Name

Admission No.
Group/Branch/Section
Subject
 List of experiments
1. To verify the Stefan’s law by electrical method.
2. To determine the wavelength of spectral lines using plane transmission
grating.
3. To study the variation of Magnetic field along the axis of current
carrying coil and then to estimate the Radius of coil.
4. To determine the Specific resistance of a given wire using Carey foster’s
bridge.
5. To determine the Energy band gap of a given semiconductor material
using four probe method.
6. Measurement of Electro Chemical Equivalent of copper.
7. Determination of Charge density, charge velocity and Hall coefficient
of a given p-type semiconductor by Hall Effect method.
8. Determination of the relative permeability, retentivity, coercivity, and
energy loss of a magnetic material by studying its magnetization (B-H)
curve.
9. Evaluating Optical Flatness of Surfaces Using Newton's Rings
Interference Pattern.
10. To determine the Numerical aperture, Angle of divergence and
Attenuation coefficient of a given optical fiber cable.
11. Determination of the dielectric constant of the dielectric material used
in a capacitor by charging and discharging of the capacitor.
12. Determination of Curie temperature of a ferromagnetic material by
studying the variation of loop area with temperature.
 How To Construct a Line Graph

Step What To Do How To Do It

a. Independent Variable -
(controlled by the experimenter)
 Goes on the X axis (horizontal)
 Should be on the left side of a data table.
1 Identify the variables b. Dependent Variable -
(changes with the independent variable)
 Goes on the Y axis (vertical)
 Should be on the right side of a data table.

a. Subtract the lowest data value from the highest data

Determine the variable value.
2
range. b. Do each variable separately.

a. Determine a scale,
(the numerical value for each square),
Determine the scale of that best fits the range of each variable.
3
the graph. b. Spread the graph to use MOST of the available
space.

a. This tells what data the lines on your graph

Number and label each represent.
4
axis.

a. Plot each data value on the graph with a dot.

b. You can put the data number by the dot, if it does
5 Plot the data points. not clutter your graph.

a. Draw a curve or a line that best fits the data points.

b. Most graphs of experimental data are not drawn as
6 Draw the graph. "connect-the-dots".

a. Your title should clearly tell what the graph is

about.
7 Title the graph. b. If your graph has more than one set of data, provide
a "key" to identify the different lines.
How to find Percentage Error:
Students often assume that each measurement that they make in the laboratory is true and
accurate. Likewise, they often assume that the values that they derive through experimentation are
very accurate. However, sources of error often prevent students from being as accurate as they would
like. Percent error calculations are used to determine how close to the theoretical values, or how
accurate, their experimental values really are.
The value that the student comes up with is usually called the experimental value. A value that
can be found in reference tables is usually called the standard value, or the accepted
value. The percent error can be determined when the standard value is compared to
the experimental value according to the equation below:

Standard value  Experiment al value

Percentage error  100
Standard value
 How to calculate least count

Least count is the highest degree of accuracy of measurement that can be achieved. For example the
least count of a voltmeter is the minimum change that can be discerned.
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count.

Procedure to determine least count:

It is measures by dividing the least count of the main scale (value of one MSD) by the total number of
divisions on the vernier scale. Vernier is a secondary scale used along with a main scale (circular scale)
for measuring length (diameter) accurately to any desired fraction of the smallest division on the main
scale.
In the vernier shown, the length of the vernier is 9 main scale divisions and is divided into 10 equal
parts. Therefore each division on the vernier i.e. 1 VSD= (9/10) MSD

The difference between 1MSD & 1 VSD is the smallest distance that can be measured with the help
of vernier and is called the least count of the vernier.

Least Count (L.C.) = 1MSD-1VSD = 1-(9/10) MSD

=1/10 MSD

Value of 1MSD
Or L.C. =
[Link] division on VS

The total reading of any instrument is calculated using the formula

TR = MSR + (CVD × LC)

Where MSR is the main scale reading (reading on the main scale just before the vernier zero), CVD is
the coinciding vernier division on main scale and LC is the least count.

For eg. For given vernier calipers-

 Value of 1MSD 1mm
L.C.= = =0.1mm=0.01cm
[Link] division on VS 10

MSR = 17.0mm, CVD= 4

Therefore TR = 17.0+(4x0.1) mm
= 17.4 mm

In the case of circular scales like Screw Gauge

Pitch
L.C.=
[Link] division on CS

Zero error: If the zero of the main scale does not coincide with zero of vernier then the instrument
has zero error. In case of screw gauge when the anvil and spindle end are brought in contact, the edge
of the circular scale should be at the zero of the sleeve (linear scale) and the zero of the circular scale
should be opposite to the datum line of the sleeve. If the zero is not coinciding with the datum line,
there will be a positive or negative zero error as shown in figure below. For when the anvil and spindle
end are brought in contact, the edge of the circular scale should be at the zero of the sleeve (linear
scale) and the zero of the circular scale should be opposite to the datum line of the sleeve. If the zero
is not coinciding with the datum line, there will be a positive or negative zero error as shown in figure
below. For positive zero error the correction is negative & for negative zero error the correction is
positive.
No Zero error
 Experiment No. 1
STEFAN’S LAW

AIM: To verify Stefan’s law by electrical method.

APPARATUS USED: Battery, Rheostat, Key, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Bulb, Connecting Wires.

FORMULA: E = σ (T4 - T04),

Where ‘E’ is the radiation emitted per second, per unit area of a black body at temperature ‘T’ surrounded
by another body at temperature ‘T0’, and σ is the Stefan’s constant. σ = 5.670 x 10-8w/m2.k4

THEORY : Stefan’s law states that the total radiant energy emitted per second from the unit surface area
of a perfectly black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature i.e. E= σT4
If ‘E’ be the radiation emitted per second, per unit area of a black body at temperature ‘T’ surrounded by
another body at temperature ‘T0’, then by Stefan’s law, we have
E = σ (T4 - T04)
where σ is the Stefan’s constant. σ = 5.670 x 10-8w/m2.k4

For bodies other than black body, we have P = C(Tm-T0m)

where ‘P’ is the power emitted by a body at a temperature ‘T’ surrounded by another body at temperature
T0. C is constant depending upon the material and area of the body; m is very near to the value 4. The
above equation can be written as-

Tom
P  CT m (1  )
Tm

If T>T0 then P=CTm

Or log10P = mlog10T + log10 C

It is of the form y = mx + c.

PROCEDURE :

1. The circuit is constructed as shown in Fig.1.

2. The bulb with tungsten filament is used as a radiating body having a temperature T.
3. For a very small current, the ratio (V/I) gives the filament resistance including lead resistance.
4. To Calculate R273 or R0, we have to first measure the resistance Rg at about 800K or 5270C, at
temperature which the filament just starts glowing
5. At this temperature the contribution of lead resistance becomes smaller by a factor nearly equal to
3.9 at 800K compared to that at 273 K.
6. The current is increased each time gradually different times till the bulb just glows.
7. Similarly reading of V and I are found with decreasing currents.
8. The ratio (V/I) is found out for each readings and finally the mean value of these gives Rg at 527 0C.
9. Now find R0 value using the relation.

R527 R g
Ro  
3.9 3.9

10. Now the values of V and I are again taken by increasing the filament current from above
the glowing stage to a high value giving dazzling white light.
11. The ratio (V/I) is again found out for each reading which gives R t. Using Rt and R0, the
temperature T of the filament is deduced using the relation. Rt = Ro (1 + αT + βT2)
where α and β are constants
12. From the product of V and I, we get the value of power (P). A graph is then plotted
between log P and log T, which gives a straight line. This verifies Stefan’s law in the
form P=CTm.
14. The slope of straight line gives ‘m’ and to be nearly equal to 4. Thus it is called the fourth
power law also.
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
(1) To determine R0:

Current Increasing Current Decreasing

Trial V I in Rg=V/I in Ω V I Rg=V/I in Ω Mean 𝑅𝑔
No. in amps when bulb just in in when bulb Rg 𝑅0 =
3.9
volts glows volts amps just glows

(2) To determine ‘T’ and ‘P’:

Here   51  10 4 / 0 c

V in I Rt=V/I in P = V.I in 1 𝑅𝑡
Sl.
volts in Ω watts 𝑇 = [ ( − 1) + 273] Log10 P Log10 T
No. ∝ 𝑅0
amps

FACULTY SIGNATURE:
 FINAL OBSERVATIONS
(1) To determine R0:

Current Increasing Current Decreasing

Trial V I in Rg=V/I in Ω V I Rg=V/I in Ω Mean 𝑅𝑔
No. in amps when bulb just in in when bulb Rg 𝑅0 =
3.9
volts glows volts amps just glows

(2) To determine ‘T’ and ‘P’:

Here   51  10 4 / 0 c

V in I Rt=V/I in P = V.I in 1 𝑅𝑡
Sl.
volts in Ω watts 𝑇 = [ ( − 1) + 273] Log10 P Log10 T
No. ∝ 𝑅0
amps
RESULT:

The graph of log P verses log T comes out to be a straight line.

Hence, P = CTm law is verified.

Further, the slope of the line m=............and therefore, the law verified as a fourth power law.

STANDARD VALUE: 4

PERCENTAGE ERROR: ………………………..

PRECAUTIONS: -
1. Value of α and β for the filament material should be taken from the tables.
2. Current should not be increased much otherwise the bulb filament will fuse.
3. To get accurate resistance at a particular temperature the filament voltage ‘V’ and filament current ‘I’
between each observation should be about 3 or 4 minutes.
4. The slope of the straight line should be determined as accurate as possible.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are meant by ‘black body’ and ‘black body radiation’?

2. State Stefan’s law of radiation?

3. What is the unit of Stefan’s radiation constant?

4. What type of bulb do you use and what is its function?

5. Why do you use a tungsten filament bulb?

6. How does this law differ from Newton’s Law of Cooling?

7. Does the amount of heat radiated depend on the wavelength of radiation?

8. What is Kirchhoff’s law of radiation?

9. Give the formula of Stefan’ Law.

10. Which type of curve obtain in graph platted between log P verses log T.

11. What do you mean by emissive and absorptive power?

ANSWERS:

1. A body which absorbs all the incident radiations irrespective of frequency is called a black
body. Blackbody radiation" or "cavity radiation" refers to an object or system which absorbs
all radiation incidents upon it and re-radiates energy which is characteristic of this radiating
system only, not dependent upon the type of radiation which is incident upon it.
2. The total radiant energy emitted E per unit time by a black body of surface A is proportional to
the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
E T4 or E = AT4 = Stefan's constant For body which is not black body
E= AT4 = emmisitivity of Black Body.

3. σ = 5.670373(21)×10−8 W m−2 K−4

4. Tungsten Bulb, because tungsten has the highest melting point (1650 degrees centigrade) of all
metals and it does not melt even when it is glowing.
5. Because tungsten bulb has the highest melting point (1650 degrees centigrade) of all metals
and it does not melt even when it is glowing. It has to be inside an evacuated glass though
because tungsten oxidizes in air.

