CVE 504: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II

COURSE OUTLINE

 Highway Planning
 Administration of highways
 Finance of highways
 Traffic surveys
 Pavement Design
 Pavement construction
 Pavement maintenance

HIGHWAY PLANNING

Highways are vitally important to a country’s economic development. The construction of a high
quality road network directly increases a nation’s economic output by reducing journey times and
costs, making a region more attractive economically. The actual construction process will have the
added effect of stimulating the construction market.
In the recent times planning is considered as a prerequisite for any developmental programme,
planning can also be seen as the basic requirement for any engineering project. Therefore, highway
planning is a basic need for development of any effective highway system.
Objectives of highway planning includes:
a. To plan a good road network, that is to provide safe, efficient, comfortable and speedy
movement of goods and services. Also to provide effective cost of construction,
maintenance and renewal of pavements and cost of vehicle operation
b. To plan a road system which could provide maximum utility and could be constructed
within the available resources during the plan period under consideration
c. To plan for anticipated future development and social needs
d. To phase the road development programme based on its utility and availability of funds.
The main reference for phasing the road development is its usage
e. To evolve a financial system and recommend changes in budgets and tax procedures

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Principles on Highway Planning
In order to achieve all the objectives above, the following principles of planning should be
kept in mind:
1. The proposed road should form an integral of the national road network
2. The road should be access by all road user’s and all type of traffic
3. Maintenance of all the roads should be given priority over new construction
4. The priority or the importance of the road should be determined on the basis of its utility
i.e. traffic demand
5. The road should form part of the development programme
6. Statutory provision for traffic regulation must be there for all roads
7. Sufficient and assured funds for maintenance for all roads must be provided

Classification of roads
1. Types of roads: (a) All weathered roads: this are roads which are negotiable during all
weather
(b) Fair weather roads: this is negotiable only during fair weather.
2. Roads based on type of carriageway: this includes paved roads and unpaved roads,
(a) Paved roads are provided with a hard pavement surface called macadam layers
(b) Unpaved includes roads not provided with hard pavement surface.
3. Roads based on pavement surface, this includes; (a) Surfaced roads: this are roads with
cementitious or bituminous material for the topmost layers. The ones with bituminous
surface are also referred to as black topped roads. (b) Unsurfaced roads are roads which
are not provided with cement or bituminous surfacing.
Other methods of classification of roads includes
1. Traffic volume: This includes roads classified on the basis of their volume either as heavy,
medium and light traffic. Actually these terms are not absolute but relatively so the limit
under each class should be defined and expressed as vehicle per day.
2. Load transported: This classification is relative and the road should be classified as class
I,II etc. and the limit maybe express in tons per day
3. Location and functionality: This classification is more reasonable as they may be defined
clearly, this can be classified into:

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 i. National/Federal highway
ii. State Highway
iii. Major district or arterial roads
iv. Minor or other district roads
v. Village roads
i. National highways are the important roads of the country connecting ports, capitals,
foreign highways and important cities. They run through the length and breadth of the
country. The generally they have at least 8m width and 2 m shoulder on both sides.
ii. State Highway: this highway also has at least two lanes of 8m width and 2m wide of
shoulder on both side of the road. These types of roads connect cities in the state with
national/ federal highway. The responsibilities of constructing and maintenance of
these roads is from the state government. The federal government gives support to the
state on the roads.
iii. Major district roads: these roads connect all important towns of the district with
headquarter; they also connect the areas of production and market with the railway
station or state highway.
iv. Minor or other district roads: it connects town to town and also with important
villages and also to state roads; these roads are maintained by district or local
governments.
v. Village roads: This road connect different villages and also to the district roads. They
are important to rural development as produce can be sent from the village to
connecting towns.
The classification based on speed and accessibility is the most generic one. Note that as the
accessibility of road increases, the speed reduces. (See figure 1). Accordingly, the roads can be
classified as follows in the order of increased accessibility and reduced speeds.
1. Freeways: Freeways are access-controlled divided highways. Most freeways are four
lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more lanes as they
enter urban areas. Access is controlled through the use of interchanges, and the type of
interchange depends upon the kind of intersecting road way (rural roads, another freeway
etc.)

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 2. Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds (120
km/hr is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided with grade
separations at intersections. Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic
is not allowed on expressways.
3. Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in the country. Highways are of two
types - rural highways and urban highways. Rural highways are those passing through rural
areas (villages) and urban highways are those passing through large cities and towns, ie.
urban areas.
4. Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic usually
on a continuous route. They are generally divided highways with fully or partially
controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and
regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian
crossings.
5. Local streets: A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access to residence,
business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large volume of traffic and also it
allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian movements.

If transport planners wish to modify a highway network either by constructing a new roadway or
by instituting a programme of traffic management improvements, any justification for their
proposal will require them to be able to formulate some forecast of future traffic volumes along
the critical links.

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Particularly in the case of the construction of a new roadway, knowledge of the traffic volumes
along a given link enables the equivalent number of standard axle loadings over its lifespan to be
estimated leading directly to the design of an allowable pavement thickness. Its provides the basis
for an appropriate geometric design for the road, leading to the selection of a sufficient number of
standard width lanes in each direction to provide the desired level of service to the driver. Highway
demand analysis thus endeavours to explain travel behavior within the area under scrutiny, and,
based on this understanding, to predict the demand for the highway project or system of highway
services proposed.
The prediction of highway demand requires a unit of measurement for travel behaviour to be
defined. This unit is termed a trip and involves movement from a single origin to a single
destination. The parameters utilized to detail the nature and extents of a given trip are as
follows:
_ Purpose
_ Time of departure and arrival
_ Mode employed
_ Distance of origin from destination
_ Route travelled.

ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE OF HIGHWAY

Within highway demand analysis, the justification for a trip is founded in economics and is based
on what is termed the utility derived from a trip. An individual will only make a trip if it makes
economic sense to do so, i.e. the economic benefit or utility of making a trip is greater than the
benefit accrued by not travelling, and otherwise it makes sense to stay at home as travelling results
in no economic benefit to the individual concerned. Utility defines the ‘usefulness’ in economic
terms of a given activity. Where two possible trips are open to an individual, the one with the
greatest utility will be undertaken.
Roadways are the capillaries, veins, and arteries of life, carrying the pedestrians, bicycles, cars,
buses, and cargo trucks to their intended destinations.
The administration of highway projects differs from one country to another, depending upon
social, political and economic factors. The design, construction and maintenance of major national
primary routes such as motorways or dual carriageways are generally the responsibility of a

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designated government department or an agency of it, with funding, in the main, coming from
central government. Those of secondary importance, feeding into the national routes, together with
local roads, tend to be they of it will usually take responsibility for the development of national
standards.
 Nigeria presently has about 200,000km of road network
 About 95% of both passenger and freight, movements are by road in Nigeria.
 Federal roads accounts for about 17% of total road network, but carries 80% of national
vehicular and freight traffic.
 Nigeria population growth rate is about 2.533% implying more cars on the road every year.
 Effects of good roads:
- Reduced travel time
- Reduced vehicular operating costs
- Provision of means to develop other forms of transportation
- Profitability of economic, commercial and business activities
 Transport is the cornerstone of civilization
 Efficient interactions of two locations depend on the effectiveness of the mode of transport.
 Economic development is a function road infrastructure development.
 The administration of roads is based on four principles
- Construction
- Expansion
- Rehabilitation
- Re- construction
 The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria gives each tier of government (Federal,
State and Local Government) the autonomy to PLAN, FINANCE, CONSTRUCT AND
MAINTAIN the roads under its jurisdictions.
 Federal roads are subjected to severe pressure due to high vehicular traffic and freight (no
rail, marine or other alternative mode of transport and 17% of total road carries 80%
traffic).

