurements.
Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value of the quantity
under measurement. A = Am -At, Where, A - Absolute static error of quantity, At - true value of
quantity, Am - Measured value of quantity.
26. Define measuring lag and fidelity of dynamic characteristics of instruments. (May 2014)
Lag is defined as delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured variable.
Fidelity is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured
quantity with out dynamic error.
27. What is meant by calibration of an instrument?
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Calibration of an instrument is important since it affords the opportunity to check the instrument against a
known standard and subsequently to find errors and accuracy. Calibration procedure involves a
comparison of the particular instrument to be calibrated with either Primary standard or Secondary
standard or an instrument of known accuracy.
28. What is the significance of calibration? (Dec 2013)
It affords an opportunity to check the instrument against a known standard and to find errors and accuracy
etc.
29. Distinguish between span and range of an instrument.
Scale range of an instrument is defined as the difference between the largest and the smallest reading of the
instrument. (Xmax of reading)
Scale span=Xmax - Xmin
30. Define Hysteresis.
Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects when loading and unloading. It is non
coincidence of loading and unloading curves.
31. Give the international standards of instruments. (May 2014)
Defined by International Agreement.
Represent the closest possible accuracy attainable by the current science and technology.
32. Define Gross and Random errors. (May 2015)
Gross Error
❖ cause by human mistakes in reading/using instruments
❖ may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of the instrument and the computational mistakes
❖ cannot be treated mathematically
❖ cannot eliminate but can minimize
❖ Eg: Improper use of an instrument.
❖ This error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording measurement
parameter.
❖ In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditions to some extent when connected into
a complete circuit.
❖ Therefore, several readings (at three readings) must be taken to minimize the effect of ambient
condition changes.
Random error
❖ - due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic error has accounted
❖ - accumulation of small effect, require at high degree of accuracy
❖ - can be avoid by
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best approximation of true value
33. Illustrate the difference between accuracy and precision. (May 2015)
Accuracy is defined as the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the
quantity being measured. Accuracy means conformity of truth. The accuracy may be specified in terms of
inaccuracy or limits of error and can be expressed in point accuracy or percentage of full scale or
percentage of true value.
Precision is a measure of reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement with in a group of measurements.
34. Define limiting [Link] the expression for relative limiting error.( (Dec 2014)
It refers to the largest error in an experiment, causing the greatest inaccuracy in the final measurement.
Alternatively, it might be referring to the uncertainty which remains after all experimental error has been
eliminated
[Link] linear time invariant and linear time variant systems. Give examples ( (Dec 2014)
An LTI (Linear, Time-Invariant) system, in a simplified sense, will exhibit two behaviors:
• Time Invariance - The system must behave the same in any two trials in time if the inputs and starting
conditions are identical.
• Additive Superposition - If you excite a system with input a and get output A, then excite it with b and
get B, then when you excite it with input (a + b), then you should get output (A + B). eg: RLC
circuit
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Any linear system represented with the time-dependent operator O(t) demonstrates different properties at
least at two different time instances. A system of this type is called linear time-varying (LTV) or time-
variant e.g.: Rocket Dynamics

Unit II Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Part A
1. A PMMC instrument has a 0.12T magnetic flux density in its air gaps. The coil dimensions are D =
1.5 cm and L =2.25 cm. Determine the number of coil turns required to give a torque of 4.5 N-
m when the coil current is 100 A.
, N= =
2. What is the electrical current effect used to produce deflecting torque in a PMMC instrument?
When a current (I) carrying conductor of size l and d and N turns, cuts a magnetic field of flux density B
and if the field is radial then the deflecting torque Td = NBldI = GI
3. Compare internal resistance of an ammeter and a voltmeter. Give reason.
The internal resistance of an ammeter is very low and of a voltmeter is very high.
4. What causes errors in moving iron instruments?
Temperature coefficient of spring, self heating of coils in voltmeters, Stray magnetic fields, changes of
reactance of working coils, changes of magnitudes of eddy currents cause errors in moving iron
instruments.
5. State two sources of error in moving iron instrument.
Hysteresis Error, Temperature error, Stray magnetic field, Frequency errors, Eddy currents
6. List the various types of errors in electro dynamometer type instrument
Low torque to weight ratio, Frequency error, Eddy currents, External magnetic fields, Temperature change
7. What is the need for control torque and state the methods to provide it in Analog indicating
instruments?
Control torque is needed to produce a torque equal and opposite to deflecting torque at the final steady
position of pointer in order to make the deflection of the pointer definite. Controlling torque is achieved in
analog instruments by two methods. They are Gravity control, Spring control.
8. State the errors in PMMC instruments.
Weakening of permanent magnets due to aging and temperature effects, Weakening of springs due to
aging and temperature effects, Change of resistance of moving coil with temperature.
9. Compare the merits of attraction and repulsion type MI instruments?
Attraction type Repulsion type

