Classification of Elements

and Periodicity in Properties

Why classification?
Doberinier Triads:

Newland’s law of octaves:

 Lother Mayer curve: atomic weight vs volume
Observed same property elements occupy similar position on
curve
•The most electropositive alkali metals
(Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) occupy the peaks on
the curve.
•The less strongly electropositive alkaline
earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba) occupy
the
descending position of the curve.
•The most electronegative elements (F,
Cl, Br, I) occupy the ascending position
on the curve.
Mendeleev’s periodic table

•Mendeleev arranged elements in rows and columns by increasing atomic weight, grouping
similar properties in the same column.
•He used a wide range of physical and chemical properties, especially similarities in formulas
and compounds, for classification.
•Ignored strict atomic weight order when needed (e.g., placed iodine with halogens despite
lower atomic weight than tellurium).
•Left gaps for undiscovered elements (e.g., Eka-aluminium → gallium, Eka-silicon →
germanium) and predicted their properties accurately.
•His successful predictions and classification method made his Periodic Table (1905) famous.
Modern periodic table
•Periodic Law shows analogies among 94 naturally occurring elements and inspired
further inorganic chemistry research.
•Atomic number = nuclear charge = number of protons (or electrons in a neutral atom).
•Periodicity arises from periodic variation in electronic configurations, which determine
elements’ physical and chemical properties.
•Different forms of Periodic Table exist; the modern “long form” is most widely used.
•In the long form, horizontal rows = periods, vertical columns = groups/families (IUPAC
groups numbered 1–18).
•Elements in the same group have similar outer electronic configurations.
•There are 7 periods; period number = highest principal quantum number (n) for elements
in that period.
•Number of elements per period: 1st → 2, 2nd & 3rd → 8, 4th & 5th → 18, 6th → 32, 7th
(incomplete) → up to 32.
•Lanthanoids (6th period) and actinoids (7th period) are shown separately at the bottom of
the table.
Q1. [NEET 2014]
According to Dobereiner’s triads, the atomic mass of the middle element is:
[Link] to the sum of the atomic masses of the other two elements
[Link] to the difference of the atomic masses of the other two elements
[Link] to the average of the atomic masses of the other two elements
[Link] of the above
Q2. [AIIMS 2012]
Newlands’ Law of Octaves was applicable only up to:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Q1 → 3
Q2 → 2
Elements of more than 100 Z
Electronic configuration:

For periods:
1.1st period (n=1) → fills 1s; 2 elements (H, He).
2.2nd period (n=2) → fills 2s, then 2p; 8 elements (Li–Ne).
3.3rd period (n=3) → fills 3s, then 3p; 8 elements (Na–Ar).
4.4th period (n=4) → fills 4s, 3d, then 4p; includes 3d transition series (Sc–Zn); 18
elements (K–Kr).
5.5th period (n=5) → fills 5s, 4d, then 5p; includes 4d transition series (Y–Cd); 18 elements
(Rb–Xe).
6.6th period (n=6) → fills 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p; 4f filling (Ce–Lu) = lanthanoids; 32 elements.
7.7th period (n=7) → fills 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p; 5f filling (Ac–Lr) = actinoids; includes many
synthetic radioactive elements; ends at Z=118 (noble gas).
8.4f and 5f series placed separately to keep similar properties in single columns and
preserve table structure.
PERIODIC TRENDS:
(A). Atomic radius:
How we find? Distance between the nucleus/2
The atomic size generally decreases across a period
Reason:same valence shell and the effective nuclear charge increases
as the atomic number increases resulting in the increased attraction of
electrons to the nucleus
Down the group atomic size increases: as n increase
(B)Ionic radius: cat->small, ani->big

Isoelectronic:O2–, F–, Na+ ,Mg2+

Q1. [NEET 2015]
In the periodic table, atomic radius generally:
[Link] across a period from left to right
[Link] across a period from left to right
[Link] constant in a period
[Link] decreases then increases in a period
Q2. [NEET 2013]
Which one of the following has the largest atomic radius?
[Link]
[Link]
C.K
[Link]
Q1 → 2
Q2 → 3
•Ionization enthalpy (IE): Energy to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom in ground state.
•First IE: X(g)→X+(g)+e−X(g) ,X^+(g) + e^-X(g)→X+(g)+e−
•Second IE: X+(g)→X2+(g)+e−X^+(g) ,X^{2+}(g) + e^-X+(g)→X2+(g)+e−

•Always positive (energy required).