Administration of Nigeria Federal Roads

 The federal Ministry of Works is in charge of Nigeria Federal Road.

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  The four-fold roles the Ministry played are
- Planning, construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of Federal Roads.
- Planning, construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of bridges along Federal roads.
- Provision of facilities such as street light, road signs, traffic robots and markings on Federal
Roads.
- Provision of professional services to other MDAs.

The Ministry is broken into different departments and unit for effective management. The
major units are: (1) Highways, (2) Electrical Street lighting services, (3) Central workshop &
Equipment (4) Human Resource Management (5) Finance of account, (6) Planning, Research and
statistics, (7) Public procurement (8) Engineering management services (9) Federal Road
maintenance Agency (FERMA) and (10) Office of surveyor General of the Federation (OSGOF).

Evolution of Nigeria Road Infrastructure Reform process:

- Formation of Road vision 2000 (RV 2000) in 1996 creating National Road Board and Road
Fund mandated to prepare legal framework for private participation.
- RV 2000 evolved into Road Section Development and Maintenance Program (RSDMP) in
2004 with assistance of World Bank to be implemented by a self-accounting, performance-
based Road Sector Development Team (RSDT)
- The RSDMP led to creation of the Federal Road Development Program (FRDP) also
managed by RSDT. FRDP consists of three units
(i) Rehabilitation, upgrading and maintenance of Federal Roads.
(ii) Institutional strengthening and policy Reforms
(iii) Road safety components.

FINANCE OF HIGHWAYS

The following are major sources of highway finance:

1. Government generated income

2. Public private partnership
3. Viability Gap funding
4. Annuity contracts

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 5. Loans from multilateral Agencies, bilateral agencies and pension fund
6. Floating of Road Bonds
7. Implementation of 5% fuel surcharge

(1) Government Generated income

The government-generated income could come from:

- Export of goods and services
- Duties on goods
- Taxes (property tax, motor vehicle tax etc)
- Fines and levies
- Tolls and parking charges

This money is allocated to highway through annual budgeting.

(2) Public Private partnership (PPP)

This is a business venture jointly carried out and funded by the government and one or
more private companies

The private companies form a consortium that is generally called “Special purpose vehicle” (SPV).
The consortium could consist of project sponsor, Bank lender etc.

The infrastructure concession regulatory commission (ICRC), established by the ICRC Act 2005,
supervises roles of PPP in Nigeria.

There are 11 models of PP available in Nigeria:

1. Design – Build (DB) or Turkey contract
2. Service provision contract
3. Management contract
4. Lease and operate contract
5. Design-Build-Operate-Finance (DBFO)
6. Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT)
7. Buy-Build-Operate (BBO)
8. Build-Own-Operate (BOO)

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9. Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT)
10. Operating licenses
11. Fiancé only
PPP involves four major phases
1. Preliminary phase
2. Development phase
3. Procurement phase
4. Implementation phase
Key benefits of PPP for private investors are
1. Ready access to long term investment opportunities with relative security
2. Achieve efficiency based on technical financial and innovative capability
3. Expansion of business on track record of successfully working with the public sector
Key Benefits to the Public sector of PPP.
1. Maintaining economic stability: Government no longer needs to take loan and pay interest.
2. Gains from private sector innovation and expertise: Gives best source of value for money
(VFM)
3. Logical Estimate of Expenditure during the life cycle of the infrastructure: (Predictable
expenditure possible)
4. Achieving desired growth rate: through additional investment and increased production
capacity.
(3) Viability Gap Funding:
This fund is used for projects that faces viability gap. Example is a highway that carries a
volume of traffic too low to recover expected investment. The capital grant provided by
government could be up to 40% of project cost. The projects are usually undertaken by
PPP.

(4) Annuity Contract

This applies also to projects of low returns on investments or high costs of construction,
but are important for construction for security reasons or development of the area.

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 The private company finance, construct and maintain the highway and recover its
investment plus an agreed rate of return from the annuity payments by the government.
The government bears the traffic risk, since it collects the toll revenues.

(5) Borrowing from Multilateral Agencies and Pension Fund

Nigeria Federal Government is presently using this method to finance the 10 years Road
Sector Development Program (RSDP) implemented under the Federal Road Development
Programme (FRDP) managed by Road Sector Development Team (RSDT) on behalf of
the Federal Ministry of Works. Three of these multilateral agencies are World Bank,
Japanese Government and African Development Bank (AfDB). The federal government
provides counterpart funding for the project.

(6) Floating of Road Bonds

FGN road bonds are written promises issued by FGN to re-pay borrowed money on a
definite schedule usually at a fixed rate over the period of the bond. Some state government
also issue road bonds e.g. Ogun State.
FGN bonds are in denominations of N1, 000 + multiple of N1,000 thereafter. Majority
have fixed interest rates paid bi-annually. Nevertheless, some have floating rates based on
specified parameters. Others are such that both interest and principal are re-paid at the final
maturity date of the bond. The Debt Management Office (DMO) by law issues and
regulates the activities of the FGN bonds. The central bank of Nigeria (CBN) acts as the
issuing house and registrar for FGN Bonds. The Nigeria Stock Exchange (NSE) lists and
trades the bonds. The Central Securities Clearing Systems Ltd (CSCS) acts as the
depository of the bonds where physical certificate are deposited before transaction on them
at NSE. The Security and Exchange Commission (SEC) is Apex regulator in capital market
that regulates the activities of all operators in the stock market.
The duration of FGN bonds is between 2 and 20 years. The default risk is nil.

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 (7) Implementation of the 5% Fuel Surcharge

The law was passed in 2007. When this law is implemented, 40% of the fund will be used
for Federal roads under FERMA and remaining 60% for state roads under the state road
maintenance agency.