Merits a. Lower value of inductance a. Suitable for economical

b. Accurate over a wider range of frequency and production.
c. Greater possibility of using shunts with ammeters. b. Uniform scale
10. Why electro dynamometer type instrument is called transfer instruments?
A transfer type instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c. source and then used without
modification to measure a.c. This requires the transfer type instrument to have same accuracy for both d.c.
and a.c. which the electrodynamometer instruments have.
11. A 3 500 V motor load has a pf of 0.4. Two Wattmeters connected to measure the input. They
show the input to be 30 kW. Find the reading of each instrument.
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

12. Define creeping in energy meter? (May 2014)

In some energy meters a slow but continuous rotation is obtained even when there is no current flowing
through the current coil and only pressure coil is energized. This is called creeping.
13. What are the causes of creeping in an energy meter?
Over compensation for friction, Excessive voltage across the potential coil, Vibrations, Stray magnetic
fields.
14. How is creep effect in energy meters avoided?
Two diametrically opposite holes are drilled in the disc of the energy meter. When one of the holes comes
under the edge of the pole of the shunt magnet the rotation being limited to a maximum of half a
resolution. In some cases a small piece of iron is attached to the edge of the disc.
15. How is the compensation for inductance of pressure coil realized on low power factor watt
meter?
By connecting a capacitor across a part of series resistance in the pressure coil circuit the compensation for
inductance of pressure coil is realized on low power factor watt meter.
16. List the different types of wattmeter.
Ferro dynamic wattmeter, Electrodynamometer wattmeters, Thermal watt converter.
17. What is ampere-hour and watt-hour? April 2008
Ampere hour: the speed of rotation is proportional to ampere hour in ampere hour meter.
Watt-hour: the speed of rotation is proportional to power in Watt-hour meter.
18. State two adjustments which are possible in induction type energy meter.
Preliminary light load adjustment, Full load unity factor adjustment, Lag adjustment with adjustable
resistance & Lag adjustment with change of position of shading bands, Light load adjustment, Creep
adjustment.
19. How is LPF wattmeter different from UPF wattmeter?
LPF wattmeter has extra features to increase the deflecting current and to reduce the errors introduced
because of inductance of pressure coil. The pressure coil circuit is designed to have low value of resistance
to increase the current and operating torque. LPF wattmeter is designed to have compensation for pressure
coil current, compensation for inductance of pressure coil and small control torque.
20. An energy meter is designed to make 100 revolutions of disc for one unit of energy. Calculate
the number of revolutions made by it when connected to load carrying 40 A at 230V and 0.4
power factor for an hour. (Nov 2004)
Actual energy consumed = V I cos  t = 230 x 40 x 0.4 x 1 = 3.680 kWh
No of revolutions per kWh = 100
No of revolutions for 3.680 kWh = 368.
21. What is phantom loading?
When the current rating of a meter under test is high a test with actual loading arrangements will cause
considerable waste of power. To avoid this phantom loading or fictitious loading is done. In phantom
loading, pressure coil is supplied with normal voltage and current coil circuit with separate low voltage
supply to circulate rated current because the current circuit has low impedance. The total power consumed
in this method is small.
22. If an induction type energy meter runs fast, how can it be slowed down?
Adjusting the position of braking magnet and making it move away from the centre of the disc can slow
the energy meter down.
23. How to make adjustments in energy meters to reduce the error?
Preliminary light load adjustment, Full load unity factor adjustment, Lag adjustment (low power factor
adjustment) Light load adjustment, Creep adjustment.
24. What is the shape of scale of electro dynamometer type wattcmeters?
 = K dM / d P, Where  - deflection, P- power to be measured and M - mutual inductance.
The deflection is directly proportional to the power being measured and the scale is uniform over the range
in which dM/dB is constant. The mutual inductance between fixed and moving coil can be varied over the
range 40 to 50 deg on either side of zero mutual inductance position. If the position of zero mutual
inductance is at the midscale, the scale will be uniform over 80 to 100 deg.
25. List the errors in electro dynamometer type wattmeter.( April 2000)
Errors due to pressure coil inductance.
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