•Order: 2nd IE > 1st IE > … (harder to remove from a positive ion).

•Trends:
•Across a period → IE ↑ (nuclear charge ↑, size ↓).
•Down a group → IE ↓ (size ↑, shielding ↑).

•Maxima: Noble gases (stable, closed shells).

•Minima: Alkali metals (loose ns electron, high reactivity).
•Related property: IE inversely related to atomic radius.
•Shielding/Screening: . The effective nuclear charge experienced by a valence electron in an atom
will be less than the actual charge on the nucleus because of “shielding” or “screening” of the
valence electron from the nucleus by the intervening core electrons
•Example: Li’s 2s electron shielded by 1s electrons → feels < +3 charge.

•Across a period: Shielding ≈ constant, ZZZ ↑ → electrons held tighter → ionization enthalpy ↑.
•Down a group: Distance + shielding ↑ → ionization enthalpy ↓.

•Boron vs Beryllium anomaly:

•Be loses 2s electron (closer, less shielded).
•B loses 2p electron (more shielded) → IE(B) < IE(Be).
•Oxygen vs Nitrogen anomaly:
•N: 3 unpaired 2p electrons → stable.
•O: paired 2p electrons → repulsion → IE(O) < IE(N).
Q1. [NEET 2017]
Which one of the following has the highest first ionization enthalpy?
Li
Be
B
C
Q2. [NEET 2012]
Which one of the following shows an irregularity in the general trend of ionization
enthalpy across a period?
Be and B
Na and Mg
C and N
F and Ne
Q1 → 4
Q2 → 1
Electron Gain Enthalpy (∆egH) is the enthalpy change when an electron is added to
a neutral gaseous atom:
X(g)+e−→X−(g)
#Negative ∆egH → energy released, process is exothermic (e.g., halogens).
#Positive ∆egH → energy absorbed, process is endothermic (e.g., noble gases).

Trends:
Across a period → ∆egH becomes more negative due to increasing effective
nuclear charge and smaller atomic size.
Down a group → ∆egH becomes less negative because of larger size and electron
being added farther from the nucleus.
Exceptions:
O and F have less negative ∆egH than S and Cl because the added electron enters
the small n = 2 level and experiences strong electron–electron repulsion.
In n = 3 level (S, Cl), the space is larger, so repulsion is lower and ∆egH is more
negative.

Given elements (P, S, Cl, F):

Most negative ∆egH → Cl (high nuclear charge, moderate repulsion).
Least negative ∆egH → P (larger size, lower nuclear attraction compared to others).
Electron Gain Enthalpy (EGE)
Q3. [NEET 2018]
Which of the following has the most negative electron gain enthalpy?
O
F
Cl
Br
Q4
The electron gain enthalpy of noble gases is:
Highly negative
Zero or positive
Highly positive
Same as halogens
Q3 → 3
Q4 → 2
Electronegativity → Qualitative measure of an atom’s ability in a compound to
attract shared electrons.
Not directly measurable; several scales exist (Pauling, Mulliken–Jaffe, Allred–
Rochow).
Pauling scale is most widely used — fluorine assigned 4.0 (highest value).
Varies depending on the bonded element.

Trends:
Across a period → increases (atomic radius decreases, nucleus pulls more strongly
on valence electrons).
Down a group → decreases (atomic radius increases, weaker nuclear attraction on
shared electrons).
Relation to properties:
High electronegativity → strong non-metallic character.
Low electronegativity → strong metallic character.
Across a period → electronegativity ↑, non-metallic character ↑, metallic character ↓.
Down a group → electronegativity ↓, non-metallic character ↓, metallic character ↑.
Electron Gain Enthalpy (EGE)
Q3. [NEET 2018]
Which of the following has the most negative electron gain enthalpy?
O
F
Cl
Br
Q4. [NEET-level Practice]
The electron gain enthalpy of noble gases is:
Highly negative
Zero or positive
Highly positive
Same as halogens
Q5 → 4
Q6 → 3
Unlocking P eriodic Trends
Understanding these trends helps predict chemical behavior and properties. Observe the general direction of change across periods and down
groups.