TRAFFIC SURVEYS

The availability of highway transportation has provided several advantages that contribute to a
high standard of living. However, several problems related to the highway mode of transportation
exist. These problems include highway-related crashes, parking difficulties, congestion, and delay.
To reduce the negative impact of highways, it is necessary to adequately collect information that
describes the extent of the problems and identifies their locations. Such information is usually
collected by organizing and conducting traffic surveys and studies.
Traffic survey and studies may be grouped into three main categories: (1) inventories, (2)
administrative studies, and (3) dynamic studies

Inventories provide a list or graphic display of existing information, such as street widths, parking
spaces, transit routes, traffic regulations, and so forth. Some inventories for example, give
available parking spaces and traffic regulations which changes frequently and therefore require
periodic updating; others, such as street widths, do not change and could be kept constant except
for expansion of the road

A comprehensive transport system inventory normally requires details of the networks,

infrastructure and facilities associated with all modes of transport. Some of the required
information can be obtained by site inspection but other information, such as ownership, usage
restrictions, charging structures, public transport fleet and timetable information; will probably
involve contacting owners or operators. It might be thought possible to obtain almost all the
required information from files held by the responsible planning authority. In practice, however,
the information is often spread between a variety of departments and organizations and it may be
quicker to do a field survey than to try to locate all the requisite files. This state of affairs is likely
to change with the advent of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which allow this type of
information to be stored and then easily accessed by location (e.g. 'list details of all infrastructure
at location x') or according to some system characteristic (e.g. 'list locations of all pelican

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crossings'). Even so it will be necessary to conduct periodic field surveys to verify the information
on file and to ascertain the current condition of the infrastructure. Even with the availability of
software to predict the condition of the infrastructure- e.g. to know the pavement condition as a
function of its construction and the volume of traffic involved, it will still be necessary to conduct
periodic field surveys to confirm these predictions.

The most common forms of condition survey are those relating to the road surface, lighting and
traffic signs. These surveys are usually conducted on a routine basis according to some carefully
planned schedule and it has become standard practice to use hand-held computers to guide the
surveyors along prescribed routes and to prompt them to record the required items of data. Many
of the required observations can be made by eye by a trained surveyor but some require specialist
equipment to quantify aspects such as deformation or breakdown of the pavement, deterioration
in the luminance of lighting or of reflectivity of signs and so forth. Recently increasing use of
semi-automatic survey equipment such as videos, lasers and light meters which, if housed in a
special survey vehicle driven at 'normal' speed along a designated route, can provide a permanent
record of key parameters which can be examined by skilled staff back in the laboratory with a view
to determining which sites or locations require more detailed investigation.

Administrative studies use existing engineering records, available in government agencies and
departments. This information is used to prepare an inventory of the relevant data. Inventories may
be recorded in files but are usually recorded in automated data processing (ADP) systems.
Administrative studies include the results of surveys, which may involve field measurements
and/or aerial photography.
Dynamic traffic studies involve the collection of data under operational conditions and include
studies of speed, traffic volume, travel time and delay, parking, and crashes. Dynamic studies are
carried out by the traffic engineer to evaluate current conditions and develop solutions.

Traffic count
Traffic count is a count of vehicular or pedestrian traffic, which is conducted along a particular
road, path, or intersection.

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A traffic count is commonly undertaken either automatically (with the installation of a temporary
or permanent electronic traffic recording device), or manually by observer, who visually counts
and records traffic on a hand-held electronic device or tally sheet.

Traffic surveys consist of the following studies:

1. Traffic volume study

2. Traffic flow characteristics
3. Speed studies
(i) Spot speed study
(ii) Speed and delay study
4. Traffic capacity study
5. Origin and destination (O and D) study
6. Parking study
7. Accident study.

Traffic Volume Studies

Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or pedestrians
that pass a point on a highway facility during a specified time. This period varies from as little as
15 minutes to as much as a year depending on the anticipated use of the data. The data collected
also may be put into subclasses that may include directional movement, occupancy rates, vehicle
classification, and pedestrian age. Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when certain
volume characteristics are needed, some of which are:
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected every day
of the year. AADTs are used in several traffic and transportation analyses for:
a. Estimation of highway user revenues
b. Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per 100 million vehicle miles
c. Establishment of traffic volume trends
d. Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
e. Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
f. Development of improvement and maintenance programs
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days
greater than one but less than a year. ADTs may be used for:

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a. Planning of highway activities
b. Measurement of current demand
c. Evaluation of existing traffic flow

3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway
during a period of 60 consecutive minutes. PHVs are used for:
a. Functional classification of highways
b. Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number of lanes, intersection
signalization, or channelization
c. Capacity analysis
d. Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example, one-way street systems or
traffic routing
e. Development of parking regulations
4. Vehicle Classification (VC) records volume with respect to the type of vehicles, for example,
passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is used in:
a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii requirements,
maximum grades, lane widths, and so forth
b. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks
c. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines
d. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth
5. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is a measure of travel along a section of road. It is the product
of the traffic volume (that is, average weekday volume or ADT) and the length of roadway in miles
to which the volume is applicable. VMTs are used mainly as a base for allocating resources for
maintenance and improvement of highways.
Methods of traffic count

The methods can be grouped into two:

i. Intrusive methods (that is, can intrude traffic flow)

ii. Non-intrusive methods

Intrusive methods include counting systems that involve placing sensors in or on the roadbed.

Non-intrusive methods involve remote observational methods.

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In general, the intrusive methods are used most widely because of their relative ease of use and
because they have been used for decades. The only widely used non-intrusive method is manual
counting, which enjoys a wide application because of its ease.

1. Intrusive methods: This includes

(i) Bending plate: A weight pad attached to a metal plate embedded in the road to
measure axel weight and speed. It is an expensive device and requires alteration to
the road bed.
(ii) Pneumatic road tube: a rubber tube that is placed across the lanes that uses
pressure changes to record the number of axle movements in a counter placed on
the side of the road. The drawback is that it has limited lane coverage, may become
displaced, and can be dislodged by road maintenance.
(iii) Piezo-electric sensor: A device that is placed in a groove cut into the roadbed of
the lane(s) being counted. This electronic counter can be used to measure weight
and speed. Cutting into the roadbed can affect the integrity of the roadbed and
decreases the lifespan of the pavement.
(iv) Inductive loop: a wire embedded in the road in a square formation that creates a
magnetic field that relays the information to a counting device at the side of the
road. This has a generally short life expectancy because it can be damaged by heavy
vehicle, and it is also prone to installation errors.
2. Non-intrusive methods:
(i) Manual observation: This is a very traditional method involving placing observers
at specific locations to record vehicles or pedestrian movements. At its simplest,
observers use tally sheets to record, but numbers, on the other hand there are
mechanical and electronic counting boards available that the observers can punch
in each time an event is observed. It can record traffic numbers, type and directions
of travel. Manual counts give rise to safety concerns, either from the traffic itself or
the neighborhoods where the counts are being undertaken.
(ii) Passive and active infra-red: A sensor detecting the presence, speed and type of
vehicles by measuring infra-red energy radiating from the detection area. Typically,
the devices are mounted overheard on a bridge or pylon. The major limitation is the
performance during inclement weather, and limited lane coverage.