6. Stefan's law is solidly based on experimental measurements and its relation to other
thermodynamic concepts. It gives the rate of total energy loss (that is, at all wavelengths) by
thermal radiation from the surface of a blackbody of area A and temperature T (in Kelvins)
Newton's law (of cooling) is an empirical law intended to cover the temperature change
resulting from convective and conductive heat loss from a body, particularly at moderate
temperatures and where the temperature difference (T - T0) is relatively small. Under these
conditions, the radiative contribution may often be neglected.

7. Yes.

8. It states that any temperature, the ratio of emissive power to the absorptive power for a given
wavelength is same for all bodies.

9. E= σT4

10. Straight Line

11. Emissive power is defined as the radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface area of
the body within a unit wavelength range. Absorptive power is defined as the ratio of the radiant
energy absorbed per second per unit surface area of the body to the total energy falling per unit
time on the same area.
 Experiment No. 2
DIFFRACTION GRATING

AIM: To determine the wavelength of spectral lines using plane transmission grating.

APPARATUS: Diffraction grating, Spectrometer, mercury vapor lamp, condensing lens,

spirit level & reading lens.

FORMULA USED: The wavelength λ of any spectral line can be calculated by the formula
(a  b) sin   n

(a  b) sin 

n
Where (a+b) = grating element
θ = angle of diffraction
n = order of the spectrum

THEORY: A diffraction grating consists of a number of equidistant parallel slits of equal

width. It is obtained by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a glass plate by means of a fine
diamond point. When white light is incident on a grating, it diffracts into its constituent
wavelengths. Hence we obtain a spectrum consisting of series of spectral lines. Several such
sets of known different orders of the spectrum are obtained.

PROCEDURE:

Preliminary adjustments of the Spectrometer.

1. Adjusting the Telescope: The Telescope is turned towards distant object. The eye
piece is pulled out or pushed in until the cross wires are clearly seen. The rack and
pinion screw of the telescope is adjusted until a clear and well-defined image of
the object is seen without parallax between the image and the cross wires.
2. Leveling the prism table: The prism table is made horizontal by means of its
leveling screws using a spirit level.
3. Adjusting the collimator: The slit of the spectrometer is illuminated with the
given source of light. Light is focused on the slit using a condensing lens. Looking
through the telescope, which is kept in line with the collimator, the slit is made
narrow. The rack and pinion screw of the collimator is adjusted so that a clear and
well-defined image of the slit is formed.
Adjustment of Grating
[Link] and telescope are arranged in a line and the image of the slit is focused on the
vertical crosswire. The reading is noted on both the verniers.
[Link] telescope is now rotated through 90o
[Link] the grating on the prism table and rotate the prism table so that the reflected image
is seen on the vertical crosswire. Take the reading of the vernier.
[Link] the prism table from this position through 45 o or 135o. In this position the grating is
normal to the incident beam.
Procedure for the determination of angles of diffraction
1 Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct image and adjust the different spectral lines
(violet, green and red) turn by turn on the vertical crosswire for first order and note the
readings for both the verniers.
[Link] the telescope further to obtain the second order spectrum and again the spectral
lines on the vertical crosswire and note the reading.
3 Now rotate the telescope to the right of the direct image and repeat the above procedure
for first order as well as for second order.
4. Find out the difference of the same kind of verniers (V 1 from V1 and V2 from V2) for
each spectral line in the first order and then in the second.
5. The angle is twice the angle of diffraction for that particular colour. Half of it will be
angle of diffraction.
6. Find out the angle of diffraction for other colors in first and second order.

Fig.1. Experimental Setup

OBSERVATIONS:
The least count of the spectrometer is found using the relation
Value of one main scale division
Least Count (LC) =
Total number of vernier divisions

No. of rulings per inch on the grating, N=

 Fig.2 Spectral Lines

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS

Determination of angles of diffraction

Order of Colour Reading of telescope 2θ= θ Sin θ

Spectrum of Light
Spectrum on right Spectrum on left side (A-B) (deg) (deg)
side deg
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
(A) (B)
First Violet
Blue
Blue
Green
Green
Yellow 1
Yellow2
Red
CALCULATIONS:
Grating element
2.54
(𝑎 + 𝑏 ) = = per cm.
𝑁

where N is number of rulings per inch on the grating.

The wavelength of various spectral lines in the first order (n=1) can be calculated by
(𝑎+𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆= = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1

FACULTY SIGNATURE:

FINAL OBSERVATIONS

Determination of angles of diffraction

Order of Colour Reading of telescope 2θ= θ Sin θ

Spectrum of Light (deg) (deg)
Spectrum on right Spectrum on left side (A-B)
side deg
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
(A) (B)
First Violet
Blue
Blue
Green
Green
Yellow 1
Yellow2
Red

CALCULATIONS:
Grating element
2.54
(𝑎 + 𝑏 ) = = per cm.
𝑁

where N is number of rulings per inch on the grating.

The wavelength of various spectral lines in the first order (n=1) can be calculated by
(𝑎+𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆= = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1
RESULT:

Wavelength of some emission lines for mercury (discharge) lamp: -

Colour Observed Standard % error

Wavelength in Wavelength in
Å Å
Violet 4078 Å
Blue 4339-4348 Å
Blue Green 4358-4916 Å
Green 5461 Å
Yellow 1 5770 Å

Yellow2 5791 Å

Red 6300-7000 Å

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Grating should be held from its edges and not to be touched by fingers.
2. The grating must be adjusted for minimum deviation carefully.
3. The prism table, telescope and the collimator of the spectrometer are first adjusted.
4. The grating is mounted at the centre of the prism table with its face normal to the
incident light and the rules surface facing the telescope.
5. The lines of the grating are kept parallel to axis of the prism table.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is a diffraction grating?
2. What is grating constant?
3. What is an ideal grating?
4. What are the essential parts of a spectrometer?
5. Which eye-piece is used in the telescope of spectrometer?
6. Which gas is used to produce initial discharge in mercury lamp?
7. Define Resolving power of a grating?
8. What is the difference between grating and prism spectra?
9. Give any two precautions in this experiment?
10. Why we read both the verniers?
ANSWERS

1 A diffraction grating is the arrangement of large number of equidistant narrow

rectangular slits of equal width placed side by side parallel to one another.
2 If the width of the transparency and opacity be a’ and b respectively then the distance
(a+b) is called grating constant or grating element.
3 An ideal grating is one having grooves which are straight and parallel, equally
spaced and have identical form.
4 The essential parts of the spectrometer are the collimator, prism table and the
telescope.
5 Generally, Ramdsens eye-piece is used. Some telescopes have Gauss eye-piece.
6 Argon gas is used to produce initial discharge in Hg discharge lamp.
7 The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as its ability to show two
neighbouring lines in a spectrum as separate.
8 The spectra produced by two prisms are neither similar nor regular but spectrum
produced by grating is exactly similar. There is only one spectrum for prism but
there are a number of spectra on either side of central maximum.
9 The slit should be as narrow as permissible and the optical adjustment of the
spectrometer must be made correctly.
10 It is to eliminate any error due to non-coincidence of the centre of the divided circle
with the axis of rotation of the telescope or the table.
 Experiment No. 3
VARIATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD

AIM: To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of current carrying coil
and then to estimate the radius of the coil.
APPARATUS: Stewart and Gee type tangent galvanometer, storage battery, commutator,
ammeter, rheostat, one way plug key and connecting wires.
THEORY:
Let I be current flowing through a wire of length l bent into an arc of the radius ‘r’, then the
magnetic field intensity (F) at the centre of the arc is given by.

-7
where, µ0 = 4 x 10 weber/ampere-meter and is known as the permeability of free space.
If the wire forms one complete circle, Then l =2r

For a circular coil carrying n turns

Hence F  n I
In order to study the effect of number of turns and current on the magnetic field intensity F, the
coil is placed in the magnetic meridian, then the magnetic field due to the current ‘I’ flowing
through the coil is perpendicular to H (horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field) and the
magnetic needle is acted upon by two uniform magnetic fields F and H which are at right angles
to each other.
Therefore, the field F along the axis of a coil is given by

Where, x is the distance of the point from the centre of the coil. When x=0 i.e., at the centre
 Let the magnetic needle make an angle ()
with H in the equilibrium position.
According to tangent law:
F  tan 
then F =H tan  ............(2)

on equating (1) & (2).

2 nI
H tan   ……. (3)
rx107
Here H is constant at the place of experiment.
Hence, the variation of magnetic field along
the axis of current carrying circular coil
involves the plotting of a graph between x
and tan 

Fig.3. Experimental Setup

PROCEDURE:

1. First of all the magnetometer compass box is placed on the bench such that its magnetic
needle lies at the centre of the coil. Rotate the instrument in the horizontal plane till the plane
of the coil lies roughly in the magnetic meridian or bench in the East-West direction. Now
without disturbing the setting of the apparatus rotate the compass box till pointer read 0-0
on the circular scale. This adjustment of the instrument remains unchanged throughout the
experiment.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make electric connections as
explained in Fig. 2
3. Insert the plug in the key K so that the current flow in the coil. Adjust the value of current
with the help of rheostat Rh such that the deflection in the galvanometer lies between70 0-
750. Note this value at both ends of the pointer. Reverse the direction of the current in the
coil with the help of commutator and again note the reading of both the pointers. If the mean
deflections in the two cases are very nearly equal, then plane of the coil is exactly in the
magnetic meridian. If it is not so, then slightly turn the instrument in the horizontal direction
towards greater deflection side till the mean deflection with direct & reverse current become
nearly equal. Now slide the magnetometer box along the axis to get maximum deflection.
In this situation (that is, at x=0) the centre of the needle coincides with the centre of the coil.
Note this position of magnetometer box on the meter scale.
5. Now shift the position of compass needle box along the axis in equal step of 1 cm on one
side of the coil along the bench. Note this distance and also the reading of both ends of the
 pointer for direct as well as reversed current. This process of shifting of compass in small
step of 1 cm and taking the observation of ends of the pointer for direct and reversed current
0
is continued till the pointer is reduced to 30 . Note all these reading in Table. It should be
remembered that during each observation the current in the circuit always remain constant
(Check it by and ammeter connected in the circuit).
6. Now repeat the process of taking observation on other side of the coil keeping current always
constant. (The measurement of deflection along with distance can also be measured from
one end of the bench in the following manner): Shift the compass box towards the either end
of bench till the deflection falls to about 300. At this position, note down the distance of the
compass needle from one end of the bench and also record the deflections at the two ends of
the pointer before and after reversing the current through the coil and find the mean
deflection. Now shift the compass box towards the coil by 1cm. and note down this distance
from the same end. Also note down the deflections at the two ends of pointer before and
after reversing the current through the coil and find the mean deflection. Go on moving the
compass box in regular steps of 1cm. each time recording its distance from the same end and
determining the mean deflection, till the compass box after crossing the coil reaches the
other end of the bench.
7. Plot a graph between the distance X of the compass needle box from the centre of the coil or
from the one end of the bench and tangent of deflection of magnetic needle that is tan. The
resulting curve shall be symmetrical and its maximum value shall correspond to the position
of the needle at the centre of the coil itself.
8. Find out the points of inflection (The point at which the curve changes its sign that is, from
concave to convex) A and B on the curve by drawing common tangent at the place where
the curve is practically a straight line for a short length and measure the distance between
them to get the radius of the coil.
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
The circumference of the coil measured by the thread and meter scale =__________cm.