35. Error due to pressure coil capacitance.

36. Error due to mutual inductance Effects.
37. Errors caused because of connections.
d. Eddy current errors.
e. Stray magnetic field errors.
f. Errors caused by vibration of moving system.
g. Temperature errors.
26. What is the need for lag adjustment devices is single phase energy meter?
The energy meter will read true value of energy only when the phase angle between supply voltage and
pressure coil flux is 90 deg. This requires that the pressure coil winding should be highly inductive and has
a low resistance, but even with this phase of flux and voltage few degrees less than 90. So lag adjustments
are necessary to bring this shunt magnet flux in exact quadrature with supply voltage.
27. List the errors in single phase energy meter.
Errors caused by driving system: In correct magnitude of fluxes, Incorrect phase angle, Lack symmetry in
magnetic circuit. Errors caused by braking system: Changes in strength of brake magnet, Changes in disc
resistance, Self-braking effect of series magnet flux, Abnormal friction of moving parts.
28. What are two classes of dynamometer Wattmeters?
Suspended-coil, torsion instruments the moving or voltage coil is suspended from a torsion head by a
metallic suspension, which serves as a lead to the coil, Pivoted-coil, direct-indicating instruments.
29. What is the expression for reactive power in 3-phase circuits?
Reactive power Q = 3VI Sin  Phase angle = tan-1 Q/P, P= active power.
30. How is the error due to pressure coil inductance reduced / eliminated?
Errors caused by pressure coil inductance compensated by means of a capacitor connected in parallel with
a portion of multiplier (series resistance). Connecting this capacitance across multiplier reduces the circuit
impedance purely depends on pressure coil resistance alone.
31. What are the special features incorporated in low power factor wattmeter?
Pressure coil current, the pressure coil circuit is designed to have low value of resistance to increase the
current and operating torque, Compensation for pressure coil current, Compensation for inductance of
pressure coil, Small control torque.
32. A load draws 10 A current from 230V AC mains at 0.75 power factor for half an hour. What is
the energy consumed?
Energy consumed = power x time = VI Cos  x t =230 x l0 x 0.75 x 0.5 = 0.863 kWh
33. A simple slide wire is used for measurement of current in a circuit. The voltage drop across a
standard resistor of 0.1 is balanced at 75 cm. Find the magnitude of the current if the standard
cell emf of 1.45 V is balanced at 50 cm.
Voltage drop per unit length = 1.45 / 50 = 0.029 V / cm
Voltage drop across 75 cm length = 75 x 0.029 = 2.175 V
Current through the resistor = I = 2.175 / 0.1 = 21.75 A.
34. Define burden of an instrument transformer.
The rated burden is the volt ampere loading which is permissible without errors exceeding the limits for
the particular class of accuracy.
Total secondary winding burden = (Secondary winding induced voltage)2 / (impedance of secondary
winding circuit including impedance of secondary winding) = (Secondary winding current)2 x (impedance
of secondary winding circuit including impedance of secondary winding)
Total secondary winding burden due to load = (Secondary winding terminal voltage)2 / (impedance of the
load on the secondary winding) = (Secondary winding current)2 x (impedance of load in the secondary
winding circuit).
35. What are the advantages of instrument transformers over shunts and multipliers?
Instruments of moderate size are used for metering, Instruments and meters can be standardized so that
there is a saving in overall Cost, Single range instruments can be used to cover large current or voltage
range, The metering circuit is isolated from the high voltage power circuits, There is low power
consumption in metering circuit, Several instruments can be operated from a single instrument transformer.
36. What is the need to evaluate phase-angle error in instrument transformers? April 2008
Wattmeter readings are affected by phase angle errors etc.
37. State any two applications of CT and of PT. (Or) What is the use of [Link] & [Link]?
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

The extension of instrument range, so that current, voltage, power and energy can be measured with
instruments of moderate size &The high voltage and current of power systems are stepped down by C.T
and P.T and measured by instruments of moderate size.
38. Define nominal and turns ratio of an instrument transformer.
For a C.T : Nominal ratio = rated primary winding current / rated secondary winding current.
Turns ratio = number of turns of secondary winding / number of turns of primary winding.
For a P.T: Nominal ratio = rated primary winding voltage / rated secondary winding voltage
Turns ratio = number of turns of primary winding / number of turns of secondary Winding.
39. Define transformation ratio of an instrument transformer. (Nov 2004)
For a C.T: Transformation ratio (R) = primary winding current /

rated secondary winding current.