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 (iii) Passive magnetic: Magnetic sensors that count vehicle numbers, speed and type
are placed under or on top of the roadbed. In operating conditions, the sensor has
difficulties differentiating between closely spaced vehicles.
(iv) Microwave – Doppler/Radar: Mounted overhead, the devices record moving
vehicle and speed. With the exception of radar devices, they have difficulty in
detecting closely spaced vehicles and do not detect stationary vehicles. They are
not affected by weather.
(v) Ultrasonic and passive acoustic: Devices that use sound wave or sound energy to
detect vehicles. Those using ultrasound are placed overhead to record vehicle
presence but can be affected by temperature and turbulence. The acoustic devices
are placed alongside the road and can detect numbers and vehicle type.
(vi) Video image detection: Use of overhead video cameras to record vehicle numbers,
type and speed. Various software’s are available to analyze the video image.
Weather may limit accuracy.

Traffic Surveys
Traffic counts may provide some precise information about numbers of vehicles, their type,
weight or speed; but they do not provide other data that are essential in transport planning such as
trip purpose, routing, duration, original destination (O and D), etc. Collecting these data requires
more extensive traffic surveys. These includes:
(1) Mailed questionnaires: Can include a wide range of questions. It is relatively cheap to
administer to large numbers of people.
Although preparation can be expensive, the main problem is the generally low response
rate.
(2) Travel diaries: Soliciting respondents to keep a diary of the trips undertaken, times,
purposes, modes etc. Extremely useful instrument but constrained by the number of people
willing to complete such a detailed inventory.
(3) Telephone surveys: With automated dialing, bulk SMS and other social media, this can
achieve extensive coverage, but response rate are usually low.

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 (4) Face-to-face home interviews: This can overcome many of the errors based on
misunderstanding of the questions in mail surveys, but are extremely time-consuming and
costly.

Some Important Definitions

(1) Average Daily Traffic (ADT): The volume during a given time period divided by the
number of days in that time period and expressed in terms of vpd (vehicles per day).
(2) Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): It is the total yearly volume divided by the
number of days in a year and expressed in terms of vpd.
(3) Rate of flow: The equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass over a given point or
section of a lane or roadway during a time interval less than 1 hr, usually 15 minutes and
expressed as veh/hr or veh/min

Adjustment of Periodic counts

Expansion factors, used to adjust periodic counts, are determined either from continuous count
stations or from control count stations.

(1) Hourly expansion factors (HEF)

HEF= total volume for 24 – hr period
volume for particular hour
(2) Daily expansion factor (DEF)
DEF = average total volume for week
average volume for particular day
(3) Monthly expansion factor (MEF)
MEF = AADT
ADT for particular month

Exercise
A traffic engineer urgently needs to determine the AADT on a rural primary road in Osogbo that
has the volume distribution characteristics shown in attached tables. He collected the data shown
below on a Tuesday during the month of May. Determine the AADT of the road.

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 Period Volume HEF

7.00 – 8.00am 400 29.00

8.00 – 9.00am 535 22.05

9.00 – 10.00am 650 18.80

10.00 – 11.00am 710 17.10

11.00 – 12.00 noon 650 18.52

Given that, the DEF for Tuesday is 7.727 and MEF for May as 1.394.

I. The passenger car unit (PCU)

This is the equivalent, in PCU, assigned to different categories of vehicles for ease of summation
in traffic count. E.g. motor cycle is 0.5, passenger car is 1.0, two axle truck is 2.0, buses 1.5 etc.
This enables all counted vehicles to be in same unit.

II. Traffic Flow Characteristics

These consist of diverging, merging, crossing and weaving maneuvers

Left Right

Diverging

Merging

Crossing

Weaving

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Diverging and merging from the right side do not cause any problem but diverging to and merging
from left cause conflicts and difficulties to traffic moving on straight path.

Traffic signals or traffic controls are necessary at level road intersections to prevent accidents.

III. Speed Studies

This consists of:

(1) Spot speed study and
(2) Speed and delay studies

Spot speed surveys

Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of
traffic at a particular location on a highway. The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of
movement of the vehicle; it is usually expressed in miles per hour (mi/h) or kilometers per hour
(km/h).
Spot speeds are also the instantaneous speeds of vehicles at the observation site. They are
commonly required in accident analyses, and used to assess the need for, and impact of, traffic
management and control measures/devices, e.g. speed limits, signal settings, road markings, speed-
change lanes, no passing zones, traffic signs, and pedestrian crossings. A spot speed study is
carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a specified location. Speed
characteristics identified by such a study will be valid only for the traffic and environmental
conditions that exist at the time of the study. Speed characteristics determined from a spot
speed study may be used to:
• Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones, speed limits (85th-
percentile speed is commonly used as the speed limit on a road), and passing restrictions.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as variable message signs at work
zones.
• Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs, such as the use of drone radar and the use of
differential speed limits for passenger cars and trucks.
• Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics, such as radii of
horizontal curves and lengths of vertical curves.

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• Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash data for different
speed characteristics.
• Determine speed trends.
• Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid
Locations for Spot Speed Studies
The following locations generally are used for the different applications listed:
1. Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways are used for basic
data collection.
2. Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways are sites for speed
trend analyses.
3. Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem.
Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies
The methods used for conducting spot speed studies can generally be divided into two main
categories: manual and automatic.
Manual methods include:
(1) Floating car or riding check method
(2) License plate or vehicle number method
(3) Interview method
(4) Photographic method
(5) Elevated observation method

Several automatic devices that can be used to obtain the instantaneous speeds of vehicles at a
location on a highway are now available on the market. These automatic devices can be grouped
into three main categories:
(1) Those that use road detectors,
(2) Those that are radar-based, and (3) those that use the principles of electronics.

(1). Floating car method:

A test vehicle is driven a number of times over a given stretch of road at roughly the average speed
of the stream of traffic. A number of observers record various control points, duration of delays,
no. of vehicles over taking test vehicles and that are overtaken by test vehicle etc.

20
 The average journey time T mins for all the vehicles in a traffic stream in the direction of
flow is given by
𝑛𝑦
T = tw - where
𝑞
𝑛𝑎+𝑛𝑦
q= 𝑡𝑎+𝑡𝑤

Where

ta = av. Journey time (mins) when test vehicle runs against stream

tw = av. Journey time (mins) when test vehicle runs with stream

q = flow of vehicle (vol/min)

na = av. No of vehicles counted in direction of the stream when test vehicles travels in
opposite direction

ny = no. of vehicles overtaking test vehicles minus no. of vehicles overtaken when test
vehicle is in direction of flow.