Table: 2.1 Observation for variation of magnetic field with distance x

S. Dista Deflection on Deflection on

Mean =(1+2+3+4)/4

Mean =(1+2+3+4)/4
N nce of the left side of the right side
o. the the coil in of the coil in
N needl degree degree
Direc Revers Direc Revers

tan 

tan 
o e from
t ed t ed
the
curre
  current
3 4 curre
  current3 4
center
nt nt
of the 1 2 1 2

bench
(x)
cm

FACULTY SIGNATURE:
 FINAL OBSERVATIONS

The circumference of the coil measured by the thread and meter scale =__________cm.

Table: 2.1 Observation for variation of magnetic field with distance x

S. Dista Deflection on Deflection on

Mean =(1+2+3+4)/4

Mean =(1+2+3+4)/4
N nce of the left side of the right side
o. the the coil in of the coil in
N needl degree degree
Direc Revers Direc Revers
tan 

tan 
o e from
t ed t ed
the
curre
  current
3 4 curre
  current
3 4
center
nt nt
of the 1 2 1 2

bench
(x)
cm
 Plot a graph taking the distance X of the needle from
the centre of the coil towards one end of the bench on
X-axis by choosing a suitable scale and
corresponding value of tan on y axis. The resulting
curve as shown in Fig. 3 has two symmetric branches.
Find out the points of inflection A and B on the curve
by drawing tangents on the curve. The tangent just
above and just below the points of inflection lies on
opposite side of the curve. This situation will not
occur for any other point on the curve.

RESULT:
1. The radius of the coil (AB) as measured from X-tan graph=________cm.

2. The radius of the coil from the measurement of the circumference

=circumference/2 = ________ cm
3. The attached graph shows the variation of the magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil
carrying current.

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

PRECAUTION –1. All the magnetic materials and current carrying conductors should be at
considerable distance from the apparatus.
2. The coil should be carefully adjusted in magnetic meridian.
3. Parallax should be removed while reading the position of pointer.
4. Connections should be clean and tight.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the aim of the experiment?

2. What is the basic concept of the experiment?
3. State the principle on which this experiment is based.
4. Write in short how you set the apparatus in magnetic meridian?
5. Why is a long pointer provided in the compass box?
6. Why is mirror provided at the base of the compass box?
7. Which apparatus is used to reverse the direction of current in the circuit?
8. How are points of inflexion found in the graph?
9. Maximum value of curve corresponds to which position of needle?
10. State any one precaution of the experiment?
 ANSWERS:

1. Aim of the experiment is to study the variation of magnetic field with distance along
the axis of a circular coil carrying current.
2. The basic concept is that when current flows in a conductor a magnetic field is
produced around it, this is called magnetic effect of current
3. Principle: According to tangent law in two mutually perpendicular uniform magnetic fields F and H
a magnetic needle in equilibrium makes an angle θ with the horizontal component of earth’s
magnetic field H such that F = H tanθ , this is tangent law
4. First set the plane in magnetic meridian (it is a vertical plane passing through the axis of a magnetic
needle suspended freely through its centre of gravity and rest under earths needle is called the
magnetic meridian) because by doing so we make the magnetic field produced by a circular coil at
right angles to the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (or for fulfilling the condition of
tangent law) the setting of the plane of the coil in magnetic meridian.
5. In order to measure a small angular deflection of the needle in two uniform magnetic fields
accurately, the circular scale has to be made large and a long pointer has to be provided.
6. Mirror at the base of the compass box is provided for measuring correct deflection of the magnetic
needle by removing parallax between the pointer and its image.
7. Commutator key.
8. Points of inflexion on the curve are found by drawing common tangent at the place where the curve
is practically a straight line for a short length and measure the distance between them to get the
radius of the coil.
9. Plot a graph between the distance x of the compass needle box from the centre of the coil or from
one end of the bench and tangent of deflection of magnetic needle that is tanθ. The resulting curve
shall be symmetrical and its maximum value shall correspond to the position of the needle at the
centre of the coil
10. There should be no magnetic substance or current carrying conductor in the neighborhood of the
instrument.
 Experiment No. 4
CAREY FOSTER’S BRIDGE

AIM: To determine the specific resistance of a given wire by Carey Foster’s Bridge.

APPARATUS: Carey Foster’s Bridge, Leclanché Cell, Plug Key, Resistance Boxes. Specimen Wire, Screw
Gauge, Galvanometer, Jockey (slider), Connecting Wires.

THEORY: The resistance X of conductor is directly proportional to its length ‘l’ and inversely proportional
to its cross-sectional area ‘a’ Hence,
𝒍 𝒍
𝑿 𝒐𝒓 𝑿 = 
𝒂 𝒂
𝑿𝒂 𝑿𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝝆= =
𝒍 𝒍
If ‘r’ is radius of the wire, then a=r2
Where ‘’ depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor and is known as resistivity or
specific resistance. Its unit is Ohm-m. If ‘X’ ‘l’ and ‘a’ are known, then ‘’ can be calculated. Carey Foster’s
bridge works on the principle of Wheat Stone Bridge, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Wheatstone Bridge Fig. 2 Experimental Setup

PROCEDURE:

(1) Resistance per unit length:

To find ‘’, P & Q are made approximately equal.

Made X as some fraction of Ohm, say ‘X’’ and keep
R = 0, Obtain balancing Length d1 from the point
‘E’. To find d2 interchange R & X’ positions and
obtain balancing length d2 from point E. Since R= 0

Fig.3 Resistance per unit length

(2) Specific Resistance of Wire: - Make clean and tight connection according to circuit shown in Fig.
4. Resistance boxes ‘P’ and ‘Q’ are made approximately equal. Made R as some fraction of Ohm
When ‘R’ is connected in the left gap and specimen wire (X) is in right gap, obtain balancing length
l1 from the point ‘E’. To find l2 interchange R & X positions and obtain balancing length l2 from
point E. Therefore, resistance of specimen wire-
X  R   ' (l 2  l1 )

where ’ is the resistance per cm of bridge wire

Fig. 4 Specific Resistance

Using screw gauge find the diameter of the given specimen wire, Note down the length of the wire.
Now it is possible to find the specific resistance of the wire using the relation

Where ‘r’ is the radius, X is the resistance and l is length of the wire.
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
(1) For resistance per Centimeter of bridge wire:
Sl. P Q X’ d1(cm) d2(cm) X'
' 
No in  in  in  d1  d 2
ohm
1 1 1 0.3
ohm
2 1 1 0.6 (ohm/ cm)
3 1 1 0.9 in /cm
Mean  ' =……………….

(2) For Resistance of Specimen Wire

P=Q=1
S. Resistance R introduced Position of Null point or distance of (l2-l1) X=R+  ' (l2-l1)
No in decimal resistance balance point from left end A of the (cm) (ohm)
box RB (ohm) bridge wire when RB is in
Left Gap l1 (cm) Right Gap l2 (cm)
1 0.3
2 0.6
3 0.9
4 1.2
5 1.5
Mean X =………………….
d
Radius of wire r = / =_____ mm = _______ m
2
Length of the given wire (l) , = __________cm = __________m

𝑿𝒂 𝑿𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝝆= = =____________ -m
𝒍 𝒍

FACULTY SIGNATURE:
 FINAL OBSERVATIONS
(1) For resistance per Centimeter of bridge wire:
Sl. P Q X’ d1(cm) d2(cm) X'
' 
No in  in  in  d1  d 2
ohm
1 1 1 0.3
ohm
2 1 1 0.6 (ohm/ cm)
3 1 1 0.9 in /cm
Mean  ' =……………….
(2) For Resistance of Specimen Wire

P=Q=1
S. Resistance R introduced Position of Null point or distance of (l2-l1) X=R+  ' (l2-l1)
No in decimal resistance balance point from left end A of the (cm) (ohm)
box RB (ohm) bridge wire when RB is in
Left Gap l1 (cm) Right Gap l2 (cm)
1 0.3
2 0.6
3 0.9
4 1.2
5 1.5
Mean X =………………….
d
Radius of wire r = / =_____ mm = _______ m
2
Length of the given wire (l) , = __________cm = __________m

𝑿𝒂 𝑿𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝝆= = =____________ -m
𝒍 𝒍

RESULT: Specific resistance of wire =_________________________Ohm-m

Standard value =110 x 10-8 ohm-m

PERCENTAGE ERROR: ……………………………

PRECAUTIONS:
1 Disconnect the circuit just after taking each reading otherwise resistance of the bridge wire will
increase because of heat.
2. Note down the balancing length accurately.
3. Radius of the wire should be very much accurately measured.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is Resistance?
2. State “Ohm’s law”?
3. This experiment is based on which principle?
4. Why end correction is applied to the balancing length?
5. What is the difference between a cell and a battery?
6. Name the electrolyte in a Leclanché Cell.
7. If temperature increases, then what happens to specific resistance?
8. What is the difference between a Meter bridge and Carey Foster’s bridge?
9. What is the bridge wire made of?
10. What is the Specimen wire made of?
11. What type of galvanometer are you using?
12. What do you mean by end correction?
13. What is the unit of specific resistance?

ANSWERS:

1. It’s the obstruction provided by the conductor in the flow of current.

2. If the Physical conditions of the conductor such as length , area , temperature and material will
remain same then the current flowing in the conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it.

3. Wheat Stone Bridge Principal.

4. Due to the additional length of the wire and the resistance of the copper strips.

5. A battery is a combination of multiple cells.

6. NH4Cl

7. Specific resistance increases with temperature.

8. Carey Foster’s bridge has four gaps whereas meter bridge has only two gaps.

9. Magnin

10. Nichrome.

11. Weston Type Galvanometer

12. Modification required in the balancing length for incorporating addition wire on both sides as well
as the resistance of the copper strips.

13. ohm-meter
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM- To determine the energy band gap of a given semiconductor material by four probe method.
APPARATUS –Probes arrangement, sample, oven and four Probes setup
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS
1. PROBES ARRANGEMENT - The 4-point probe set up (Fig.1) consists of four equally spaced
tungsten metal tips with finite radius. Each tip is supported by springs on the end to minimize sample
damage during probing. The four metal tips are part of an auto-mechanical stage which travels up and
down during measurements. A high impedance current source is used to supply current through the
outer two probes (red/black) and a voltmeter measures the voltage across the inner two
probes(green/yellow) to determine the sample resistivity.

Figure 1 Four probe method of measuring resistivity of sample.

2. SAMPLE – Ge. Crystal in the form of chip.

3. OVEN – It is a small oven for the variation of temperature of the crystal from room temperature
to about 2000C. This oven contains RTD (resistance temperature detectors) sensor. RTDs are
sensors used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The
element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD
element is made from a pure material, typically platinum, nickel or copper. The material has a
predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes and it is this predictable change that is used
to determine temperature.