For a P.T: Transformation ratio (R) = primary winding voltage /
secondary winding voltage.
40. What is a difference between voltage transformer & current
transformer?
The voltage transformer may be considered as parallel transformer with its secondary winding open circuit.
Current transformer is a series transformer operates with its secondary short circuit conditions.
The primary winding current in a C.T is independent of secondary winding circuit conditions while
primary winding of P.T depends on the secondary circuit.
In P.T full line voltage appears across its terminals whereas in C.T small voltage appears.
41. What are the applications of DMM?
It is mostly used in laboratory for the measurement of AC voltage and current measurement, DC voltage
and current measurement, Resistance and Frequency measurement.
[Link] are the different methods used for frequency measurement in power frequency range? (Dec
2013)
Types of frequency meters: Mechanical or resonant type, Electrical or resonant type,
Electrodynamometer type, Weston type, Ratio meter type, Saturable core type
42. Write any four types of analog ammeter used for instrumentation. (Dec2013)
PMMC instrument, MI instruments, Dynamometer type Instruments, Rectifier type Instruments.
43. How are basic instruments converted into higher range ammeter? (May 2014)
To extend the Ammeter range shunt of low resistance is connected in parallel with meter resistance.
When heavy currents are to be measured, the major part of the current is bypassed through this shunt
resistance.
Shunt resistance can be calculated using the formula. Rsh= Rm/(m-1)
Rm – meter resistance m -Multiplying power = I/Im.
Series resistance(multiplier) is connected in series with basic meter and this combination is connected
across the voltage to be measured.
Rs=(m-1)Rm Rs=series resistance Rm=meter resistance m=multiplier =V/v V=voltage to be
measured v=voltage across the meter movement.
44. Why PMMC ammeters are most widely used instrument?(Dec 2014)
PMMC ammeters are the most accurate instrument, also they have the following properties
Low power consumption, Uniform Scale, No Hysterisi loss, High Torque/Weight ratio, Efficient
eddy current damping
45. Draw the equivalent circuit diagram and phasor diagram of a Potential Transformer. (Dec’14)

46. State the purpose of shunts in the voltmeter. (May 2015)

EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Shunt is always used for limiting the current through the meter, which will help to change the range of
meter.
47. A basic D’ Arsonval movement with a full deflection of 50 micro amp. and internal resistance of
500 ohm is used as voltmeter. Determine the value of the multiplier resistance needed to
measure a voltage range of 0-10V. (May 2015)
Rs=( V/Im)-Rm
Rs = (10/50x10-6) -500 = 199.5 K ohm.

UNIT - III COMPARISON METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS

PART-A
1. State and explain the basic principle of potentiometer.
A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by comparing with known
voltage, voltage can be measured independent of source resistance. The process of adjusting the working
current, so that the voltage across a portion of sliding wire against a standard reference is known as
standardization. The slide wire has a uniform cross section and hence uniform resistance along its entire
length. A calibrated scale in cm and fractions of cm is placed along the slide wire. The slide wire position
multiplied by the working current indicates the unknown voltage.
2. How are AC potentiometers classified? List them.
A.C potentiometers can be classified according to the manner in which the unknown voltage may be
measured by the instrument dials and scales, Polar type and Coordinate type.
3. What is a potentiometer? (May 2015)
A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by comparing with known
voltage, voltage can be measured independent of source resistance. Potentiometers are extensively used in
calibration of voltmeter and ammeter and it is a standard for calibration of these instruments.
4. What is the advantage of venire potentiometer over slide type?
This instrument has two ranges they are normal range of 1.6V down to 10 μV and a lower range of 0.16 V
down to 1 μV. High precision and accurate than slide wire type.
5. Name the parts of a Drysdale potentiometer?
Drysdale phase shifter, Transfer instrument, Kelvin varley slide wire.
6. What is the most important difference between d,c. and a,c potentiometer?
In D.c potentiometer the magnitude of unknown emf and potentiometer voltage drop have to be made
equal to obtain balance whereas in a.c instrument both magnitude and phase of the two have to be the same
to obtain the balance.
7. What is the need for phase shifters in a polar type A.C. Potentiometers?
Phase shifter has two windings separated by 90 deg. A variable resistance and a variable capacitance are
connected between the two windings. By adjusting these two variables the currents flowing through the
two windings are adjusted so that the magnitudes are same and phase difference between them is 90 deg.
8. What is called a volt-ratio box?
A volt-ratio box is a precision potential divider network. It provides multiple voltage ranges. The voltage
to be measured is connected to the appropriate binding post.
9. Why is the Wheatstone bridge not suitable for measuring very low resistances?
If Wheatstone bridge is used for low resistance measurement the resistance of connecting leads and contact
resistance also included, the error caused by beads can be corrected, but contact resistance presents a
source of uncertainty, that will be very difficult to overcome.
10. What are the applications of potentiometers? (Dec 2013, May 2015)
Calibration of voltmeter, Calibration of ammeter, Measurement of resistance, Measurement of power.
11. What is standardization?
In case of a d.c potentiometer, the process of adjusting the working current so that the voltage across a
portion of sliding wire against a standard reference is known as standardization. But in case of an a.c
potentiometer, the standardization is done with the help of standard d.c source i.e a standard cell or a Zener
source and a transfer instrument. This instrument is usually an electrodynamometer milli ammeter, so
constructed that its response to alternating current is the same as its d.c response.
12. What are leakage current effects? (April 2008.)
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Loss is more, Life of the equipment is reduced.