(1) License Plate Method:

Observers are posted at the entrance and exit of the test section where information of travel
time is required. The observers of the selected sample note the timings and the vehicle
numbers. Travel time of each vehicle is they computed. The disadvantage of this method
is that it does not give the cause of delays, duration and number of delays within the test
section of the road.
Exercise.
Speed and delay studies by floating car method were conducted on a stretch of city road of
3km length running North to South. The data collected is given below in tabular form. Find
out the
(i) Average values of traffic volume
(ii) Journey speed and
(iii) Running speed of the traffic stream along either direction

21
Trip No Direction Journey time Total No. of vehicles No. of vehicles No. of vehicles
of trip (min sec) stopped Overtaking Overtaken from opposite
Delay in direction
min sec

1. N–S 5’ 30” 1’ 30” 4 7 250

2.
S–N 6’ 15” 1’ 90” 5 5 200
3.
N–S 5’ 22” 1’ 30” 5 3 240
4.

5. S–N 6’ 20” 2’ 15” 3 1 210

6.
N–S 5’ 38” 1’ 10” 2 6 230
7.

8. S–N 6’ 18” 1’ 20” 2 3 250

9. N–S 5’ 20” 1’ 40” 2 7 210

S–N 6’ 32” 1’ 50” 3 2 180

N–S 5’ 10” 1’ 30” 2 4 200

22
 Solution

Mean values of speed and delay data

Direction Journey time Total stopped No. of vehicles No. of vehicles No. of vehicles
of trip (min sec) Delay in min sec Overtaking Overtaken from opposite
direction

N–S 5’ 30” 1’ 30” 4 7 250

5’ 22” 1’ 30” 5 3 240

5’ 38” 1’ 10” 2 6 230

5’ 20” 1’ 40” 2 7 210

5’ 10” 1’ 30’ 2 4 200

TOTAL 27’ 00” 7’ 20” 15 27 1,130

Mean 5’ 24” 1’ 28” 3 5.4 226

S–N 6’ 15” 1’ 40” 5 5 200

S–N 6’ 20” 2’ 15” 3 1 210

S–N 6’ 18” 1’ 20” 2 3 250

S–N 6’ 32” 1’ 50” 3 2 180

TOTAL 25’ 25” 7’ 5” 13 11 840

Mean 6’ 21” 1’ 46” 3.25 2.75 210

For N – S direction

ny = 3.0 – 5.4 = - 2.4

23
 na = av. no. of vehicles in opposite direction = 210

tw = av. Journey time = 5’ 24” = 5.4 mins

ta = av. Journey time against the stream = 6’ 21” = 6.24

q = average volume

𝑛𝑎+𝑛𝑦 210−2.4
= = 6.34+5.4
𝑡𝑎+𝑡𝑤
207.6
= 11.74 = 17.68 veh/min

= 17.68 x 60 veh/hr
= 1060.8
1161 veh/hr

Average journey time,

𝑛𝑦
T = tw - 𝑞

−2.4
= 5.4 – (17.68) = 5.536 min

Average journey speed

3 𝑥 60
= km/h
5.536

= 32.51km/h

Average stopped delay = 1’ 28”

= 1.46 min

Average running time

= av. Journey time – av. Stopped delay

= 5.536 – 1.46 = 4.076 min

Average running speed

24
 3 𝑥 60
= = 44.161 km/h
4.076

For S – N direction:

ny = 3.25 – 2.75 = 0.5

tw = N – S direction ta = 6.34 min

ta = N – S direction tw = 5.4 min

na = 226

226+0.5 226.5
q= = = 19.29 veh/min
5.4+6.34 11.74

= 19.29 x 60 veh/min

= 1157 veh/min

0.5
T = 6.34 – 19.29 = 6.34 – 0.026

= 6.314 min

3 𝑥 60
Journey speed = = 28.51km/h
6.314

Average stopped delay = 1’ 46” = 1.77 min

Average running time

= 6.314 – 1.77

= 4. 544 min

Average running speed

3 𝑥 60
= = 39.61 km/h
4.544

IV. Traffic Capacity Studies

Traffic capacity: This is the ability of a highway to accept a given volume of vehicles in a
given time.

25
 There are 3 types:
1. Basic capacity: Also called theoretical capacity of the road.
The maximum number of passenger cars passing a given point of the road in one hour in
most ideal traffic conditions.
2. Possible capacity: The maximum number of vehicles which can pass a given point in one
hour, under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
3. Practical capacity: The maximum number of vehicles which can pass a given point in one
hour under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions, without unreasonable delay or
restriction to the driver. This is also called the design capacity of the highway.
Factors affecting practical capacity
1. Width of lane
2. Lateral clearances
3. Width of shoulder
4. Commercial vehicles
5. Road geometrics
6. Existence of road intersections

Generally, the theoretical maximum capacity of a highway is given by

1000𝑉
C= 𝑆

V = Speed in km/h

S = c/c spacing of vehicle given by

S = SD +L

L = Length of vehicle

SD = Stopping distance, given by

SD = 0.28vt + 0.01v2

26
Exercise:

Calculate the theoretical maximum traffic capacity for a traffic lane at speed of 80km/h. Assume
average length of the vehicle as 6m

Solution:

1000𝑉
C= 𝑆

S = SD + L

= 0.28vt + 0.01v2 + L

= 0.28 x 80 x 0.75 + 0.01 (80)2 + 6

(take reaction time t = 0.75s)

= 86.8m

1000 𝑥 80
C= 86.8

= 922 vehicles/h

V. Origin and Destination studies (O and D)

Purpose of O and D study:
1. Why people travel (purpose of trip)
2. When people travel (time and direction)
3. How people travel (mode of travel: bus, car, cycle or foot)
4. Where people go (Origin & destination)
5. Where and when people stop (parking facilities)
Methods of O & D Studies
1. Drivers interview
2. License plate method
3. Return post card method
4. Home interviews
5. Tag on car method

27
6. Distribution of cards in schools & colleges

VI. Parking Study

Three items are mainly studied:

1. Parking demand: This is estimated by making condone counts of vehicles of the area and
recording the peak demand for parking facilities.
2. Space inventory: The study of all existing parking facilities and open spaces available for
parking places.
3. Parking practices: This is obtained by interviewing parkers as they enter the area to have
idea how many people would like to bring their cars if parking facility is provided.
There are 3 types of parking
a. Parallel parking
b. Angled parking, (450 angle is best)
c. Right angled parking

VII. Accidents Study

Causes of accidents
1. Drivers
2. Pedestrians
3. Vehicle failures
4. Road conditions
5. Road geometrics
6. Poor weather
7. Stray animals
8. Obstacles on highway.
Accident preventive measure
1. Engineering measures:
- Road design (geometries, grade separations, by-passes, safe surface)
- Vehicle conditions (brakes, lights, steering etc.)
2. Enforcement measures:
- Speed limit

28
- Markings & channelization
- Periodic checks by law enforcement agents, imposing heavy fines on offenders
3. Education measures:
People should be made aware of traffic rules through:
- Radio
- T.V
- School
- Safety weeks
METHODS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN
Some of the methods are:
1. C.B.R method
2. AASHTO method (Group index method)
3. California (Hveem) method
4. Burmister method
5. McLeod method
6. Triaxial test method
7. North Carolina method
(1) C.B.R Method

29
30
Example

The following data were obtained for the design of flexible pavement.