4. FOUR PROBES SET UP (Measuring Unit ) – It has three subunits all enclosed in one
cabinet.
i)Oven Controller
ii)Multirange Digital Voltmeter
iii) Constant current generator
 Figure 2 Experimental set up

Theory and Formula Used-

In solids if a current I passes through a sample of a solid material, of uniform cross section a ,then the
resistance of the sample R may be measured by finding the potential difference across it.

(1)
The resistance R is propotional to the length l of the sample and inversely propotional to its area of
cross section.
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝑎
Where the ρ is the resistivity of the sample.

In semiconductors the total electrical conductivity is the sum of the conductivities of the valence and
conduction band carriers and can be expressed as

  e(ne e  nh h ) (2)
Where ne, µe are the electron’s concentration and mobility and nh, µh are holes concentration and
mobility respectively. As in intrinsic region number of electrons is equal to number of holes, so
equ.(2) implies that,

(3)

Also, (4)

Where N is a constant, ni is concentration of charge carriers in intrinsic region, K is Boltzmann’s

constant and T is the temperature.

Putting (4) in (3),

 (5)
Since resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity. For intrinsic semiconductor,

(6)
Temperature dependence of the mobility in the intrinsic semiconducting region is expressed as:

(7)
Therefore equation.(6) can be written as

(8) where A is
some constant. Taking logarithm we get;

(9)

Above equation suggest the method of determining the energy band gap. Thus a graph between log
of resistivity and reciprocal of temperature should be a straight line. We will get curve for lower
temperature range.

Slope= Eg/ 2K

Eg= 2K× Slope×103 , Where K is Boltzmann’s constant, K=8.6×10-5eVK-1

 PROCEDURE –
1. Put the sample on the base plate of the four-probe arrangement Unscrew the pipe holding the four
probes and let the four probes rest in the middle of the sample. Apply a very little pressure on the
probes and tighten the pipe in this position. Check the continuity between the probes for proper
electrical contacts.
2. Connect the outer pair of probes(red/black) to the constant current power supply and the inner pair
(green/yellow) to the probe voltage terminals.
3. Place the four-probe arrangement in the oven and connect the sensor led to the RTD connector on the
panel.
4. Switch on ac mains of Four Probe setup and put the digital panel meter in the current measuring mode
through the selector switch. In this position LED facing mA would glow. Adjust the current to a desired
value (say 5mA).
5. Now put the digital panel meter in voltage measuring mode. In this position LED facing mV would
glow and the meter would read the voltage between. the probes
6. Switch ON the temperature controller and approx adjust the set –temperature The green LED would
light up indicating the oven is ON and the temperature would start rising Temperature of the oven in
K would be indicated by the DPM
7. The controller of the oven would switch off the power corresponding to set temperature. In case, it is less than
the desired temperature, the set temperature would be increased till the power is OFF at the desired temperature.
If the setting of the set temperature is higher than the desired value, the set temperature knob would be moved
back so that the LED is off at the desired temperature.
8. Because of thermal inertia of oven, there would be some over shoot and undershoot before a steady set
temperature is attained and may take 10 minutes for each reading.
9. To save time, it is recommended to under adjust the set temperature. Example say it is desired to set at
330K. Set the temperature set knob so that the LED is off at 325K. The temperature due to thermal
inertia would rise. At 330K adjust the set temperature so that the LED is ON. It would automatically
be OFF when temperature is above [Link] may go up to 1 or 2 degree but would quickly settle down
at 330K . Since the change in temperature at this stage is very slow and response time of RTD sensor
and semiconductor is comparatively fast. The reading can also be taken at any temperature without
waiting for an steady state.
10. For each temperature, calculate the resistivity by using the relation

11. Compute Logeρ and 103/T and plot a graph between them which is a straight line and then find slope
on the straight line.
12. Calculate the bandgap using formula E g = 2K× Slope×103.
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
Current (I) = ………..mA (Constant)
Spacing between the probes, S=0.2cm
Thickness of the sample, W=0.05cm
Semiconductor chip material=……………….
W  2S
The correction factor G 7   log e 2
S  W

[Link]. TEMPERATURE VOLTAGE V (2S ) T-1X 103 Logeρ


( T in K) (mV) I W 
G7  
S
([Link].)
01.
02.

03.

04.

05.

06.

07.

08.

09.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

FACULTY SIGNATURE:
 FINAL OBSERVATIONS
Current (I) = ………..mA (Constant)
Spacing between the probes, S=0.2cm
Thickness of the sample, W=0.05cm
Semiconductor chip material=……………….
W  2S
The correction factor G 7   log e 2
S  W

[Link]. TEMPERATURE VOLTAGE V (2S ) T-1X 103 Logeρ


( T in K) (mV) I W 
G7  
S
([Link].)
01.
02.

03.

04.

05.

06.

07.

08.

09.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.
CALCULATION –
1. Plot a graph between Logeρ and 103/T and find slope

2. Band gap Eg = 2K× Slope×103 =…………………

RESULT- Band gap of given semiconductor Eg=……..eV

STANDARD RESULT – Eg = 0.68 eV

PERCENTAGE ERROR –…………………………….

PRECAUTION –
1. The sample should be placed with non- conducting surface towards the bottom.
2. The current through the sample should not be large enough to cause heating.
3. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.
4. All the probes should be colinear.

VIVA QUESTIONS -
1. What is Band Gap in a good conductor ?
2. How does resistivity changes with change in temperature in semiconductors ?
3. What is the order of thickness of depletion layer ?
4. What is PN Junction ?
5. What is the advantage of Four Probe Method ?
6. Is this method of measurement of resistivity also applicable to silicon ?
[Link] is four probe method?
8. What are the factor that control the resistivity of a semiconductor?
9. What is resistivity?
10. What is energy band gap?
ANSWERS:
1. There is no band gap as the conduction and the valance bands overlap in good conductors.
2. Resistivity decreases with the increase in temperature.
3. The thickness of the depletion layer is of the order of 10 -6 m.
4. A p type semiconductor in contact with an n type semiconductor constitutes a pn junction.
5. It permits measurements of resistivity in samples having a wide variety of shapes. In this manner
the resistivity of both sides of PN junction can be determined with good accuracy before the material
is cut into bars for making devices.
6. Yes, this method of measurement is also applicable to silicon also.
7. In four probes method there is a set of four probes. Outer pair is used for passing current through
the semiconductor and the inner pair is used for measuring potential difference by using suitable
relationship we can measure the resistivity of given semiconductor.
8. Temperature and band-gap.
9. The resistance offered by a conductor of unit cross-sectional area and of unit length is called
resistivity. It is the property of the material of the conductor (unit: ohm-cm).
10. It is the energy difference between top of valance band and bottom of conduction band.
 Experiment No. 6
ECE OF COPPER

AIM: To determine the Electro Chemical Equivalent of copper using a Tangent Galvanometer (TG).

APPARATUS: Copper Voltameter, Storage Cell, Plug Key, Rheostat, Stop Watch, Commutator,
Spirit level and TG.

m
FORMULA: ECE of copper Z 
It
Where ‘m’ is the mass of copper deposited in ‘t’ seconds by ‘I’ ampere current.

THEORY:

The basic principle of this experiment is that when a steady current is passed for a known interval of
time through a copper voltammeter and the TG, connected in series. By measuring the mass of copper
deposited & knowing the constant of TG, the ECE of copper can be calculated. Let us first understand
about copper voltammeter and Tangent galvanometer.
Copper Voltammeter:
It consists of a cylindrical glass vessel filled with copper sulphate solution with few drops of sulphuric
acid. Vessel is covered with a circular ebonite lid from the top of which anode and cathode copper
plates are suspended. The anode is a pair of two identical parallel copper plates held at a small distance
apart and joined together by a metallic strip with the help of binding terminals at their upper ends. The
cathode is also a copper plate suspended symmetrically in between two anode plates through central
hole of the lid by means of binding terminal at upper end. When an electric current is passes through
copper sulphate solution, copper deposited on the cathode and dissolves from the anode into the
solution keeping the concentration of solution constant. Schematic is shown below in diagram.

Figure 1. Copper Voltameter

Tangent Galvanometer:
It is an instrument which is used for detection and measurement of low electric currents. It is based on
tangent law in magnetism. It consists of circular frame of a non magnetic material like wood, connate
or brass. It is mounted vertically on a horizontal base called turn table provided with three leveling
screws at the base. The frame can be rotated about a vertical axis. Three coils of fine insulated copper
wire having 2, 50 and 500 number of turns are wound on the circular frame. The coils are well insulated
from one another. One end of each of the three coils is connected to a common terminal C and their
other ends are connected to terminal son the turn table. A circular magnetometer box of non-magnetic
material is held at the centre of circular frame. This box has a small magnetic needle ns pivoted at its
centre on a vertical axis with a long thin aluminum pointer fixed at 90 to the needle. Both are free to
move as one body. The ends of the pointer lie over a horizontal circular scale graduated in degrees and
divided into four quadrants of 0 – 90 each. A small plane mirror is fixed at the base under the pointer.
This would remove error due to parallax in reading the position of the pointer on the scale. For setting
it adjust the leveling screws so that the turn table is horizontal and the frame is exactly vertical. Rotate
the vertical frame so that the plane of the frame lies exactly over the magnetic needle in the box. This
sets the frame in magnetic meridian. Hold the vertical frame firmly with hand and turn the
magnetometer box so that ends of the aluminum pointer lie on zero line, on the scale. The schematic
of TG is shown below in the diagram.