13. A wheatstone bridge is shown in fig. The values of resistances are P = lkΩ, R=lkΩ, S=5 kΩ, RG
= 100Ω. The Thevenin source generator voltage is 24mV. Galvanometer current is 13.6 μA.
Calculate the value of Q.

14. Name the bridge used for measuring very low resistance.
Kelvin's double bridge.
15. Classify the resistances according to the values.
Low resistance <1Ω , Medium resistance 1Ω to 0.1MΩ, High resistance > 0.1 MΩ.
16. What are the methods of measurements of low resistance?
Ammeter - Voltmeter method, Kelvin Double bridge method, Potentiometer method
17. What are the methods of measurements of medium resistance?
Ammeter - Voltmeter method, Substitution method, Wheatstone bridge method, Ohm meter method.
18. What are the methods of measurement of earth resistance?
Fall of potential method, Earth tester.
19. List the various detectors used for AC bridges.
Headphones, Vibration galvanometer, Tunable amplifier detectors.
20. A Maxwell' s capacitance bridge shown in figure, is used to measure an unknown inductance in
comparison with capacitance. Calculate R1, L1 also the value of storage factor of coil, if
frequency is 1 kHz.

21. Define Q factor of an inductor. Write the equations for inductor Q factor with RL series and
parallel equivalent circuits. (Nov 2004)
Q factor is the ratio of conductance to the susceptance of the inductor.
For RL series circuit, Q = ωL / R. For RL parallel circuit Q = R /ωL
22. What are the sources of errors in ac bridges?
Stray conductance effects due to imperfect insulation, Mutual inductance effects, due to magnetic coupling
between various components, Stray capacitance effects due to electrostatic fields, Residues in components.
23. State merits and limitations of Maxwell's bridge when used for measurement of unknown
inductance.
Merits: This bridge is very useful for measurement of a wide range of inductance at power and audio
frequencies. The two balance equations are independent if we choose R4 and C4 as variable elements.
The frequency does not appear in any of the two equations.
Limitations: This bridge requires standard capacitor which may be very expensive. This bridge is limited
to measurement of low Q coils. Additional series resistance is necessary to obtain balance.
24. What are the limitations of Maxwell’s bridge?
Maxwell's bridge is unsuitable for coils with very low value of Q and high Q coils. (l <Q<l 0)
This bridge requires standard capacitor which may be very expensive. Additional series resistance is
necessary to obtain.
25. State the merits and demerits of Anderson's bridge?
Merits: It is much easier to obtain balance in the case of Anderson's bridge. A fixed capacitor can be used
instead of variable capacitor. This bridge can be used for determination of capacitance in terms of
inductance.
Demerits: This bridge is more complicated one, in terms of set up and balance conditions.
Additional junction point increases the difficulty of shielding the bridge.
26. State the merits and demerits if Hay's bridge?
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Merits: This bridge is used for measurement of inductance with high Q coils. This gives simple expression
for Q factor. This bridge requires only low value of resistor.
Demerits: This bridge is not suited for inductors having Q factor of less than 10.
27. Mention any two types of A.C bridges used for measuring self-inductance.
Maxwell's inductance bridge, Anderson's bridge, Maxwell's inductance-capacitance bridge, Hay's bridge.

28. Give the advantages of Schering Bridge.

Schering Bridge is used for measuring capacitance and dissipation factor. In particular it is used in the
measurement of properties of insulators, capacitor bushings, insulating oil and other insulating materials.
29. What are the advantages of Hay's bridge over Maxwell's induction capacitance bridge?
Hay's bridge is very much suited for measurement of self-inductance with high Q coils whereas Maxwell' s
bridge is suited for low Q coils. Hay's bridge requires low value of resistor whereas Maxwell's bridge
requires a parallel resistor of very high value.
30. Write the necessary balance conditions for a Schering Bridge. (Dec 2012)

31. State the two conditions for balancing an A.C. bridge. (Dec 2012)
The product of magnitude of opposite arm impedances should be equal. The sum of phase angle of
opposite arm impedances should be equal. i.e Z1Z4(θ1+θ4) = Z2Z3(θ2+θ3) Zl, Z2 ,Z3, Z4 impedances of four
arms, Θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4 phase angle of complex impedance.
32. What are the sources of Electromagnetic interference? (Dec 2013)
a. Gas discharge b. Sparking in electrical switches c. Signals from RADAR, Radio
transmission Shielding- to prevent both electrical and magnetic components
33. With a neat circuit diagram, write the balanced equation of Wheatstone bridge. (May 2014)

34. Draw the circuit diagram write the expression for unknown inductance and its resistance of
Anderson’s bridge. (May 2014)
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