Atomic Radius Ionization Energy

⬇️ Down Group: Increases (new shells) ⬇️ Down Group: Decreases (larger size, less attraction)

➡️ Across Period: Decreases (increased nuclear charge) ➡️ Across Period: Increases (stronger nuclear charge)

Electron Affinity Electronegativity

⬇️ Down Group: Decreases (larger size, less attraction for new ⬇️ Down Group: Decreases (increased distance from nucleus)
electron)
➡️ Across Period: Increases (greater nuclear charge, stronger pull)
➡️ Across Period: Increases (smaller size, stronger attraction)
Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties
(a) Periodicity of Valence / Oxidation States
Valence = characteristic property;
often = number of outermost electrons or 8- outermost electrons.
Oxidation state = charge an atom would have if bonding electrons were assigned to
the more electronegative atom.
Example:
OF₂: F = –1, O = +2.
Na₂O: O = –2, Na = +1.
Can predict formulas from periodic table (e.g., SiBr₄, Al₂S₃).
Many elements show variable valence, common in transition metals and actinoids.
(b) Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
1st element in Groups 1–2 and 13–17 differs from heavier congeners.
E.g., Li & Be form covalent compounds (others mostly ionic); Li similar to Mg, Be
similar to Al (diagonal relationship).
Causes:
#Small size, high charge/radius ratio, high electronegativity.
#Only 4 valence orbitals (2s, 2p) vs. 9 in next period (3s, 3p, 3d) → max
covalency = 4 (e.g., BF₄⁻), heavier congeners can expand valence shell (e.g.,
AlF₆³⁻).
#Greater ability to form pπ–pπ multiple bonds (C=C, C≡C, N≡N, C=O, C≡N, N=O).
Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity
Periodicity in reactivity is tied to electronic configuration.
Across a period:
Atomic & ionic radii ↓ → ionization enthalpy ↑, electron gain enthalpy more
negative.
Extreme left (alkali metals) → lowest ionization enthalpy → high reactivity via
electron loss (cation formation).
Extreme right (halogens) → most negative electron gain enthalpy → high reactivity
via electron gain (anion formation).
Metallic character ↓, non-metallic character ↑ from left to right.
Reactions with oxygen:
Extreme left → most basic oxides (Na₂O).
Extreme right → most acidic oxides (Cl₂O₇).
Middle → amphoteric (Al₂O₃, As₂O₃) or neutral (CO, NO, N₂O).
Amphoteric oxides react as acids with bases and as bases with acids; neutral oxides
show neither property.
Examples:
Na₂O + H₂O → 2NaOH (basic)
Cl₂O₇ + H₂O → 2HClO₄ (acidic)
Transition metals:
Across 3d series → small change in radii;
ionization enthalpy intermediate between s- and p-block → less electropositive
than Group 1 & 2 metals.
Down a group:
Radii ↑ → ionization enthalpy ↓, electron gain enthalpy less negative.
Metallic character ↑, non-metallic character ↓.
In transition elements, some reverse trends occur due to size and ionization
enthalpy patterns.
Q1. [NEET-level]
Which one of the following is placed in group 17 of the modern periodic table?
O
N
Cl
S
Q2. [NEET 2019]
Which of the following has the highest first ionization enthalpy?
Li
Na
K
Rb
Q3.
The electronic configuration of an element is [He]2s²2p⁴. The element belongs to:
Group 14, Period 2
Group 15, Period 2
Group 16, Period 2
Group 17, Period 2
Q4.
Which of the following has the least electronegativity?
F
Cl
Br
I
Q5. [NEET-level]
The electron gain enthalpy of halogens becomes less negative in the order:
Cl > F > Br > I
F > Cl > Br > I
Cl > Br > F > I
I > Br > Cl > F
Q6. [NEET-level]
Which element shows both +2 and +4 oxidation states and lies in group 14?
Sn
Pb
Si
Ge
Q7.
Which one of the following is not a representative element?
Na
Cl
Fe
C
Q8. [NEET 2016]
Among the following, which has the smallest size?
Na⁺
Mg²⁺
Al³⁺
Si⁴⁺
Q9.
Which law helped in the development of the modern periodic table?
Avogadro’s law
Law of octaves
Gay-Lussac’s law
Law of multiple proportions
Q10.
The most electronegative element in the periodic table is:
O
F
N
Cl
Q1 → 3
Q2 → 1
Q3 → 3
Q4 → 4
Q5 → 1
Q6 → 2
Q7 → 3
Q8 → 4
Q9 → 2
Q10 → 2
P-Block elements(13 th group)
•Elements: B, Al, Ga, In, Tl, Nh.