Figure 2. Tangent Galvanometer

The ECE of a substance is the mass of the substance liberated during electrolysis by one coulomb of
electricity. When a current is passed through copper sulphate solution taken in a copper voltammeter,
electrolysis takes place. Copper ions move towards the cathode and get deposited on it. If ‘m’ is the
mass of copper deposited in ‘t’ seconds by ‘I’ ampere current then.
mQ
m  It
or m = Z.I.t where ‘Z’ is ECE of copper
m
Therefore, Z
It
If this current is also passed through a TG set in the magnetic field, it produces a deflection 𝜃 in
galvanometer which is related with I as
I=K tan𝜃
 2rH
where K  and is known as the reduction factor.
0 n
When 𝜃 =450, tan 𝜃 =1 and K=I
K is numerically equal to the current required to produce a deflection of 45 0 in the galvanometer.
So, Z = (K tan𝜃 ) t KgC-1

Figure 3. Circuit Diagram

PROCEDURE :

The TG is set so that the coil lies in the magnetic meridian by making the following adjustments:
1. Using the spirit level, the instrument is leveled so that the base board is horizontal and the plane
of the coil is vertical.
2. The compass box is turned so that the line joining 900-900 is parallel to the plane of the coil.
3. The coil as whole is turned so that the pioneer reads 0 0 -00. Connections are made as shown is
the circuit diagram. The Voltmeter is connected in series with a storage cell, rheostat, key and
a TG through a Commutator ‘C’. The rheostat is adjusted so that the deflection in the TG is
450. The circuit is broken and cathode plate (Plate connected to the -ve of the cell) is removed.
It is rubbed with sandpaper, washed with the distilled water and dried. It is weighed in mg, by
the electronic balance.
4. It is replaced in the voltmeter and reconnected. The circuit is completed and simultaneously a
stop watch is started.
5. The deflections of the TG (𝜃1 & 𝜃2) are noted, current is passed for seconds, then the current
through TG is reversed with the help of commutator. Keep the watch on deflection if it changes
make it again constant by means of rheostat then the deflections (𝜃 3 & 𝜃4) of the pointer are
noted. If the two deflections are same then coils are in magnetic meridian otherwise rotate
slightly the coils til the two deflections are the same.
6. Now note down the deflections after a regular interval of 5 minutes for both forward and reverse
direction and keep it constant with the help of rheostat. This process is continued for 40 to 50
minutes & then the circuit is broken. The cathode is disconnected. It is dipped in dilute
sulphuric acid and washed in a thin stream of distilled water. It is then dried and weighed.
7. Care is taken to see that the current remains steady throughout the experiment.
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
Horizontal Component of the earth magnetic field BH = 0.345 X 10-4T(in Delhi)
Number of turns in each coil (n) = ___________________________________
Circumference of the coil, (C) = ____________________________________cm.
𝐶
Radius of the coil, r = = _________________cm = _____________________m.
2𝜋
Mass of the copper plate before deposition of copper = (m1) = ___________g.
Mass of the copper plate after deposition of copper = (m2) = ___________g.
Mass of copper deposited = m = (m2-m1) = _______________g.
Total time ‘t’ taken = _______________________________sec.
2𝑟𝐵𝐻
K=Reduction factor of T.G = = ___________________A.
𝜇0 𝑛
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Deflection of pointer Deflection of pointer
for direct current for reverse current
Time Mean 𝜃 I = K tan 𝜃
Left Right Left Right
(min) (degree) (Amp)
pointer pointer pointer pointer
𝜃1 𝜃2 𝜃3 𝜃4

Mean I = ………. A
CALCULATIONS:

𝑚
Z= = _________________g/C = __________________Kg/C
𝐼𝑡

FACULTY SIGNATURE:
 FINAL OBSERVATIONS
Horizontal Component of the earth magnetic field BH = 0.345 X 10-4T(in Delhi)
Number of turns in each coil (n) = ___________________________________
Circumference of the coil, (C) = ____________________________________cm.
𝐶
Radius of the coil, r = = _________________cm = _____________________m.
2𝜋
Mass of the copper plate before deposition of copper = (m1) = ___________g.
Mass of the copper plate after deposition of copper = (m2) = ___________g.
Mass of copper deposited = m = (m2-m1) = _______________g.
Total time ‘t’ taken = _______________________________sec.
2𝑟𝐵𝐻
K=Reduction factor of T.G = = ___________________A.
𝜇0 𝑛
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Deflection of pointer Deflection of pointer
for direct current for reverse current
Time Mean 𝜃 I = K tan 𝜃
Left Right Left Right
(min) (degree) (Amp)
pointer pointer pointer pointer
𝜃1 𝜃2 𝜃3 𝜃4

RESULT:
Electro Chemical Equivalent of copper (Z) = _________________________Kg/C
Standard value of ECE of Copper is 3.210-7 Kg/C
PERCENTAGE ERROR: ……………………
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Magnetic field of the rheostat may influence the deflections of the magnetic needle at the centre of
the TG. So, it must be placed far away from the TG.
2. The point of pivot of the magnetic needle may not coincide with the centre of the circular scale
hence both ends of the pointer are read to obtain the deflections 𝜃1 & 𝜃2.
3. The plane of TG may not lie exactly in the magnetic meridian. Hence the current
through the TG is reversed using the commutator. Reading 𝜃 3 & 𝜃 4 of the pointer is noted.
4. The current must be steady throughout the experiment.
5. As the mass of copper deposited is very small, it must be determined accurately by the method of
oscillations.
6. It is preferable to use a copper voltameter with three copper plates, the end
plates being connected. The middle plate must be used as cathode.
7. The cathode plate must be properly cleaned, otherwise deposition of the copper
may not be firm.
[Link] current should not be passed; current should not be more than one ampere for 50 sq. cm areas
of the cathode plate.
9. The accumulator used must be fully charged so that the current is constant
throughout the experiment, if there is decrease in current, it must be maintained
steadily by adjusting the rheostat.
10. The plate is dried to remove the moisture before weighing.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is Faraday’s Ist law of electrolysis?
2. What do you mean by ECE of an element?
3. What is an electrolyte?
4. What do you mean by electrolysis?
5. Which solution is used in Copper Voltammeter?
6. Why do we add a few drops of sulphuric acid to copper sulphate solution?
7. Why do we use two anodes in voltammeter?
8. Why do we make deflection nearly 450 ?
9. What is the use of commutator in this experiment?
10. Why do you take observations with direct and reverse currents?
11. What is the practical utility of electrolysis?
12. What is reduction factor?
13. Why the Stewart and Gee type galvanometer is called Tangent Galvanometer?
14. What is tangent law?
15. Why is it necessary to set the plane of the coil in magnetic meridian?
ANSWERS:

1. The mass of ions liberated at any electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the
charge flowing through the electrolyte.
2. ECE is defined as the mass of its ions liberated at an electrode when charge of one coulomb is
passed through its electrolyte.
3. The liquid or salt solution which undergoes decomposition on passing current through it is
called electrolyte.
4. The process of decomposition of a liquid or a salt solution by passing current through it is
called electrolysis.
5. Copper Sulphate.
6. Sulphuric acid is added to increase the conductivity of the copper sulphate solution, as it
produces additional ions.
7. Two anodes are used on either sides of the cathode to deposit copper on both sides of the
cathode plate.
8. Because value of tan  does not change much near the angle 450.
9. It is used to reverse the direction of current.
10. By taking observations with direct and reverse current any errors in the measurement of
deflection arise due to coil of galvanometer not exactly in magnetic meridian is removed.
11. It is used in electroplating of metals.
12. It is a factor which when multiplied by tangent of the angle of deflection gives current
through the coil.
13. Because its working is based on Tangent law.
14. F=H tan .
15. To make the magnetic field produced by circular coil at right angles to the horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field.
 Experiment No. 7

AIM- Determination of Charge density, charge velocity and Hall coefficient of a given p-type
semiconductor by Hall Effect method.

APPARATUS - Hall probe (Ge Crystal). Hall probe (InAs Crystal), Constant Currents Power Supply,
Electromagnet with power Supply, Gauss Meter.

THEORY-
When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, acting in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of the current, a potential difference is developed across those faces of the conductor
which are at right angle to both current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect and
the induced potential difference is called Hall Voltage.
In semiconductors when moving charges are subjected to magnetic field electrons and holes will
be separated by opposite force. They will in turn produce an electric field (Eh) which depends on the
cross product of the magnetic field intensity, H and the current density J
Eh = Rh (J × H) ... (1)
Where Rh is called Hall Coefficient.
For a bar of semiconductor, having dimensions x, y & z. Let J directed along X-axis and H along Z
axis then Eh will be along Y-axis.
𝑉ℎ
𝑦 𝑉ℎ
Then 𝑅ℎ = = 𝑧 ... (2)
𝐽𝐻 𝐼𝐻
Where Vh is Hall voltage appearing between the two surfaces perpendicular to y and I. Vh = JYZ. Hall
coefficient is a function of the applied magnetic field. It is easy to calculate ‘R h’ by assuming that all
carriers have the same drift velocity.
Metals and doped semiconductors are the examples of the type where one carrier dominates. Intrinsic
and lightly doped semiconductors are the examples of the type where two carriers dominates.
̅)
The magnetic force on the carrier is Em =𝑒(𝑣̅ × ℎ
and is compensated by the field.
𝐹 ̅ 𝑣̅
𝐸̅ℎ = ℎ =
𝑒 𝑦
Where 𝑣̅ is the drift velocity of the carriers.
By putting these values in equation (2) and 𝐽 ̅ = 𝑞𝑛𝑣̅
 Figure 1

Figure 2
𝐸ℎ 1
𝑅ℎ = ̅̅̅̅
= ... (3)
𝐽𝐻 𝑛𝑞
Sign of all Hall Coefficient depends upon the sign of the q. In a p-type specimen Rh should be positive,
which in n-type it would negative.
When one carrier dominates, the conductivity of material is
Where µ is the mobility of charge carrier
Thus
𝜎
𝜇= = 𝜎𝑅ℎ
𝑛𝑞
PROCEDURE:
(i) Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall probe to the terminals marked ‘Voltage’ and length
wise contacts to terminals marked ‘Current’ in Constant Current Power Supply.
(ii) Switch ‘on’ the Hall Effect setup and adjust current to a few mA (Say 5mA).
(iii) To reduce voltage developed due to heating (Neranst effect) and Galvanic effect, interchange
the terminals of current in Hall effect set up after passing current for few minutes.
(iv) Now place the Hall probes (Ge crystal and Indium Arsenide crystal) as in Fig. 3 and switch ‘on’
the Electromagnet Power Supply and adjust the current to any desired value. Rotate the In-As
probe till it become perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage and gauss meter reading will
be maximum in this adjustment.
(v) Switch over the Display to voltage side, there may be some voltage reading in absence of
magnetic field due to imperfect alignment of the Hall probe. This is known as the ‘zero field
potential’. In all cases, this error should be subtracted from the Hall Voltage reading.
(vi) Measure the Hall voltage as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value of current as
constant. Check for zero field Potential. Plot a graph of ‘V’ Verses ‘H’.
(vii) From both the graph and the calculated Hall Coefficient values are as below.
𝑉ℎ 𝑍 𝑉
Rh = = ( ℎ )from graph
𝐼𝐻 𝐼 𝐻
Where ‘Z’ is the thickness of the Ge crystal = 5 × 10 -2cm.

Figure 3
(i) Rh= ................. cm3/coulomb
(ii) Charge Carrier density:- n = 1/Rhq = .......................... cm3
Where (q = 1.6×10-19C)
(iii) Carrier mobility μ 𝜇 = Rh........................... cm3/VS
Where ‘  ’ is the conductivity of the sample.
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
Sample : Ge crystal (n-type)
Thickness (Z) : 5 × 10-2 cm.
Resistivity (ρ) : 5 Ohm cm.
Conductivity (): = 1/ ρ= 0.2 Mho cm-1

Current I = ...................... mA
H in Gauss V’ in mV V2 in mV Vh= (V’- V2) in mV

From graph
𝑉ℎ 𝑍 𝑉
Rh = = ( ℎ )from graph=……………………………
𝐼𝐻 𝐼 𝐻
Rh = ....................... X 108 cm3 C–1
Hall Coefficient Rh =........................ cm3 C–1
Carrier Density n = 1/R q = ......................... Cm-3
h

Where q = 1.6 × 10-19C.