Number of vehicles exceeding 3 tonnes = 4000

CBR of sub grade = 5%

3 lanes in each direction

Solution

From table I – 306 (I), for 3 lane roadway, use 80% of 3 tonnes vehicles for design lane.

4000 x 0.8 = 3,200 vehs exceeding 3 tonnes. On figure I – 306.2, use curve F. From the curve, the
required thickness above a CBR of 5% is 480mm. The subbase of cement stabilized soil has min.
CBR of 10%. From the curve, we obtained a thickness of 330mm above subbase

Thickness of cement stabilized Subbase = 480 – 330 = 150mm

The crusted stone base has a min. CBR of 80%

From the curve, this gives a depth of 100mm above base (asphalt concrete)

Thickness of crushed stone base

= 330 – 100 = 230mm

100mm of asphalt concrete pavement is required to complete the pavement section.

31
Limitations of the CBR method

The major limitation is that the total thickness of the pavement depends only on the CBR of the
subgrade, no matter the quality or CBR of the subbase, base or wearing course.

Example: Calculate the total thickness of pavement for a road for which the CBR value of
subgrade is 4%. Calculate also the thickness of subbase, base and wearing layer having CBR value
of 15%, 80% and 90% respectively. Traffic counts gave number of vehicles per day exceeding 3
tonnes as 800 for 2 lane road design.

(2) AASHTO or Group Index Method

The following are the factors considered in AASHTO method:
1. Pavement performance
2. Traffic load
3. Subgrade material
4. Materials of construction
5. Environment
6. Drainages
7. Reliability
1. Pavement performance:
Two factors are considered
a. Structural performance
b. Functional performance

32
 Structural performance relates to the physical condition of the pavement such as cracking,
faulting, rounding etc.
Functional performance relates to how well the pavement serves the user such as riding
comfort.
The pavement performance is quantified in terms of serviceability performance. We
have;
1. Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
This is rated from 0 to 5.
2. Initial Serviceability index Pi
(Immediately after construction)
3. Terminal serviceability index Pt
(Min. acceptable value before resurfacing or reconstruction)
2. Traffic load:
In AASHTO, traffic load is determined in terms of no. of repetitions of an 80KN single-
axle load applied on two sets of dual tires. This is called Equivalent Single-axle load
(ESAL).
ESAL = fd x Gm x AADTi x 365 x Ni x FEi
Where
fd = design lane factor
Gm = Growth factor for given growth rate r and design period n
AADTi = First year animal are daily traffic
N = Number of axle on each veh.
FE = Load equivalency factor
(3) California (Hveem) Design Method
The factors considered are:
1) Traffic load
2) Strength of subgrade material
3) Strength of construction materials
The traffic index, is given as
𝐸𝑆𝐴𝐿 0.119
𝑇. 𝐼 = 9.0 ( 6 )
10

33
The total thickness above a layer is given as

G.E = 0.00098 (T.I) (100 – R)

The actual depth of the layer is obtained from

D = G.E/Gf

Where Gf is the Gravel equivalent factor for the material.

PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Construction of a highway today requires broad knowledge of a number of elements that could be
divided into technical and commercial elements of the system and process, respectively. The
technical elements include materials, material quality, installation techniques, and traffic control
systems, etc. The commercial elements include understanding of the contract; environmental,
political and legal aspects of a project; and public concerns.
The contractor’s project organization for highway construction is structured around trades namely,
project management, grading or earthwork, structures, specialty elements including mechanically
stabilized earth walls, traffic control or systems, landscaping and paving. Project management
covers scheduling, cost estimating, procurement, quality control safety and environmental control.
A good project management approach will include a well-defined structure outlining roles and
responsibilities and ensure good communication among the various groups. A number of agencies
are beginning to require the builder provide independent quality control and quality assurance. In
addition to establishing a quality control or quality assurance program, management is expected
to provide stop work authority to this group.
The environmental aspects of a project are not limited to the elements of the project and to the
project limits. Permit requirements and commitments will have to be understood to avoid
expensive fines and shutdowns. Impacts to adjacent properties, surface and sub-surface drainage,
noise and light pollution during and after construction will have to be understood and implemented.
Political aspects of a project can be complex, depending on the location, size of the project, funding
for the project, etc. Though the contracting agency is responsible to keep the wheels turning, the

34
constructor has a lot at stake if the funding for the project is not in place or not assured for the
future years.
Additionally, the constructor will need to be aware of other political pressures such as use of local
work force, special needs of a community or group, etc.
Legal aspects of the project could include meeting commitments of the contract, subcontracting,
claims, changed conditions, safety of traveling public, etc. These include the required level of
participation of disadvantaged businesses, prescribed minimum wages, betterments established to
placate local municipalities, and environmental requirements, etc.
Review of existing ground conditions will reveal the need for stripping, depth of required stripping,
quantity of material to be stripped, equipment to be used and distance to disposal area of any
unsuitable materials. If the stripped material is deemed suitable, it may be used as top-soil with
appropriate amendments. The need for any stabilization of existing ground can be determined.
Plans are studied to develop what is called “block diagrams” or “mass diagrams” to identify cuts
and fills. This provides information on the overall quantity of material that may be needed to be
imported for constructing the embankment and also provides information (together with
geotechnical data) on equipment to be used. The term grading is generally used to include
excavating, hauling, spreading and compacting embankment material in place. Excavation is the
process of loosening and removing rock or earth from its original location and transporting to a fill
section or disposal site. Depending on the nature of the rock, it may be ripped or may need to be
blasted. This material can then be bulldozed to nearby location or hauled off using loaders and
trucks. On the other hand, earth material may be removed and hauled over short distance using
self-loading scrapers. For hauling over a considerable distance or through existing highways and
streets where axle loads are limited, the material may be loaded using front-end loaders on to rear
or bottom dump trucks. Traffic control, dust control, and maintenance of affected public facilities
will need to considered and planned for.
Another important element of the projects is to have a good survey crew. The crew should be able
to review and interpret the information contained in the design drawings, break this information
down and layout the center line; control points including edge of roadway alignment, fill limits
including angle points and ROW limits.