•Boron differs from Al;

•B and Al have noble gas kernels; Nh is synthetic, radioactive
(t₁/₂ = 20 s).
•Boron: Non-metal, forms covalent bonds. Group = most
heterogeneous (irregular trends due to d-block, lanthanoid
contraction, poor d-orbital shielding).
•Heavier members: Inert pair effect. Boron compounds
(hydrides) are electron deficient → Lewis acids.
Physical Properties
Boron: Many allotropes, strong crystalline lattice → high m.p.
Others: Soft metals, low m.p.
Gallium: m.p. = 303 K (liquid in summer), high b.p. = 2676 K.
Ga: Decrease in metallic character due to d-electron shielding
→ smaller size.
Al = most metallic in group (lowest electronegativity).
Atomic Size
Smaller than alkaline, larger than carbon family.
Increases irregularly down group; Ga < Al (poor 3d shielding).
Ionization Energy
Decreases B → Al, increases Al → Ga.
Order: B > Tl > Ga > Al > In.
Oxidation States
Range: +3 to –5.
+3 stability ↓ down group (inert pair effect).
+1 stability ↑ down group.
In⁺¹ = reducing agent.
[Link] group 13 which is the non metallic element
(A)B
(B)Al
(C)Ga
(D)In
2.

3.
Chemical Properties
1. Reactivity towards air
B, Al: Form trioxides + nitrides at high temp.
Ga, In: Unaffected by air. Tl: Affected.
Oxides:
B2O3​: acidic
Al2O3​, Ga2O3​: amphoteric
In2O3, Tl2O3​: basic
2. Reactivity towards acids/alkalies
Boron: No reaction with acids/alkalies (moderate temp).
Al: Dissolves in mineral acids/aqueous alkalies.
Nitric acid: Makes Al passive (oxide layer).
3. Reactivity towards halogens
Trihalides: Covalent, sp², discrete molecules.
TlI₃ unstable.
Acidic strength ∝ back-bonding: BF3>BCl3>BBr3>BI3
Lewis acidity: BF3<BCl3<BBr3<BI3
πp–πp back-bonding strongest in BF₃.
Halide stability (+3 state) ↓ down group.
Important Trends & Anomalous Properties of Boron
Trihalides hydrolyse → tetrahedral [M(OH)₄]⁻, octahedral [M(H₂O)₆]³⁺
(except B).
NH3+BF3→H3N→​ (Lewis adduct, sp² → sp³ change).
BF3+HF→H+[BF4]− ([BF₄]⁻ tetrahedral, sp³).
B: No d-orbitals → max covalency = 4.
Borax preparation: 4H3BO3+Na2CO3→Na2B4O7+6H2O+CO2↑
Group 14 – The Carbon Family
Members: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Fl
General Configuration: ns²np²
Valence Shell: C → 2s²2p², Si → 3s²3p², etc.
Common Oxidation States: +4, +2 (Pb more stable in +2 due to inert
pair effect)
Catenation: Strong in C, decreases down group: C >> Si > Ge ≈ Sn, Pb
(no catenation).
Electronegativity order: C > Pb > Si = Ge = Sn
Bond Energy (kJ/mol): C–C: 348, Si–Si: 297, Ge–Ge: 260, Sn–Sn: 240
Physical Properties
Atomic Radii: Increase down group; C (77 pm) → Pb (146 pm)
Metallic Character: Increases down group (C, Si = non-metals; Ge =
metalloid; Sn, Pb = metals)