Carrier Mobility 𝜇 =𝑅ℎ 𝜎........................... cm3/VS

FACULTY SIGNATURE:
 FINAL OBSERVATIONS

Sample : Ge crystal (n-type)

Thickness (Z) : 5 × 10-2 cm.
Resistivity (ρ) : 5 Ohm cm.
Conductivity (): = 1/ ρ= 0.2 Mho cm-1

Current I = ...................... mA
H in Gauss V’ in mV V2 in mV Vh= (V’- V2) in mV

From graph
𝑉ℎ 𝑍 𝑉
Rh = = ( ℎ )from graph=……………………………
𝐼𝐻 𝐼 𝐻
Rh = ....................... X 108 cm3 C–1
Hall Coefficient Rh =........................ cm3 C–1
Carrier Density n = 1/R q = ......................... Cm-3
h

Where q = 1.6 × 10-19C.

Carrier Mobility 𝜇 =𝑅ℎ 𝜎........................... cm3/VS

RESULT
Hall Coefficient (Rh)= ––––––––Cm3 C-1
Carrier Density (n)= ––––––– Cm-3
Carrier Mobility (μ)= –––––––– Cm2 V-1 S-1

PRECAUTIONS
1. All the apparatus are to be handled carefully because it is very sensitive and delicate.
2. Any kind of strain on both probe elements is to be avoided.
3. Always increase or decrease the current gradually, Switch ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ the power supply at
the zero current position.
4. Place the Hall probe between the pole pieces such that maximum Hall voltage is generated.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is Hall Effect?
2. What are n-type and P-type semiconductors?
3. What is the effect of temperature on Hall Coefficient of lightly doped conductors?
4. How do you define Hall coefficient?
5. Can Hall effect be observed in conductor?
6. On what factor the sign of Hall potential difference depends?
7. What do you mean by mobility of a charge carrier?
8. How does the mobility of a charge carrier depends on the electrical conductivity of the
specimen?
9. When the magnetic field B is switched on, what force will be exerted on one moving charge
carrier?
10. What is the importance of Hall coefficient?

ANSWERS
1. The Hall Effect is the production of a potential difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical
conductor in which an electric current flows in the presence of a magnetic field. Edwin Hall
discovered this effect in 1879. The direction of the potential difference is perpendicular to both
the magnetic field and the current
2. If the pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, the electrons will become
the majority carriers and holes will be the minority carriers. This is called n-type
semiconductor. Otherwise if we add the trivalent impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor the
holes become the majority carriers and electrons become minority carriers. this is called p-
type semiconductors.
3. The Hall coefficient drops sharply with a raise in temperature, indicating that the concentration
of free electrons increase with the temperature.
4. The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the
current density and the applied magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the material from which
the conductor is made, as its value depends on the type, number and properties of the charge
carriers that constitute the current
5. Yes.
6. It depends upon the nature of charge carriers. Thus, by noting the directions of Hall
potential and the magnetic field, the nature of charge carriers may be determined by the use of
Fleming’s left hand rule.
7. It is the drift velocity of the charge carrier acquired per unit electric field.
8. Mobility is directly proportional to the conductivity, i.e,
𝜇 =𝑅ℎ 𝜎
9. QvB
10. By knowing the value of Hall coefficient, the concentration of charge carriers and the type of
semiconductor can be determined.
 Hall Effect Experiment (Virtual Lab)

Aim: (a) To determine the hall voltage developed across the sample.
(b) To calculate the Hall coefficient and carrier concentration of the sample.

APPARATUS - Hall probe (Ge Crystal). Hall probe (In As Crystal), Constant Currents Power Supply,
Electromagnet with power Supply, Gauss Meter.

THEORY-
When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, acting in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of the current, a potential difference is developed across those faces of the conductor
which are at right angle to both current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect and
the induced potential difference is called Hall Voltage.

Figure 1

Formula Used:
VH=RH*(IB/t)
RH = (VH*t / I*B)
ne = 1/ (RH*q)
t= Thickness of sample
Table 1: Magnetic field generated through the applied current
[Link]. Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

Table 2:
[Link]. Magnetic Thickness of Hall Hall RH ne
field (Tesla) sample (t) Current (IH) Voltage
mA (VH)
1
2
3
4
5
 Experiment No. 8

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT BY RC CHARGING AND

DISCHARGING
Aim: To determine the Dielectric constant (K) of a given dielectric material by the method of
charging & discharging of a capacitor.
Apparatus: Battery, Capacitors, Resistors, Voltmeter, Timer and Connecting wires.
Formula: The dielectric constant (K) of the given dielectric material is calculated using the
relation
d T1/ 2 10 6
K
0.693  0 A R

Where d is the thickness of the dielectric slab in m,

T1/2 or P is the time at which the charging and discharging voltages are equal,

0 is the relative permittivity = 8.85x10 -12 F/m, and

A is the area of the dielectric slab in m2

Circuit diagram: Charging and discharging of a Capacitor

Re-setter
Halt-start
S2
X A
M N S P
R
Charge
2 +
Ba S1 1 3
C +
-
v
Discharg -
e

B T Q
Y

Where, Ba = Battery, S1 and S2 = Dual switches, C = Electrolytic Capacitor, and R = Resistor.

Dimensions of capacitors

Table-1

Capacitor C1 C2 C3

Length (mm) 47 114 183

Breadth (mm) 5 5 6

Thickness of dielectric (separation (mm)) 0.075 0.075 0.075

Graph: Charging and discharging of capacitor

5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
Charge Mode Voltage, V
3.0 Discharge Mode Voltage, V
Voltage V

2.5
T1/2
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Time T ,s

Procedure:

1. Make the circuit connections as shown in the diagram shown below.

2. Reset the Timer by moving the toggle in the switch S2 towards the HALT-position.
3. Move the toggle in the switch S1 towards charge mode (upwards i.e. Position 2) simultaneously
move S2 towards the START position.
4. Record the charging voltage V at the end of every 5 seconds (T) & tabulate the readings in the
tabular column until V becomes constant.
5. Once the voltage V becomes constant move S2 towards the HALT position. Then move S1
towards the down (Discharge mode i.e. position 1) & S 2 towards the START position.
6. Record the discharge voltage V at the end of every 5 seconds (T) & tabulate the readings in the
tabular column until voltage V reaches a minimum value.
7. Determine T1/2 or P by plotting a graph of T v/s V for both the charge and discharge modes.
8. Using the values of T1/2 or P, A, R and 0 in the above relation estimate the value of K.
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of C (C 1, C2, C3) & R (100 KΩ).

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS

C1 = μF R =100 KΩ C2 = μF R =100 KΩ C3 = μF R =100 KΩ

Time T
in Charge Discharge Charge Discharge Charge Discharge
seconds Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode
V V V V V V

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
 80
85
90
95
100

Calculations:

d T1 / 2 106
K1  
0.693  0 A R

d T1 / 2 106
K2  
0.693  0 A R

d T1 / 2 106
K3  
0.693  0 A R

FACULTY SIGNATURE:

FINAL OBSERVATIONS

C1 = μF R =100 KΩ C2 = μF R =100 KΩ C3 = μF R =100 KΩ

Time T
in Charge Discharge Charge Discharge Charge Discharge
seconds Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode
V V V V V V

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
 40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100

Calculations:

d T1 / 2 106
K1  
0.693  0 A R

d T1 / 2 106
K2  
0.693  0 A R

d T1 / 2 106
K3  
0.693  0 A R

Result: The estimated values of T1/2, and the dielectric constants (K) of the dielectric material are
found to be

Parameters C1 C2 C3

T1/2 (sec)

Dielectric constant (K) K1= K2= K3=

Principle:

Capacitors are devices which store electric charge and energy. Capacitors have several uses,
which include filters in DC power supplies and as energy storage banks for pulsed lasers. Capacitors
allow AC current, but blocks DC current, hence capacitors are used to block the DC component of a
signal so that the AC component can be measured. Plasma physics makes use of the energy storing
ability of capacitors. In plasma physics short pulses of energy at extremely high voltages and currents
are frequently needed. Capacitor can be slowly charged to the necessary voltage and then discharged
quickly to provide the energy needed. It is even possible to charge several capacitors to a certain
voltage and then discharge them in such a way as to get more voltage (but not more energy) out of the
system than was put in. This experiment features an RC circuit, which is one of the simplest circuits
that uses a capacitor.
A capacitor comprise of two conductors separated by a small distance. When the conductors
are connected to a charging device (for example, a battery), charge is transferred from one conductor
to the other until the difference in potential between the conductors due to their equal but opposite
charge becomes equal to the potential difference between the terminals of the charging device. The
amount of charge stored on either conductor is directly proportional to the voltage, and the constant of
proportionality is known as the capacitance. This is written algebraically as
Q = CΔV. (1)
The charge Q, voltage ΔV and capacitance C are measured in units of coulomb (C), volts (V),
and Farads (F). Capacitors are physical devices and capacitance is a property of devices.
Charging and Discharging
In a simple RC circuit, a resistor and a capacitor are connected in series with a battery and a switch.

Figure 1: A simple RC circuit

When the switch is in position 1 as shown in Fig. 1 (a), charge on the conductors builds to a maximum
value after some time. When the switch is thrown to position 2 as in Fig. 1(b), the battery is no longer
part of the circuit and, therefore, the charge on the capacitor cannot be replenished. As a result the
capacitor discharges through the resistor. If we wish to examine the charging and discharging of the
capacitor, we are interested in what happens immediately after the switch is moved to position 1 or
position 2, not the later behavior of the circuit in its steady state.
For the circuit shown in Fig. 1(a), Kirchhoff's loop equation can be written as
ΔV – Q/C – R dQ/dT = 0 (2)

The solution to Eq. (2) is Q = Qf [1 − e(−t / RC)] (3)

where Qf represents the final charge on the capacitor that accumulates after an infinite length of
time, R is the circuit resistance, and C is the capacitance of the capacitor. From this expression you
can see that charge builds up exponentially during the charging process. See Fig. 2 (a).When the
switch is moved to position 2, for the circuit shown in Fig. 1 (b), Kirchhoff's loop equation is now
given by

Q/C-R(dQ/dT)=0 (4)

The solution to Eq. (4) is Q = Q0 e(−t / RC) (5)

where Q0 represents the initial charge on the capacitor at the beginning of the discharge, i.e., at t = 0.

From this expression it is observed that the charge decays exponentially when the capacitor discharges,
and that it takes an infinite amount of time to fully discharge. See Fig. 2(b).

