EVOLUTION
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAMARCKISM AND DARWINISM.
LAMARCKISM DARWINISM
Variation of the offspring occurs when Variation in the offspring is inherited
individuals in the population change
Change occurs because of adaptation to the Natural selection individuals best suited to the
environment / environment survive
Law of use and disuse
Individuals in the population change The population as a whole changes
Acquired characteristics are inherited by Characteristic are passed on from generation to
offspring generation to enable individuals to survive in the
environment
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NATURAL SELECTION AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
The environment or nature is the selective Humans represent the selective force
force
Selection is in response to suitability to the Selection is in response to satisfying human
environment needs
Occurs within a species May involve one or more species (as in cross
breeding)
HOW LAMARCK AND DARWIN EXPLAINED EVOLUTION (IN GENERAL)
*Evolution according to Lamarck
Lamarck explained evolution using the following two 'laws':
The law of use and disuse:
- As an organism uses a structure or organ more regularly , it becomes
better developed or enlarged in that organism .
- If an organism does not use a structure or organ frequently , it becomes
less developed or reduced in size and may disappear altogether in that organism
The law of inheritance of acquired characteristics:
- Characteristics developed during the life of an individual - (Acquired characteristics) can be passed
on to their offspring.
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Evolution according to Darwin
- Organisms produce a large number of offspring
- There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring
- Some have favourable characteristics
- and some do not
- When there is a change in the environmental conditions /or
- there is competition
- Then organisms with characteristics which are more favourable survive
- Whilst organisms with less favourable characteristics die
- This is called natural selection
- The organisms that survive reproduce
- And thus pass on the favourable characteristics to their offspring
- The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals
with the favourable characteristics
HOW LAMARCK AND DARWIN EXPLAINED EVOLUTION (SPECIFIC EXAMPLE)
An ancestor of the elephant, Phiomia, had a long nose-like structure called a proboscis which evolved
into the trunk of the elephant. The proboscis was used to gather leaves as food.
Explain the evolution of the elephant's trunk in terms of Lamarckism and Darwinism as well as the
way in which an increase in the length of the trunk of the elephant could be achieved through artificial
selection.
Lamarckism:
- The ancestral elephant stretched its proboscis
- to get leaves in trees/further from the body
- The more it used the proboscis ,
- the longer it became - law of use and disuse.
- The offspring then inherited the acquired longer proboscis - law of inheritance of
acquired characteristics
- Over many generations the length of the proboscis increased - until it became a
trunk as in the modern elephant
Darwinism:
- There was a great deal of genetic variation amongst the offspring
- Some had long proboscis - and some had short proboscis
- There was a change in environmental conditions /competition amongst the animals
for food
- They had to reach higher in the trees to get leaves
- The animals with shorter proboscis died as they could not reach the leaves
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- They did not possess the favorable characteristics for that environment.
- Those individuals with the longer proboscis survived as they possessed the
favourable characteristics for the environment.
- The elephants with the longer trunks then reproduced
- and passed on this favourable characteristic to their offspring
- The next generation of animals had a greater proportion of longer
trunks.
- gradually over time the gene pool of the elephants with short trunks are eradicated.
Artificial selection:
- Humans select the elephants with
- desirable characteristics /long trunk
- and mate them to produce offspring with longer trunks
- Those that are pure breeding for long trunks
- are further selected to mate to produce offspring with further longer trunks
DARWIN'S IDEAS ABOUT GRADUALISM COMPARED TO PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
- Darwin believed that evolution takes place through an
- accumulation of small
- gradual changes that occur over a long period of time
- supported by transitional forms in fossil record
- Punctuated equilibrium suggested that evolution sometimes involves long
periods of time where species do not change /very little change occurs
- This alternates with short periods of time where rapid changes occur
- New species are formed in a short period of time /relative to the long
period of no/little change
- supported by the absence of transitional forms
THE ROLE OF VARIATION IN NATURAL SELECTION.
- Organisms of a particular species shows a great deal of variation
- Some individuals may have characteristics that are favourable
/ any example
- Others may have characteristics/any example that are unfavourable
- If there is competition/changing environmental conditions /
Selective pressure by the environment
- organisms with favourable characteristics survive
- and reproduce
- and pass this favourable characteristics to their offspring
- while organisms with unfavourable characteristics will die out
- Over time the whole population will have this favourable trait
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A POPULATION AND A SPECIES
- A species is a group of organisms with similar characteristics
- that are able to interbreed
- to produce fertile offspring
- A population is a group of organisms of the same species
- found in the same habitat
- at the same time
SPECIATION BY GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION (IN GENERAL)
By a geographical barrier
population may be exposed to different environmental conditions ,
other
typically
,
, thus becoming different / new
species
SPECIATION BY GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION (SPECIFIC EXAMPLE)
Use the example of the anole lizard of the Caribbean Islands to describe how natural selection led to
the process of speciation that gave rise to different species of lizards.
- The original species of anole lizards was separated
- into different populations
- by a geographical barrier - which is the sea
- There was no gene flow
- between the separated populations
- Each population was exposed to different environmental conditions / different
environmental temperatures and food availability on each island
- Because there is variation amongst the lizards
- Natural selection occurred independently in each population
- each population became different from the other over time
- genotypically
- and phenotypically
- Even if the populations were to mix again
- they would not be able to reproduce/interbreed with each other
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MECHANISMS FOR REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
Geographic isolation causes speciation. Reproductive isolation isolates the gene pool of a species.