35
Subgrade Preparation and Stabilization
The term subgrade as used in this section refers to the natural or existing ground. For an elevated
highway this will be below the embankment fill and for at-grade sections this would be
immediately below the pavement section. It is customary to clear and grub within the staked fill
limits of the highway and other designated areas. Both the short-term and long-term performance
(such as settlement and stability) of the newly constructed highway is highly dependent on the
stability of the underlying soils. Care should be exercised to this aspect of building the highway.
If unsuitable materials such as soft plastic silts or clays are encountered at shallow depths (within
the top 3 to 5 ft or 0.9 to 1.5 m) and extending over large areas (10 ft or 3 m), it will be prudent to
remove and replace these materials with suitable granular materials.
Subbase Course Materials and Construction
Subbase course with thickness typically between 4 and 16 in. (100 and 400 mm) is a layer of
select material between the subgrade and the base course. Subbase course provides uniform
support and adds to the required structural capacity of the pavement section. The material can be
gravel, crushed stone or subgrade soil stabilized with cement, fly ash or lime. The use of permeable
subbase course is becoming more common to accommodate drainage of water infiltrating from the
surface or to keep subsurface water from reaching the surface. In certain regions, the course is also
used to impede frost penetration into the subgrade and thereby minimizing frost heave damage to
the pavement surface. Compaction and moisture control achieved by generally specialized
equipment as opposed to solely by construction traffic.
Base Course Materials and Construction
Base course is the portion of the pavement section that is immediately below the surface course.
It is constructed on top of the subbase course or if there is no subbase course, directly on top of
the subgrade.
The base course is subjected to heavy loads and is an important component of the pavement
structure. The requirements of the base course are more stringent than the subbase or subgrade
material. Base course is generally constructed of untreated crushed aggregate (such as crushed
stone, slag, or gravel) meeting the requirements of AASHTO Specification M147 and M75. The
material should exhibit good drainage characteristics and stability under construction traffic.
Base course thickness is governed by the properties of the underlying layers. Its thickness is
generally in the range of 4 to 6 in. (100 to 150 mm. Base course material section is generally

36
carried across underneath the shoulders or curb and gutters to not only provide a stable base but
also to ensure continuity for drainage, away from the surface course of the pavement section.
Construction of bituminous road surfacing
The production of a successful bituminous road surfacing depends not just on the design of the
individual constituent layers but also on the correctness of the construction procedure employed
to put them in place. In essence, the construction of a bituminous pavement consists of the flowing
steps:
 Transporting and placing the bituminous material
 Compaction of the mixture
 If required, the spreading and rolling of coated chippings into the surface of the material.
Transporting and placing
The bituminous material is manufactured at a central batching plant where, after the mixing of
its constituents, the material is discharged into a truck or trailer for transportation to its final
destination. The transporters must have metallic beds sprayed with an appropriate material to
prevent the mixture sticking to it. The vehicle should be designed to avoid heat loss which may
result in a decrease in temperature of the material, leading to difficulties in its subsequent
placement if it is too cold it may prove impossible to compact properly.
It is very important that the receiving surface is clean and free of any foreign materials. It must,
therefore, be swept clean of all loose dirt. A paver is used for the actual placing of the bituminous
material. It ensures a uniform rate of spread of correctly mixed material. The oscillating/vibrating
screed and vibro tamper delivers the mix at the required elevation and cross-section and uses a
tamping mechanism to initiate the compaction process.
Compaction of the bituminous mix
When the initial placing of the mix is complete, it is then rolled while still hot. Minimum
temperatures vary from 75°C to 90°C depending on the stiffness of the binder. This process is
completed using either pneumatic tyre or steel wheel rollers. The tyre pressures for pneumatic
rollers vary from 276kPa to 620kPa, while the steel wheel rollers vary from 8 to 18 t. If the latter
are vibratory rather than static, 50 vibrations per second will be imparted. The rolling is carried
out in a longitudinal direction, generally commencing at the edge of the new surface and
progressing towards the centre. If the road is super elevated, rolling commences on the low side
and progresses towards the highest point.

37
Application of Coated Chippings to Smooth Surfacing (Surface Dressing)
Chippings are frequently used in order to give improved surface texture to smooth wearing course
mixes such as hot rolled asphalt. They are placed after laying but prior to compaction. The two
major considerations are the uniformity and rate of spread of the chippings and the depth of their
embedment –deep enough so that the bituminous mix will hold them in place but not too deep so
that they become submerged and provide no added skidding resistance. Rate of spread of the coated
chippings is set so as to achieve full coverage. An upper value of 12.0kg/m2 is used for 20 mm
chippings, reducing to 9.5kg/m2 for14 mm nominal size chippings.
TD (texture depth) = 6360/ D2
Construction of concrete road surfacing
There are a number of key issues are addressed in order to properly construct a concrete pavement.
These include the positioning of the reinforcement in the concrete, the correct forming of both
joints, slabs and the chosen method of construction, be it mechanized or manual.
Concrete paving is a dynamic and vigorous process, so it is imperative that the steel reinforcement
is kept firmly in place throughout. In particular, chairs (basket) made from bent reinforcing bars
permit the mesh or fabric reinforcement at the top of the slab to be secured throughout the
concreting process. Crack inducers must also be firmly connected to the subbase. Dowel bars used
in expansion and contraction joints are usually positioned on metal cradles so that they will not
move from their required position while the concrete is being placed and compacted. These cradles,
however, should not extend across the line of the joint. Tie-bars in warping joints are also normally
part of a rigid construction that allows them to be firmly secured to the supporting subbase, while
those in construction joints can be inserted into the side of the pavement slab and re-compacted.
Alternatively, both dowels and tie-bars can be vibrated into position.
Where the top of the pavement foundation consists of unbound material, it is possible that grout
from the concreting process may leak into it. To prevent this occurring, and to minimize frictional
forces, a heavy-duty polythene separation membrane is positioned between the foundation and the
jointed concrete pavement.
The pavement slab can be constructed in one or two layers. Two layers could be employed where
an air-entrained upper layer is being installed or for ease in the placement of reinforcement, where
the reinforcement could be placed on the lower layer after it has been compacted, thereby obviating
the need for supporting chairs.

38
Mechanized paving allows a higher quality concrete finish to be attained. The spreading,
compacting and finishing of the pavement involves use of a fixed form or slip-form paving train.
 Spreading the concrete
 Compacting it by vibration
 Finishing the surface.
Typical types of machinery used in a fixed-form paving train are:
(1) Feeder – receives concrete as it arrives at the required location
(2) Spreader – distributes the concrete across the full width of the pour in question, discharging it
at a controlled rate
(3) Rotary strike-off paddles and compaction beams – regulate the concrete by trimming any
irregularities in the concrete and vibrate its surface
(4) Dowel/tie-bar placers – place these elements in the appropriate joints either manually or by
vibration
(5) Joint groove formers and finishers – grooves formed by a knife travelling within the plastic
concrete (wet-formed). Otherwise, a vibrating blade can be used to form them when the concrete
has hardened sufficiently
(6) Final finishing equipment – additional compaction and regulation of the concrete after the
dowel and tie-bars have been put in place. (Machine uses two oblique finishing beams oscillating
in opposite directions to achieve a uniform finish to the surface of the concrete)
(7) Curing compound sprayer
(8) Protective tentage.
Curing and skid resistance
Concrete curing is an essential step in achieving a good quality finished product. It requires that
both the temperature and moisture content of the mix be maintained so that it can continue to gain
strength with time. If moisture is lost due to exposure to sunlight and wind, shrinkage cracks will
develop. Such problems due to moisture loss can be avoided if the surface of the concrete is kept
moist for at least seven days. This is usually achieved by mechanically spraying the finished
surface, with exposure to rain avoided with the use of a travelling tentage.