Figure 2: Change versus time graphs

Time Constant τ: The product RC (having units of time) has a special significance; it is called the time
constant of the circuit. The time constant is the amount of time required for the charge on a charging
capacitor to rise to 63% of its final value. In other words, when t = RC,

Q=Qf (1-e-1) (6) and 1 − e−1 = 0.632 (7)

another way to describe the time constant is to say that it is the number of seconds required for the
charge on a discharging capacitor to fall to 36.8% (e−1 = 0.368) of its initial value. We can use the
definition (I = dQ/dt) of current through the resistor and Eq. (3) and Eq. (5) to get an expression for
the current during the charging and discharging processes.

charging: I = +I0e−t/RC (8 )

discharging: I = −I0e−t/RC ( 9 ) where I0 = ΔV0 /R in Eq. (8) and Eq. (9) is the
maximum current in the circuit at time t = [Link] the potential difference across the resistor will be
given by the following. charging: ΔV = + ΔVf e−t/RC (10)

discharging: ΔV = − ΔV0e−t/RC (11)

Note that during the discharging process the current will flow through the resistor in the opposite
direction. Hence I an ΔV in Eq. (9) and Eq. (11) are negative. This voltage as a function of time is
shown in Fig. 3.
 Figure 3: Voltage across the resistor as a function of time
It is useful to describe charging and discharging in terms of the potential difference between the
conductors (i.e., "the voltage across the capacitor"), since the voltage across a capacitor can be
measured directly in the lab. By using the relationship Q = C ΔV,
Eq. (3) and Eq. (5) that describe the charging and discharging of a capacitor can be rewritten in
terms of the voltage. Merely divide both equations by
C, and the relationships become the following. charging: ΔV = ΔVf [1 − e(−t/RC)] (12)
discharging: ΔV = ΔV0e(−t/RC) (13)
Note that these two equations are similar in form to Eq. (3) and Eq. (5). The graph of the voltage
across the capacitor versus time is shown in Fig. 4 below.

Figure 4: Voltage across the capacitor as a function of time

By rearranging Eq. (12) we get 1 – ΔV/ ΔVf = e(−t/RC). (14)

stake the natural log (ln) of both sides of this expression and multiply by –1 to obtain

-ln (1 – ΔV/ ΔVf )=t/RC (15)

A plot of –ln [(ΔVf − ΔV)/ΔVf] versus time will produce a straight line graph with a slope of 1/RC.
Similarly, for the discharging process, Eq. 13 can be rewritten to get

ΔV/ ΔV0== e(−t/RC). (16)

Take the natural log (ln) of both sides of this expression and multiply by –1 to obtain

– ln (ΔV/ΔV0)=t/RC (17)

A plot of −ln(ΔV)/ΔV0) versus time will produce a straight line graph with a slope of 1/RC.

Using a Square Wave to Simulate the Role of a Switch

In this experiment, rather than using a switch, we will be using a signal generator that can generate
periodic wave forms of varying shapes, like a sine wave, triangular wave, and square wave. Both the
frequencies and amplitudes of the wave forms can also be adjusted. Here we will use the signal
generator to produce a time-varying voltage, with a square wave form, across the capacitor similar to
the one shown in Fig. 5.
 Figure 5: A square wave with period Τ
The output voltage from the signal generator changes back and forth from a constant positive
value to a constant zero volts in equal intervals of time t. The time
T = 2t is the period of the square wave. During the first half of the cycle, when the voltage is positive,
it is similar to the switch being in position 1. During the second half of the cycle, when the voltage
is zero, it is the same as the switch being in position 2. So the square wave, which is a DC voltage
that is turned on and off periodically, serves as both battery and switch in the setup in Fig. 1. The
signal generator allows this switching to be done repeatedly, and it is possible to optimize the data
collection by adjusting the frequency of the repetition. This frequency will depend on the time
constant of the RC circuit. When the time t is larger than the time constant τ of the RC circuit, the
capacitor will have enough time to charge and discharge, and the voltage across the capacitor will
be as shown in Fig. 4
OBJECTIVE

In this experiment a (computer-emulated) oscilloscope will be used to monitor the potential difference,
and thus, indirectly, the charge on a capacitor. The voltage measurements will be used in two different
ways to compute the time constant of the circuit. Finally, capacitors will be connected in parallel to
examine their equivalent circuit capacitance.

Viva-voce

1. What is a capacitor?
A. Capacitor is a device, which is used to store charge.
2. What is meant by capacitance?
A. Ability to store charge in a capacitor is called capacitance and it is measured in farad, F.
3. What is the relation between Q, C & V?
A. Q=CV, Q, charge stored (coulomb), C, capacitance (Farad), V, voltage
4. Define one farad?
A. It is the amount of charge required to raise the potential by 1 volt.
5. What is dielectric?
A. Dielectric is an insulator, which is used to increase the capacitance of the capacitor.
6. Classify dielectrics?
A. It is classified into polar and non-polar dielectrics
7. The dielectric constant depends on what factors
A. It depends on frequency, material and temperature.
8. Describe the phasor diagram for pure resistor, capacitor and inductor
A. in a pure resister, I & V will been phase, phasor I leads V by 90 degree but in case of a inductor
V lead I by 90 degree.
9. Define one farad
A. One farad is the capacity of a capacitor in which potential of the capacitor raises by 1 volt.
10. When does the body get charged?
A. When a body rubbed with another body it gets charged due to lass or gain of electron.
11. State coulomb’s law of charges.
A. It states that force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
12. What is an electric field?
A. It is the region of space in which a charged body experience force. It is measured in volt per meter
13. What are electric lines of forces?
A. It is the path traveled by a unit positive charge from positive charge to negative charge.
14. What are the properties of electric lines of force?
A. Electric lines of force start at positive charges & ends at negative charge. They never intersect. They
will be normal to the surface of the body at the point where they terminate. They have a tendency to
contract along length of force.
15. State gauss law
A. Total flux coming out of a Gaussian surface= (1/ε 0) times the charge enclosed by the surface.
16. Define electric flux.
A. Total no. of lines of force emanating from a charge is called electric flux.
17. Define electric potential
A. It is the amount work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the
electric field. It is measured in volts.
18. Define potential deference.
A. Potential deference between 2 points in an electrical field is the amount of work done in moving a
unit positive charge from one point to the other point against the field.
19. Define one Volt.
A. One volt is equal to the potential at a point from which the amount work done in bringing unit
Coulomb of positive charge from infinity to the point is one joule.
20. Define equipotential surface.
A. It is that surface on which every point has same potential
21. Define Potential gradient.
A. It is ratio of change in potential with distance. Measured in J/m
22. Define the electric strength.
A. It is the maximum electric field that can be applied across a dielectrics so that no dielectric
breakdown occur measured in V/m, it depends on the material and the temperature
23. Define magnitude of polarization
A. It is the ratio of dipole moment to unit volume. It is measured in C/m2
24. Define EMF of a battery?
A. It is the potential difference between the terminals of a cell in an open circuit that is where no current
is drawn from the cell.
dT1/ 210 6
25. Show that r 
0.693 0 AR

A. We know that q  q0 e  t / RC

At t = T1/2, q = q0 /2 then the above equation becomes

q0
 q0 e T1 / 2 / RC
2

Taking natural log both sides, we get

RC ln2 = T1/2

i.e 0.693CR = T1/2

But C   0 r A / d

Then 0.693( 0 r A / d ) R  T1/ 2

dT1 / 2106
or r 
0.693 0 AR

26. What is the effective capacitance in case of 2 capacitors C1 & C2 connected in series and
parallel?
A. CS= C1C2/C1+C2, CP=C1+C2
27. Define dielectric constant εr?
A. It is the ratio of capacitance in presence of dielectrics to capacitance in presence of vacuum or it is
the ratio of voltage measured in presence of vacuum to capacitance in presence of dielectrics
εr =Cm/Ca=Va/Vm
28. Define electric susceptibility (χ)?
A. It is the ease with which dielectrics material gets polarized. It is dimensionless. χ= ε r-1
29 Define dielectric displacement D?
A. It is the ratio of dielectric flux per unit area. C/m2
30. What are polar and non polar dielectrics?
A. In case of polar dielectrics effective center positive & negative charges does not coincide. Ex HCl,
Nitro benzene, Sovol. In case of non-polar dielectrics, effective center of positive and negative
charges coincide ex. Paraffin.
31. Explain polarization in case of polar dielectrics?
A. When an electric field is applied across a dielectrics dipoles align along the direction of electric
field and neutralization of charges takes place & electric field inside the dielectrics will be created
opposite to that of the field, but it gets polarized along the direction of field. Hence the voltage across
the dielectrics decreases; the battery drives some charges to the capacitor till the applied voltage
balance. By the time voltage balance more charges will be stored inside the capacitor, the capacitance
of the capacitance increase.
32. Explain polarization in case of non-polar dielectrics?
A. When an electric field is applied across the non.-polar dielectrics positive charges and negative
charges move apart and dipoles form. Then dipoles align along the direction of field, neutralization
takes place and polarization takes place along the direction of field.
33. Name the different types of polarization mechanism?
A. 1. Electronic, [Link] 3. Orientational 4. Space charge polarization.

34. What is the advantage of dielectric strength?

A. Higher the dielectric strength lower will be the thickness of the dielectrics and the size of the
capacitor decreases.
35. What is the equation of potential energy stored in a capacitor?
A. Potential energy stored = CV2 /2
36. If area or thickness of the dielectrics is varied will it affect the value of dielectrics?
A. No, because the dielectric constant of dielectrics depends on the material rather than dimensions.
37. What is the effect of C&R on the time constant T1/2?
A. As the value of C or R or both decreased the value of time constant increases then capacitor takes
more time for charging and discharging.
38. Which is open for DC & short for AC?
A. Capacitor.
39. Define dielectric loss?
A. It is the loss of energy in the form of heat when an ac field is applied across dielectrics. It is given
byV22πfCtanδ where v applied voltage, f frequency, C capacitance & δ loss angle.
 Experiment No. 9

NEWTON’S RINGS

AIM: Evaluating Optical Flatness of Surfaces Using Newton's Rings Interference Pattern.

APPARATUS: A traveling microscope, a plane glass plate. a sodium vapor lamp with
transformer, optical arrangement for Newton’s Rings ,a convex lens, magnifying lens.

FORMULA: The optical flatness is given by

2
𝐷(𝑛+𝑚) − 𝐷𝑛2
𝑅=
4𝑚𝜆

where, Dn+m and Dn are the diameters of (n + m)th ring and nth ring respectively. ‘λ’ is the
wavelength of light used.

THEORY: In Newton’s Rings apparatus, interference pattern is obtained due to reflection at two
surface of a circularly- shaped air film of variable thickness. The air film is formed between the
curved surface of a plano-convex lens of large focal length and a plane glass surface. The thickness
of the film is zero at the point of contact of the lens and glass plate. The interference rings,
alternatively dark and bright are known as Newton’s Rings. The width of the rings goes on
decreasing as we move away from the centre.
The central ring is dark. This is because of the fact that when light is reflected at a dense
medium, a phase change of π or a path difference of ( /2) is introduced. If ‘R’ is the radius of
curvature of the curved surface of the lens and  is the wavelength of light used, then it can be
shown that

𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝑅 ..............................................(1)

where Dn is the diameter of the nth dark ring
If Dn+m is the diameter of (n + m)th ring, then

2
𝐷(𝑛+𝑚) = 4(𝑛 + 𝑚)R..................................................(2)
Equations (2)-(1) is
2
𝐷(𝑛+𝑚) − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅
or,
2
𝐷(𝑛+𝑚) − 𝐷𝑛2
𝜆=
4𝑚𝑅
PROCEDURE :

The experimental arrangement is shown in fig.