Melting Point: Very high due to strong covalent bonding; decreases
down group after C, except anomalies.
Density: Increases down group.
Atomic Size
Smaller than group 13 but larger than group 15.
Covalent radius increases regularly from C to Pb, but slower in heavier
members due to filled d/f orbitals.
Ionization Energy
Higher than group 13 but lower than group 15.
Order: C > Si > Ge > Pb > Sn (Pb > Sn due to lanthanoid contraction).
Chemical Properties
Reactivity towards Air:
Monoxides: CO, SiO (only high temp), GeO, SnO, PbO
Dioxides: CO₂ (gas), SiO₂, GeO₂, SnO₂, PbO₂
Acidic → Amphoteric → Basic down group.
Reactivity towards Water:
C, Si, Ge inert; Sn reacts with steam; Pb inert.
Reactivity towards Halogens:
Forms MX₄ and MX₂.
Stability of +4 decreases, +2 increases down group.
Thermal stability: CX₄ > SiX₄ > GeX₄ > SnX₄ > PbX₄.
Hydrolysis of Halides
CCl₄ resists hydrolysis (no vacant d-orbitals).
SiCl₄ + 4H₂O → Si(OH)₄ + 4HCl
SiF₄ + 4H₂O → Si(OH)₄ + 2H₂SiF₆
Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon
Reasons: Small size, high electronegativity, high ionization enthalpy, no
d-orbitals.
Unique Properties:
#Strong catenation
#Multiple bonding (pπ–pπ)
#Forms stable chains with O, S, N, halogens
#CO₂ gas, others' dioxides are solids
#Does not dissolve in NaOH to release H₂
#Can form maximum number of hydrides in the group.
[Link] in decreasing order of catenation tendency in Group 14.
(A) Pb > Sn > Ge > Si > C
(B) C >> Si > Ge ≈ Sn, Pb
(C) Si > C > Ge > Sn > Pb
(D) C > Ge > Si > Sn > Pb
[Link] is the +2 oxidation state more stable in Pb?
(A) Large size of Pb atom
(B) Low electronegativity of Pb
(C) Inert pair effect due to poor shielding by d- and f-electrons
(D) High ionization enthalpy
[Link] element in Group 14 has the highest ionization energy?
(A) Si
(B) Ge
(C) C
(D) Pb
[Link] the hydrolysis product of SiF₄.
(A) SiO₂ + HF
(B) Si(OH)₄ + 4HF
(C) Si(OH)₄ + 2H₂SiF₆
(D) SiO₂ + H₂SiF₆
[Link] members of Group 14 are unaffected by water?
(A) C, Si, Ge
(B) C, Ge, Pb
(C) Si, Sn, Pb
(D) C, Si, Sn
[Link] Group 14 element is a metalloid?
(A) Sn
(B) Ge
(C) Pb
(D) Si
[Link] the reason for anomalous behaviour of carbon.
(A) Small size, high electronegativity, high ionization enthalpy, absence of d-orbitals
(B) Large size, low electronegativity
(C) Presence of empty d-orbitals
(D) Low ionization energy
[Link] in decreasing order of bond energy: C–C, Ge–Ge, Si–Si, Sn–Sn.
(A) C–C > Si–Si > Ge–Ge > Sn–Sn
(B) C–C > Ge–Ge > Si–Si > Sn–Sn
(C) C–C > Si–Si > Sn–Sn > Ge–Ge
(D) Si–Si > C–C > Ge–Ge > Sn–Sn
[Link] dioxide in Group 14 is a gas?
(A) SiO₂
(B) CO₂
(C) GeO₂
(D) SnO₂
1–B
2–C
3–C
4–C
5–A
6–B
7–A
8–A
9–B
1.

2.

3.
4.

5.