Examples of reproductive isolation:
Breeding at different times of the year
Species-specific courtship behavior
Adaptation to different pollinators
Infertile offspring
THE ROLE OF MUTATIONS AND EVOLUTION IN PRESENT TIMES (IN GENERAL)
- In a population of insects /bacteria/HI viruses/Galápagos' finches
- mutations are a source of variation
- which may make some organisms more resistant /better suited
- to insecticides /antibiotics/antiretroviral medication/ drought
- Those individuals that are not resistant /suited will die whereas
- those that are resistant/ well suited, will survive
- to pass the resistant allele/resistance on to their offspring
- This is known as natural selection
- As a result, individuals of the future generations will be resistant to the
insecticides /antibiotics/antiretroviral medication/adapted to drought
HOW MOSQUITOES DEVELOP RESISTANCE TO DDT. (SPECIFIC EXAMPLE)
More mosquitoes are produced than can survive.
There is genetic variation amongst the mosquitoes.
Some mosquitoes may be naturally resistant to DDT.
When DDT is applied
those that are resistant survive
and they then reproduce,
passing the allele for resistance to the offspring.
Those that are not resistant, die
and their alleles are lost from the population.
The number of DDT-resistant mosquitoes therefore increases over the
generations .
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EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION, HUMAN EVOLUTION AND OUT OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS
EVOLUTION HUMAN EVOLUTION OUT OF AFRICA
HYPOTHESIS
Fossil evidence Fossil evidence Fossil evidence
Genetics Genetics mtDNA Genetics mtDNA
Comparative anatomy Cultural evidence (tool making) Cultural evidence (tool making)
(modification by descent)
Biogeography
HUMAN EVOLUTION
CHARACTERISTICS THAT HUMANS SHARE WITH AFRICAN APES.
- Large brains / skulls compared to their body mass
- Bipedal / upright posture / foramen magnum in a more forward position
-Olfactory brain centres reduced / reduced sense of smell
- Eyes in front / Binocular vision / stereoscopic vision
- Eyes with cones / colour vision
- Freely rotating arms - Long upper arms - Five digits per limb
- Flat nails instead of claws / bare, sensitive finger tips
- Opposable thumbs /precision grip
- Sexual dimorphism / distinct differences between males and Females
ANATOMICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUMANS (HOMO SAPIENS) AND AFRICAN APES
FEATURE HUMANS (HOMOSAPIENS) AFRICAN APES
Cranium Large cranium / brain Small cranium / brain
Brow ridges Brow ridges are not well developed Brow ridges are well developed
Spine More curved (S-shaped) spine less curved (C-shaped) spine
Pelvic girdle Short, wide pelvis Long, narrow pelvis
Canines Small canines Large canines
Palate shape Small and rounded palate long and rectangular palate
Jaws Small jaws large jaws
Less protruding / less prognathous more protruding / more prognathous
Cranial ridges No cranial ridge cranial ridge at the top of the
cranium
Foramen magnum in a forward position in a backward position below the
skull
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GENERAL TREND IN HUMAN EVOLUTION HAS BEEN TOWARDS BIPEDALISM AND A
CHANGE IN DIET FROM RAW FOOD TO COOKED FOOD.
The development of bipedalism:
foramen magnum on the skull
-curved spine
-like beings were quadripedal
,
/ shorter pelvis
S- spine
icates that modern humans are bipedal
Change in the diet from raw food to cooked food:
arge muscles that operate the jaws
-like beings ate raw food that required a great amount of
processing /tearing, biting and chewing.
makes the skull less prognathous
muscles for chewing
same amount of processing /tearing, biting and chewing.
ADVANTAGES OF BIPEDALISM.
Frees the arms so that they could carry offspring / tools / food / manipulate things
- Allows ability to see further to spot danger / food
- Exposes a large surface area for thermoregulation
- Reduces the surface area exposed to the sun so less
heat is absorbed / less heat lost/thermoregulation
- Expose the genitals to attract opposite sex
- Efficient locomotion allows traveling over longer distances
ADVANTAGES OF LARGER CRANIUM
-allows for a bigger brain
-development of speech / communication
- higher intelligence
- complex behavior
-quick processing of information
-Process large amounts of information
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OUT OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS
- All modern humans /Homo sapiens - originated in Africa
- and migrated to other parts of the world
EVIDENCE THAT SUPPORTS THE OAH:
FOSSIL EVIDENCE
- The OLDEST Fossils of Ardipithecus were found ONLY in Africa /Rift
Valley/Ethiopia/South Africa
- The OLDEST Fossils of Australopithecus were found ONLY in Africa /Rift
Valley/Ethiopia/South Africa
- The OLDEST The fossils of Homo habilis were ONLY found in Africa
- The OLDEST fossils of Homo erectus were found in Africa
- The OLDEST fossils of Homo sapiens were found in Africa
GENETIC EVIDENCE
- Mitochondrial DNA
- is passed down from mother to child / Is inherited only from the maternal line
- Analysis of mutations
on this mitochondrial DNA
were traced to an ancestral female that existed in Africa
- and shows that all humans descended from her /mitochondrial Eve
- The Y chromosome shows the paternal line
CULTURAL EVIDENCE
- The OLDEST/most primitive artefacts (tools, cutlery, art etc.) - were ONLY found in Africa
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