1. Clean the glass plate ‘G1’ and the lens ‘L’
Place both of them in the circular frame, so
that curved surface of the lens is in contact
with the plate.
2. Clean the glass plate ‘G’ and set this with the
inclination of apparatus as shown in Fig.1

Fig 1. Newton’s Ring Experimental

arrangement
3. Place the whole arrangement near a sodium
lamp and adjust the slit of the lamp so that the
slit and the centre of the plate ‘G’ are at the
same height.
4. Insert a convex lens in between slit and the
plate ‘G’, so that the slit is at focus of the lens
and the rays are incident on the plate parallel
to each other. Set the plate G’ so that it is
inclined at an angle of 450 and the rays after
reflection from ‘G’ fall normally on the lens
‘L’.
5. After finding vernier constant of microscope,
Figure 2. Ring formed between glass plate
focus it to the alternate dark and bright rings.
Adjust the position of the microscope, till the and plano convex lens
point of intersection of the cross wires lies at
the centre of the rings system.

Fig. 3. Newtons Ring Apparatus with dark

box and transformer
6. Slide the microscope on one side, say left, till the cross-wire lies tangentially at the centre of
a certain dark ring (say 20th). Note the reading of the microscope.
7. Slide the microscope with the slow motion screw and take readings, when the crosswire lied
tangentially at the outer surface of 16th, 12th, 8th and 4th dark rings
8. Keep on sliding the microscope in the same direction, till cross-wire lies tangentially at the
outer surface of the 4th dark ring on the right side. Note the microscope reading; continue
 moving the microscope and take reading at the outer surface of 8th, 12th, 16th & 20th dark
ring of the other side.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
Measurement of Diameter of rings
Value of 1 MSD of traveling microscope = M = ___________cm.
No. of divisions on the vernier scale = N = ___________
Least count of traveling microscope = M/N = ___________cm.

Table: Observation for Ring Diameter

Sl. No of Traveling Microscope Reading Diameter Dn2
No rings Left hand side R1 Right hand side R2 (D)
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR D
in cm in cm in cm in
cm D=R1-R2
in cm
1 20

2 16

3 12

4 8

5 4

CALCULATIONS:

By Graph :- Draw a graph between ‘n’ along X-

axis and corresponding D2n along y axis (Refer Fig
4) Join the points by a straight line passing through
origin so that most of the points lie on it.
From Graph

R= slope/4λ

Fig.4 Graph between D2 and n.

FACULTY SIGNATURE:
 FINAL OBSERVATIONS
Measurement of Diameter of rings
Value of 1 MSD of traveling microscope = M = ___________cm.
No. of divisions on the vernier scale = N = ___________
Least count of traveling microscope = M/N = ___________cm.

Table: Observation for Ring Diameter

Sl. No of Traveling Microscope Reading Diameter Dn2
No rings Left hand side R1 Right hand side R2 (D)
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR D
in cm in cm in cm in
cm D=R1-R2
in cm
1 20

2 16

3 12

4 8

5 4

CALCULATIONS:

By Graph :- Draw a graph between ‘n’ along X-

axis and corresponding D2n along y axis (Refer Fig
4) Join the points by a straight line passing through
origin so that most of the points lie on it.
From Graph

R= slope/4λ

Fig.4 Graph between D2 and n.

 RESULT:
Optical flatness R = .........m

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The lens and glass plates should be cleaned before using.

2. The crosswire should be set along the diameter of the rings and not about any chord.
3. Use only dark ring so that crosswise may be set easily on each ring.
4. First three or four rings should be left out for measurement as they are not well defined.
5. Micrometer screw should be moved only in one direction throughout the experiment in
order to avoid any error due to back lash of the screw.

9. In this case, the transmitted system of the fringes will be reflected and due to superposition of
reflected and transmitted systems there will be uniform illumination.

10. This happens when a dust particle comes b/w the two surfaces at the point of contact.

11. Yes, in this case the color of the rings is complimentary of the reflected light.

12. To view the whole air film, an extended source is necessary.

13. This is due to fact that the radii of dark rings are proportional to square root of natural numbers
while those of bright rings are proportional to square root of odd natural number.

14. 5890Å and 5896Å.

15. A series of concentric colored rings with a dark centre will be observed around the point of
contact.
 Experiment No. 10

NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER

AIM: To determine the Numerical aperture, Angle of divergence and Attenuation coefficient of a
given optical fiber cable.

APPARAUTUS:

1. ST2501 Techbook with power supply cord

2. Optical Fibre cable
3. Numerical Aperture measurement Jig

FORMULA USED:

W
1. Numerical Aperture N.A. =
4 L2  W 2

W is diameter of the spot in mm

L is distance between fiber and screen in cm

2. Angle of Divergence- 𝜃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑁𝐴)

3. Attenuation coefficient-

10 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝛼= 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐿 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
where:
Pin is the input power,
Pout is the output power,
L is the length of the fiber in kilometres.

THEORY:

1. The numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes
the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light. Numerical Aperture refers
to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the fiber and is totally internally reflected
and it can be transmitted properly along the fiber.

2. Consider an optical fiber having a core of refractive index n1 and cladding of refractive index
n2.
3. Let the incident light makes an angle α with the core axis as shown in figure (3 )
4. Then the light gets refracted at an angle Ө and fall on the core cladding interface at an angle where,
Ө c = (90 - Ө) ………………………………………(1)
By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the optical fiber we get,
 n3 sin α = n 1 sin Ө …………………………………(2)
where n3 is refractive index of medium outside the fiber. For air n3= 1 .
5. When light travels from core to cladding it moves from denser to rarer medium and so it may be
totally reflected back to the core medium if Ө c exceeds the critical angle. The critical angle is that
angle of incidence in denser medium ( n1 ) for which angle of refraction becomes 90° .
Using Snell’s law at core cladding interface,
n1 sin Ө c = n2 sin 900
Sin Ө c = n2/n1

Figure 1. Optical Fibre

6. Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fiber as guided wave , the angle of
incidence at core cladding interface should be greater than Ө c .There is maximum value of angle
of incidence beyond which , it does not propagate rather it is refracted in to the cladding medium
.The maximum value of α say α m is called maximum angle of acceptance and n3 sin α m is termed
as numerical aperture

7. In terms of refractive index, it can be given as N.A.= =√ n1 2 – n2 2

8. The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi vertical angle α m only
propagate through the fiber. The higher the value of α m or NA ,more is the light collected for
propagation in the fiber. Numerical aperture is thus considered as a light gathering capacity of
an optical fiber.
Numerical aperture is thus defined as the sine of half of the angle of fiber’s light
acceptance cone i.e. NA =Sin α m .
9. Let the spot size of the beam be at a distance L(distance between the fiber end and detector) and
the radius of the spot (W) .Then ,

W
Numerical Aperture N.A. =
4 L2  W 2

Angle of Divergence- 𝜃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑁𝐴)

10. To calculate the attenuation coefficient, connect the light source to one end of the optical fiber and
connect the other end of the fiber to the power meter.
11. Measure the optical power output from the light source (Pin). This should be done before connecting
the fiber to ensure accuracy.
12. With the fiber connected, measure the output power (Pout) at the other end of the fiber.
13. Measure the length of optical fiber in kilometres and calculate the attenuation coefficient using the
formula-
10 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝛼= 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐿 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the Power supply cord to mains supply and to the Techbook ST2501.

2. Connect the Frequency Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter circuit. Adjust its
amplitude at 5Vp-p.

3. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter circuit and the other end to the numerical
aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen facing the fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular
to the axis of the fiber.

4. Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25 mm diameter) vertically at a suitable
distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with 10 mm circle.

5. Record the distances of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W ofthe spot.
6. Compute the numerical aperture from the formula-
W
N.A. =
4 L2  W 2

7. Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make it coincide with one of the
concentric circles. Note its distance.

8. Tabulate the various distances and diameter of the circles made on the white screen and computer
the numerical aperture from the formula given below.

9. To calculate the attenuation coefficient, connect the light source to one end of the optical fiber
and connect the other end of the fiber to the power meter.

10. Measure the optical power output from the light source (Pin). This should be done before
connecting the fiber to ensure accuracy.

11. With the fiber connected, measure the output power (Pout) at the other end of the fiber.

12. Measure the length of optical fiber in kilometres and calculate the attenuation coefficient using
the formula-
10 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝛼= 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐿 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
S. No Distance between Fiber and Diameter of the spot W
N.A. =
Screen (L) in cm (W) in mm
4 L2  W 2

1
2
3

Mean=………………

CALCULATIONS:

N.A.=
Angle of divergence θ =
Attenuation Coefficient α =

FACULTY SIGNATURE:

FINAL OBSERVATIONS
S. No Distance between Fiber and Diameter of the spot W
N.A. =
Screen (L) in cm (W) in mm
4 L2  W 2

1
2
3

Mean=………………

CALCULATIONS:

N.A.=
Angle of divergence θ =
Attenuation Coefficient α=

RESULT: Numerical Aperture of optical fiber=…………

Angle of divergence θ =
Attenuation Coefficient α =

Standard Value N.A. =0.5

PERCENTAGE ERROR: ……………………………..

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Optical fiber cable should be tightly connected to the emitter LED point on the board.
2. Gain should be adjusted to maximum value otherwise input spot from LED is not visible.
3. There should not be any bend in the optical fiber cable.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
 1: What do you mean by Numerical Aperture?
2. On what factors the numerical aperture depends?
3. What do you mean by acceptance angle?
4. What do you mean by acceptance cone of a fibre?
5. What is working principle of optical fibre?
6. A fibre with high numerical aperture is preferable or not?
7. What is the importance of acceptance cone?
8. What do you mean by mode?
9. What are buffer and jacket in optical fibre?
10. How is an optical fibre fabricated?
11. Define attenuation coefficient of an optical fiber.
ANSWERS:
1. Numerical aperture of a fibre is a number which defines the light acceptance or light
gathering capacity of a fibre.
2. The numerical aperture of a fibre depends on the refractive indices of the core and
cladding.
3. The maximum entrance angle subtended by a ray on the fibre axis at the entry point of
the fibre for which the ray suffers total internal reflection on striking the core-cladding
boundary, is called the acceptance angle.
4. The cone of light described at the entry end of the fibre with semi-angle less than or
equal to the acceptance angle of the fibre is called acceptance cone.
5. Total internal reflection.
6. No, a fibre with low numerical aperture is desirable.
7. Not all the rays entering the fibre core will continue to be propagated. All the rays
falling within the cone formed with acceptance angle as vertex angle would be
transmitted down the fibre.
8. Mode is path for light to follow in a fibre.
9. Buffer is the protective layer deposited on the cladding of the fibre, whereas jacket is
the outer protective layer in a fibre cable.
10. To fabricated fibre, one can use either different glasses with different refractive indices
for core and cladding or use fused silica (quartz glass) whose refractive index is
modified by doping. The type of glass used will also vary with application, but the
purity must also be kept very high.
11. The attenuation coefficient of an optical fiber is a measure of how much light is lost as
it travels through the fiber. It is typically expressed in decibels per kilometer (dB/km)
and represents the power loss per unit length of the fiber. It can be calculated using the
formula-
10 𝑃
𝛼= 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃 𝑖𝑛 )Where, Pin is the input power, Pout is the output power, L is the
𝐿 𝑜𝑢𝑡
length of the fiber in kilometres.