35. What is meant by grounding( December 2014)

Grounding is the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of the transfer of electrons
between it and another object of substantial size. When a charged object is grounded, the excess charge is
balanced by the transfer of electrons between the charged object and a ground
36. What are the various detectors used in bridge network(December 2014)
Head phones
Vibration galvanometer
Tunable amplifier detector
❖ Mention the grounding techniques available in measurements. (May 2015)
Plate type Earthing, Pipe type Earthing, Rod Earthing, Earthing through waterman, Strip or Wire Earthing

UNIT IV STORAGE AND DISPLAY DEVICES

PART—A
1. What are the major blocks of oscilloscope?
Cathode ray tube, electron gun, vertical & horizontal plates, time base circuit, trigger circuit
2. What are the major components of CRT?
Cathode ray tube, electron gun and vertical &horizontal plates
3. Why is a delay line used in the vertical section of the oscilloscope?
The electronic circuit causes a certain amount of time delay in transmission of signal voltages to deflection
plates. To allow the operator to observe the leading edge of signal waveform, the signal drive for the
vertical CRT plates must be delayed by at least the same amount of time.
4. How is the electron beam focused to a fine spot on the face of the cathode ray tube?
Electron beam from the cathode pass through the concave electrostatic lens aligned towards the axis of the
CRT and after passing through the second concave lens focused at the phosphor screen. Focal length of the
lens is adjusted by varying the potential difference between the two cylinders.
5. List the disadvantages of storage cathode ray tube.
Finite amount of time – storage tube preserves waveform power to the storage tube present as long as the
image is to be stored. Trace of storage tube is not fine as a normal CRT. Writing rate of storage tube is less
than conventional CRT which limits the speed of storage oscilloscope. Expensive and needs additional
power supply.
6. List any two display devices.
LED or LCD displays.
7. How is an oscilloscope used to determine frequency?
Knowing the time period by using f=1/T.
8. How to avoid parallax errors in CRT?
The accuracy of these marks depends on how close the graticule marks can be placed to the actual
phosphor to eliminate parallax.
9. What is CRT graticule?
It is usually rectangular in form & is placed inside the display area to allow correct measurements.
10. What are the different types of analog recorders?
Graphic recorders, Oscillographic recorders, Magnetic tape recorders.
11. What are the types of graphic recorders?
Strip chart recorders, X- Y recorders
12. What are the various components of a recording instrument?
Recording head, Magnetic tape, Reproducing head, Tape transport mechanism, conditioning devices.
13. Define Q factor of an inductor and classify inductors based on Q factors.
Q factor of an inductor = ωL/R Q<1 = very low Q coils, 1 < Q < l 0 = low Q coils, Q > 10 = high Q coils
14. What are the different types of digital display devices?
Cathode ray tube (CRT) ; Flat panel display; Light-emitting diode (LED) displays; Plasma display panels
(PDP); Liquid crystal display (LCD)
15. What are the different types of graphic recorders?
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Graphics recorders are of 3 types namely ; heated stylus; optical light; ink jet
16. What are the types of strip chart recorders?
Strip chart recorders are mainly of two types namely; galvanometer type and null balance type.
17. What are the basic components of a magnetic tape recorder?
Two sprockets that turn the tape spools, below the sprockets, there are two electromagnetic heads used for
stereo recording, internal components in the recorder are the capstan and the pinch roller
18. List the advantages of magnetic tape recorders.
Magnetic tape recorders are available in various sizes and in various forms such as in portable, semi-
portable and rack mounted forms. Owing to their unique features they have wide applications. A few of
them are mentioned below: 1)Medical research and patient monitoring. 2) Data recording and analysis on
missiles, aircraft and satellites. 3)Communications surveillance and spying. 4) Industrial research and
production monitoring and control, including recording of stresses and vibrations, logging of fuel
consumption and analysis of noise.
19. What is the working principle of magnetic tape recorder?
The recording process itself relies on the principles of magnetism. The tape recorder uses electromagnets
(the heads) to apply a magnetic flux to the ferric oxide on the tape. Each electromagnet is made of an iron
core wrapped with wire. There is a small gap in the electromagnet head which actually allows the
recording to take place.
20. What is data logging?
The process of using a computer to collect data through sensors, analyze the data and save and output the
results of the collection and analysis.
21. What are the functions of data logger? (May 2013)
A data logger (or data recorder) is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location
either with a built in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensors.
22. State the applications of an X-Y recorder.
Plotting current vs voltage curves of diodes and transistors, plotting B-H curves of magnetic materials and
plotting speed- time curves for electric motors.
23. What is the use of aquadag in a CRO?
Prevents the formation of -ve charge on the screen and state of equilibrium of screen is maintained.
24. Brief up the working principle of a digital encoder. (Dec 2012)
Digital encoders enable a linear or rotary displacement to be directly converted into digital form without
intermediate forms of analog to digital coversion.
25. What is the principle of operation of an ink-jet printer? (Dec 2012)
An inkjet printer places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create an image. The dots are
positioned very precisely with resolution upto 1440 x 720 dots per inch.
26. Distinguish between LED and LCD. (Dec 2013)
LED :Light -Function of current flow Advantage : Fast –turn-ON, turn OFF less than 1nS
LCD :Light scattering- reflective or transmissive, Require back lighting, Power reqd very less-
microwatts/cm, Turn ON- few milliseconds, Turn OFF- tens of milliseconds
Advantage: Good contrast in bright ambient light, low power, compactible with ICs, low cost element.
[Link] is the principle of working of Dot Matrix display? (May 2014)
Dot matrix (using more elements) can be used to display alphabets.
28. What is LED? (May 2014)
Light Emitting Diode , Light -Function of current flow.
[Link] is the working principle of digital plotter?(December 2014)
A plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line drawings on paper with one
or more automated pens. Unlike a regular printer , the plotter can draw continuous point-to-point lines
directly from vector graphics files or commands.
30. Compare Plotters and Printers. (May 2015)
Printer is a peripheral device that creates a solid copy of the digital data that is represented on the computer
screen. Printers can be used to connect to a computer using a USB or wirelessly. A plotter is a computer
printer that is used for printing vector graphics. Though originally they were used for printing computer-
aided designs, in many applications these have been replaced by conventional printers
31. What is the technique used in strip chart recorders? (May 2015)
A chart recorder is an electromechanical device that records an electrical or mechanical input trend onto a
piece of paper (the chart). Chart recorders may record several inputs using different color pens and may
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

