Chapter 2 Study Guide

Definitions
Atom: The basic building block of matter. Composed of protons, neutrons &
electrons.
Molecule: Two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
Element: A single type of atom.
Compound: More than one type of atom held together by chemical bonds.
Pure substance: Material composed of one type of particle (atom or molecule).
Mixture: Material composed of more than one type of particle mixed together
but not chemically bonded.
Chemical reaction: Process in which chemical bonds are made and/or broken forming
new substances with new properties.
Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom.
Mass Number: Number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Isotopes: Forms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Radioactive isotopes: Isotopes with so many neutrons that their nuclei are unstable.
Valence shell: The outer electron shell of an atom.
Electronegativity: Strength with which an atom attracts shared electrons.
Covalent bond: Bond in which atoms share electrons.
Polar covalent bond: Bond in which atoms share electrons unequally.
Non-polar covalent bond: Bond in which atoms share electrons equally.
Polar molecule: Molecule that has a positively charged end and a negatively charged
end.
Ionic bond: Bond between positively and negatively charged ions.
Cation: Atom or molecule that has lost an electron and is now positively
charged. (positive ion)
Anion: Atom or molecule that has gained an electron and is now negatively
charged. (negative ion)
Reactant: A chemical that is used a chemical reaction.
Product: A chemical that is produced by a chemical reaction.
Solute: Something that dissolves in something else.
Solvent: Something in which something else dissolves.
Solution: A solute dissolved in a solvent.
Aqueous solution: A solute dissolved in water.
Acid: A substance that donates H+ ions to a solution.
Base: A substance that removes H+ ions from a solution.
Acidic solution: A solution with more H+ ions than OH- ions.
Basic / alkaline solution: A solution with more OH- ions than H+ ions.
Neutral solution: A solution with equal amounts of H+ and OH- ions.
pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Acid rain: Rain with a pH lower than 5.2.
Buffer: A chemical that reduces changes in pH. (Remove or add H+ ions)

Elements, atoms & compounds (see definitions)

Matter is made up of atoms, usually bound together to form molecules.
The atoms in a molecule are held together by chemical bonds.
Atoms are made up of protons (positively charged), neutrons (neutrally charged) and
electrons (negatively charged).
Protons and neutrons are tightly packed in the centre of the atom, forming the nucleus.
Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus.
In order to be neutral, an atom must have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms
can become positively or negatively charged ions by losing or gaining electrons.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same atomic number) with different mass
numbers. They have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Radioactive isotopes have so many neutrons that the nucleus decays, emitting radiation.
Different isotopes of an element behave in the same way.
Radioactive isotopes can be useful, but they can also be very dangerous
 Radioactive isotopes can be used as tracers in experiments to track the movement of
atoms in chemical reactions.
 Radioactive isotopes can be used as tracers in medicine to diagnose illness and for
brain imaging.
 Radioactive isotopes can be used for dating in archaeology and geology (e.g.: carbon
dating)
 Radioactive isotopes can be used to generate nuclear power, but this produces
radioactive nuclear waste. There is also a risk of nuclear accidents.
 Radioactive isotopes can be used to make nuclear weapons.
 High levels of radiation can kill or cause cancer.

Chemical bonds

The number of protons in an atom determines the number of electrons it needs to be

neutral. This determines the number of electrons in its valence shell, which determines the
types of bonds it will form with other atoms. The number of protons in an atom therefore
ultimately determines its behaviour in chemical reactions.
 Noble gasses
o Have full valence shells so do not need to gain or lose electrons.
o They are found in the last column of the periodic table (e.g. helium & neon).
o They are not reactive and are found as single atoms.
 Non-metals
 o They have almost full valence shells so need to gain electrons.
o They are found towards the right hand side of the periodic table (e.g. carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen).
o They can form covalent bonds with each other.
o They can also gain electrons to become negative ions and form ionic bonds
with metals (which become positive ions).
 Metals
o They have more empty valence shells so can lose electrons easily.
o They are found on the left and centre of the periodic table (e.g.: calcium and
potassium)
o They can form metallic bonds with each other.
o They can also lose electrons to become positive ions and form ionic bonds
with non-metals (which become negative ions).

Ionic bonds
 Ionic bonding is due to the force of attraction between positively and negatively
charged ions.
 These ions form when one atom donates one or more electrons to another atom so
that they each have a full valence shell.
 Ionic bonds form between metals (need to lose electrons to have a full valence shell)
and non-metals (need to gain electrons to have a full valence shell).

Covalent bonds
 Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons so that they each have full valence
shells.
 Covalent bonds form between non-metals (as both need to gain electrons, they must
share to each get a full outer shell)
 Non-polar covalent bonds form between non-metals with equal or nearly equal
electronegativities.
o Shared electrons are shared equally.
 Polar covalent bonds form between non-metals with different electronegativities.
o Shared electrons are shared unequally.

Hydrogen bonds
 Hydrogen bonds form between molecules that are very polar due to strongly polar
covalent bonds.
 These molecules consist of hydrogen bonded to a strongly electronegative element
such as oxygen or nitrogen. (e.g.: H20)
 The negative end of one molecule is attracted to the positive end of another
molecule.
Water
Because water molecules are so polar, they are held together by hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen
bonds are strong compared to other intermolecular bonds. This gives water some unusual
properties that allow it to support life.
 Water is cohesive (the water molecules stick together) and adhesive (the molecules
stick to charged surfaces).
o Plants use these properties to get water to flow up xylem vessels against
gravity.
 Water can store a lot of heat because the hydrogen bonds require a lot of energy to
break.
o This makes water act as a temperature buffer, stopping the environment
from getting too hot or too cold.
o Organisms can also use evaporation to keep cool (e.g.: sweating)
 Water can act as a solvent for other polar molecules or ions.
o This allows water to act as the solute within which metabolic reactions take
place.
 Ice is less dense than liquid water because hydrogen bonds hold the molecules apart
in ice crystals.
o This means that ice floats on liquid water. This prevents the deep oceans
from freezing solid.

Acids and Bases

In liquid water, H2O molecules are constantly splitting into H+ and OH- ions, and joining up
again. Pure water therefore contains equal amounts of H+ and OH- ions. Acids and bases
upset this balance.
An acid is a substance that can donate H+ ions to a solution. (e.g.: HCl)
A base is a substance that can remove H+ ions from a solution. (e.g.: NaOH)
An acidic solution contains more H+ ions than OH- ions.
A basic solution contains more OH- ions that H+ ions.
The pH scale is used to describe how acidic or basic a solution is.
 pH stands for ‘potential of hydrogen’
 The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 the most acidic and 14 the most basic.
 Each pH unit represents a tenfold change in the concentration of H+ ions.
Strong acids and strong bases can both be very dangerous. They are very reactive and can
cause severe burns.
Chemical reactions often work best at a specific pH, therefore pH is very important in both
chemistry and biology.
A buffer is a substance that reduces changes in pH by accepting H+ ions when they are in
excess and donating H+ ions when they are in short supply.
Most organisms contain natural buffers to keep their internal environment at a pH where
their metabolic reactions can take place.
Acids and bases react with each other through the transfer of protons (H + ions) to form a
salt (and often water).

Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons. This will be revisited in the chapters on
photosynthesis & respiration.