39
 PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE
Highway pavements, once constructed, will not last forever. After a time, signs of wear will appear.
These signs include cracking, rutting and polishing of the road’s surface. A point will arrive where
the wear and tear is at such an advanced stage that the integrity of the pavement and hence the
standard of service provided by it has diminished. Maintenance is required at this point to prolong
the highway’s useful life. Loss of skidding resistance and loss of texture are forms of deterioration
eventually suffered by all highway pavements.
Highway maintenance can broadly be defined as actions taken to retain all the highway elements
in a safe and usable condition. The definition of this “condition” will depend on the purpose of the
highway, the traffic volumes, and other technical, social and political considerations. It can have
a flexible, rigid or unpaved surface. A highway is defined as an engineered interurban road.
Highway maintenance normally excludes upgrading or strengthening of the highway elements, but
may be done if these appear to be the most cost-effective actions in the long-term.
Maintenance could be classified as
 Routine maintenance: activities are not influenced by the traffic, while the recurrent
maintenance activities are. Both these sets of activities can also be defined as reactive
maintenance, where activities are unscheduled and immediate response sometimes
required.
 Preventive maintenance: The maintenance type that is performed to prolong service life.
Preventive maintenance should be performed on a regular basis. Examples of preventive
maintenance actions are surface cleaning, joint sealing, and painting.
 Corrective maintenance: The maintenance type that is performed to restore the
degradation process of an asset to satisfy the functionality, operation, and safety of an asset.
 Rehabilitation: The maintenance action that is performed to restore the asset and to
prevent structural failure. This may include major repair activities or asset reconstruction

NIGERIAN HIGHWAYS DESIGN POLICIES, STANDARDS,

SPECIFICATION

Design policy can be defined as the process by which governments translate their political vision
into programmes and actions in order to develop national design resources and encourage their

40
effective use in the county Raulik-Murphy and Cawood, (2009 ). Design policy actions aim at
sharing a set of rules, activities and processes to support design through the reinforcement of design
capabilities at all levels of the policy cycle.
"Design to Standards" means to design items with generally accepted and uniform procedures,
dimensions or materials. An organized listing of basic requirements for materials of construction,
product compositions, dimensions, or test conditions; a number of organizations publish standards
(for example, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Petroleum Institute, and
American Society for Testing and Materials),
A design specification is a detailed document providing information about a designed product or
process. For example, the design specification must include all necessary drawings, dimensions,
environmental factors, ergonomic factors, aesthetic factors, maintenance that will be needed, etc.
It may also give specific examples of how the design should be executed
Nigeria as a country has its own highway design policies which includes:
 With regard to policy thrusts, the 1965 Statement was based on the vision of national
coordination of transport development. It was envisioned that transport should be a matter
of national not sectional concern, which Nigeria should approach on the basis of the entire
nation’s needs and resources. Any other approach will result in duplication and wastage of
resources which Nigeria cannot afford (FRN, 1965).
 On the basis of these developments, the 1993 National Transport Policy emerged with its
thrust on modal development to be achieved within the context of the twin goals of
adequacy and efficiency. In pursuance of this, the government embarked on gigantic
transport facility construction and rehabilitation with the result that different sub- sectors
continued to grow and develop independently.
 In swift response to this, the Draft Transport Policy of 2003 had as its thrust integrated
transport while retaining as fundamental goals the provision of adequate, safe, efficient and
environmentally – friendly transport system.
 Following a shift in Government economic policy and in line with global best practice, the
thrust of the 2008 draft policy was Privatization and Deregulation with the goal of a market-
driven transport system. This was based on the conviction that Government has “no
business with doing business’. It must therefore transfer the responsibilities of its direct
involvement in the functioning of the transport system to the private sector.

41
Design Standard and Specifications highway includes
 Horizontal alignment must be carefully chosen as this is cost related. A good alignment
shall provide good drainage, minimum and balanced earthworks and must avoid swampy
and high water table areas, where this is possible. A good horizontal alignment allows
straight portions of the road on the horizontal plane to be connected with horizontal curves
which may be circular or transitional

 Vertical alignment

The level of any point along the vertical curve shall be equal to the level at the tangent point
The road shall be constructed to the following standards:
Width: The formation width between drains comprising a carriageway, hard-shoulders and soft
shoulders shall be constructed to the dimensions shown on the drawings or as ordered by the
Engineer.

42
Base-Course: The base course of the carriageway, which may be continued over the hard
shoulders or extended a minimum of 300mm at either side of the surfaced width as shown on the
drawings or as directed by the Engineer shall be constructed of approved material having a finished
compacted thickness of not less than 150mm and complying in all respects with this specification.
Subbase Course: The Subbase Course of the carriageway, which may be continuous over the hard
shoulders as shown on the drawings or as directed by the Engineer's Representative, shall be
constructed of approved material having a finished compacted thickness as shown on the drawings,
or as directed by the Engineer depending on the C.B.R. value of the subbase in question
Geometry: The horizontal and vertical alignments, super elevations and cambers of the road shall
be constructed in accordance with the DRAWINGS or as directed by the Engineer.
Bituminous Surfacing: The surfacing of the roadway shall be two-coat bituminous surface
dressing or hot asphaltic concrete pavement as shown on the DRAWINGS or as directed by the
Engineer.
Side Slopes: To Embankments: Side slopes to embankments and cuttings shall be constructed in
accordance with the drawings or as directed by the Engineer's Representative. The coefficient of
resistance of the material shall be the determinant factor for the embankment slope.
Side Drains: Unless shown otherwise on the drawings the invert of the side drains shall be not
less than 900mm below the finished level of the crown of the road. All side drains shall, where
shown, be excavated to the profile and dimensions shown on the drawings, but the Engineer's
Representative may direct that the side drains be constructed to such lesser profiles consistent with
drainage capacity as he may think fit due to the existence of rock or other obstruction. Where the
height of the embankment exceeds 900mm above the existing ground, and the natural gradient of
the surrounding area is towards the roadway, and then catch-water drains shall be constructed as
shown on the drawings or as directed by the Engineer's
Culverts: Generally culverts shall consist of precast concrete pipes laid either as single or multiple
culverts, and where shown shall be bedded and hunched with a minimum of 150mm of concrete.
In cases where sufficient cover is not available the Engineer's Representative may direct that
culverts be surrounded with a minimum of 150mm of concrete.

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