record onto strip charts or circular charts. Chart recorders may be entirely mechanical with clockwork
mechanisms, electro-mechanical with an electrical clockwork mechanism for driving the chart (with
mechanical or pressure inputs), or entirely electronic with no mechanical components at all (a virtual chart
recorder).

UNIT V: TRANSDUCERS AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

PART-A
1. What is a transducer? Give example.
Transducer is a device which converts the physical quantity into an electrical quantity. ex: Thermocouple -
which converts the temperature into voltage.
2. What is an active transducer? Give any two examples.
Transducers, which converts the input signal to an electrical signal without an external power supply is
known as active transducer. Example: Thermocouple, piezoelectric crystals.
3. What is a passive transducer? Give two examples.
Transducers, which convert the input signal to an electrical signal with an external power supply is known
as passive transducer. Example: LVDT, RTD.
4. What is a primary transducer? Give an example. (May 2014)
Primary transducers will have first contact with the process variables or process parameters. Example: all
the mechanical elements like load cell, bourdon tube, etc.
5. What is a secondary transducer? Give an example.
Secondary transducer converts the output from the primary into a useful variable, mainly in the form of
electrical signals. Example: LVDT, Strain gauges, etc.
6. Distinguish between sensor and transducer. (Dec 2012, Dec 2014)
Sensor is the primary element used to sense the measurand. The quantity to be measured is first sensed and
detected by an element called sensor which gives the output in a different analogous form. Ex: level
sensor, bourdon tube.
Transducer is a device which coverts the physical quantity into electrical quantity. ex: thermocouple, RTD.
In many cases the physical quantity is directly converted into electrical quantity by a transducer without
the primary sensing element.
7. What are the classifications of instruments?
The instruments are classified into 2 categories (a) absolute instruments, (b) secondary instruments.
8. Distinguish between active and passive transducer.
[Link] Active transducer Passive transducer
1 Transducer which converts input signal to an Transducer which converts input signal to an
electrical signal without an external power electrical signal with an external power supply
supply
2 Example : thermocouple, piezoelectric crystals Examples : RTD, LVDT.
9. What are the basic requirements of a transducer?
Linearity, Ruggedness, Repeatability, Convenient instrumentation, High stability and reliability, Dynamic
response, Excellent mechanical characteristics
10. What are Resistive transducers? Give Examples.
Resistance variation type transducer is one of the important groups of transducer that are quite popular,
simple and versatile. Many system variables like displacement, acceleration, vibration, force, temperature,
humidity, sound level, light intensity, and ete can be transduced using resistance transducer. Here the
physical variable under measurement makes changes in the resistance. The change in resistance can be
measured using appropriate bridge circuits. Example: potentiometer and strain gauge.
11. Why resistive transducers are called so?
The resistance of a resistive transducer is given by R = L/A. where  is the specific resistance of the
material used, L is the length of the material and A is thee cross section area of the wire. If L or A varies
naturally the resistance is going to vary. As the output is found with the variation of resistance, it is called
as resistive transducer.
12. Define piezo resistive effect.
EE6404 MEASUEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact that both
length and diameter of the conductor changes. Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the
conductor when it is stretched. This property is called piezoresistive effect.
13. What is meant by piezoelectric effect?
A piezoelectic material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a crystal if
the crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical force. This potential is produced by the
displacement of charges. This effect is reversible.
14. Name any four piezo electric materials.
Quartz, Barium titanate(BaTiO3), Potassium dihydrogen phosphate(KH2PO4), Rochelle
salt(NaKC4H4O6.4H2O), Lithium Niobate(LiNbO3)
15. Give a list of metals used in Resistance thermometers.
The lists of metals used in resistance thermometers are as follows:
Platinum, Copper, Nickel ,Tungsten
16. State seeback effect and peltier effect.
When two metals having different work functions are joined together and the junctions are kept at different
temperatures, a voltage is generated at the junction which is proportional to the temperature difference
between two junctions. The reverse of Seeback effect is called Peltier Effect in which the flow of current
causes one junction to heat and the other junction to cool.
17. Give a list of metals used in thermistors.
Manganese. Cobalt, Nickel, Iron, Uranium oxide.
18. List the features of thermistors.
Advantages:
High temperature sensitivity
Fast response time
Lead resistance negligible
Can be manufactured in any shape
Disadvantages:
Highly non-linear.
Insensitive for low temperature measurement.
Unstable for high temperature measurement
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19. What is a load cell?

Load cell is an electromechanical device. It is a primary transducer because it cannot measure the load
applied without a strain gauge. Here strain gauge acts as a secondary transducer. Strain gauges are made
up of homogenous materials like steel alloys.
20. State the principle of inductive transducers.
It is based on the principle of change in the reluctance, permeability, number of turns in the coil and
orientation of the coil which may produce a change in the inductance or mutual inductance of the

transducer. Inductance of the coil = Where, N, A, L R = number of turns, area,

length and reluctance of the coils respectively. G- Geometric form factor. = effective permeability of the
medium in and around the coil.
21. What is an LVDT? What are the advantages of LVDT?
It is a three coil inductive transducer operated in the differential mode. It consists of a primary coil and
two secondary coil windings on a cylindrical former. The primary coil is connected to an alternating
source whereas the differential output is taken from the two secondary coils.
Advantages: Wide range of linearity, Change of phase by 180 Deg When the core passes through the
center position, Full-scale displacement is 0.1- 250mm, Sensitivity is 0.5- 2 mV.
22. Define gauge factor of a strain gauge.
Gauge factor can be defined as the ratio of change in resistance to change in length.
Gauge factor = (dR/R) /(dL/L)
23. Mention the different types of strain gauges used.
The two types of strain gauges are metallic and semiconductor. Further metallic strain gauges are divided
into bonded and unbounded strain gauges.
24. Mention any four types of Analog to Digital Converter? (Dec2013)
Dual slope ADC, Ramp type ADC, Successive approximation ADC.
25. Name some of the active transducers which are used in the measurement of temperature. (Dec
2012)
Thermocouples, Thermopile.
26. What are the factors to be considered for selection of transducers? (Dec 2013)
Operating principle, Sensitivity, Operating range, Accuracy, Cross sensitivity, Errors, Transient and
frequency response, Loading effects, Environmental compatibility, Insensitivity to unwanted signals,
Usage and ruggedness, Electrical aspects, Stability and reproducibility, Static characteristics
27. What is the principle of operation of optical transducer? (May 2014)
Integrated electronics that can perform one or more of the following function logic functions, two-way
communication, make decisions.
28. What are the advantages of successive approximation type ADC?
▪ Speed is high compared to counter type ADC.
▪ Good ratio of speed to power.
▪ Compact design compared to Flash Type and it is inexpensive.
29. Write the desired properties of thermocouple metals. (May 2015)
Type J: The Type J thermocouple has an Iron positive leg and a Constantan negative leg. Type
J thermocouples can be used in vacuum, oxidizing, reducing and inert atmospheres. Due to the
oxidation (rusting) problems associated with the iron leg, care must be used when using this
thermocouple type in oxidizing environments above 1000F. The temperature range for Type J is
32 to 1400F and it has a wire color code of white and red.
Type K: The Type K thermocouple has a Chromelpositive leg and an Alumel
(Nickel- 5% Aluminum and Silicon) negative leg. Type K is recommended for use in oxidizing
and completely inert environments. Because it’s oxidation resistance is better than Types E, J,
and T they find widest use at temperatures above 1000F. Type K, like Type E should not be
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used in sulfurous atmospheres, in a vacuum or in low oxygen environments where selective

oxidation will occur. The temperature range for Type K is -330 to 2300F and it’s wire color
code is yellow and red.
30. What are the two ways, that the DAS are used to measure and record analog signals? (May
2015)
By using the Transducers, Signal conditioning equipment, Multiplexer, Calibrating equipment and
Integrating equipment able to measure and record analog signals.