Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

3. Welding

Contents
3.1 Classification of welding processes............................................................................... 2
3.2 Metal arc welding ............................................................................................................. 3
3.3 Submerged arc welding ................................................................................................... 8
3.4 TIG....................................................................................................................................... 9
3.5 MIG .................................................................................................................................... 10
3.6 Electro-slag...................................................................................................................... 11
3.7 Electric Resistance Welding .............................................................................................. 13
3.8 Special type of welding:..................................................................................................... 17

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 1

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

3.1 Classification of welding processes

3.1.1 Basic Concept of Welding

Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals with the help of heat or
pressure or by some other means. The cost of welding is very less as compared to other
processes and forms a strong joint.
For this reason, it is largely used in the following fields of engineering:
1. Manufacturing of machine tools, auto parts, cycle parts, etc.
2. Fabrication of farm machinery & equipment.
3. Fabrication of buildings, bridges & ships.
4. Construction of boilers, furnaces, railways, cars, aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.
5. Manufacturing of television sets, refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, etc.
A weld will inherit the common drawback of brittleness, which is a disadvantage. The
emphasis in welding technique should, therefore, be preventing this brittleness to the
maximum possible extent.

3.1.2 Classification of Welding Processes

Many types of welding processes have been developed depending upon the field of their
applications. But the welding is broadly divided into following two groups.
1. Forge or Pressure Welding (Under pressure without additional filler metal)
(a) Friction welding
(b) Electric resistance welding
(c) Blacksmiths forge welding
(d) Cold pressure welding

2. Fusion or non-pressure welding (With additional filler material)

(a) Gas welding (Heat created by Gas)
(b) Electric arc welding (Heat created by electrically)
(c) Thermite welding (Heat created by chemical Reaction)

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 2

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Table 3.1: Classification of Welding Process

3.2 Metal arc welding

3.2.1 Electric arc welding:

The welding in which the electric arc is produced to give heat for the purpose of joining two
surfaces is called electric arc welding.

3.2.2 Principle
Power supply is given to electrode and the work. A suitable gap is kept between the work
and electrode. A high current is passed through the circuit. An arc is produced around the
area to be welded. The electric energy is converted into heat energy, producing a
temperature of 3000°C to 4000°C. This heat melts the edges to be welded and molten pool
is formed. On solidification the welding joint is obtained.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 3

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Figure 3.2: Arc welding

3.2.3 Electric Power for Welding

AC current or DC current can be used for arc welding. For most purposes, DC current is
preferred. In D.C. welding, a D.C. generator or a solid state rectifier is used. D.C. machines
are made up to the capacity range of 600 amperes. The voltage in open circuit is kept
around 45 to 95 volts and in closed circuit it is kept 17 to 25 volts. D.C. current can be given
in two ways:
(a) Straight polarity welding.
(b) Reverse polarity welding.
In straight polarity welding work piece is made anode and the electrode is made cathode as
shown in the Fig 4.3. Electrons flow from cathode to anode, thus, heat is produced at the
materials to be welded.

Figure 3.3: Straight polarity welding Figure 3.4: Reverse polarity welding

In reverse polarity system the work is made cathode and the electrode is made anode. This
welding is done specially for thin section. AC welding has the advantage of being cheap.
Equipment used is simpler than DC welding.
A transformer is used to increase the current output at the electrode. The current varies
from 150 to 1000 amperes depending upon the type of work.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 4

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

3.2.4 Consumable electrode:

 It is consumed during welding process.
 It melts in to weld zone, thus electrode must be moved continuously towards the
work piece to maintain constant arc length.
 It will act as a filler metal.
 It can be made of steel, copper, brass, bronze, etc.

3.2.5 Non – consumable electrodes:

 Tungsten and its alloys are used as non consumable electrodes. It can be used
either with AC or DC.
 When consumable electrodes are used for arc welding, then welding process is
termed as Metal arc welding.
 If non-consumable electrodes are used then welding process is termed by the
electrode material used.
 Consumable electrode may be classed in to bare and coated.
 Bare electrodes have the same or nearly same composition as that of parent
metal.
 They have the disadvantage that their surface may be subjected to oxidation.
 Coated electrodes have light coating of some material to prevent its oxidation or
may have coating of flux.

3.2.6 Classification & coding of electrodes:

 Electrode classification provides information on,
o constituents of flux coating
o nature of slag
o current & polarity
o arc behavior
o welding position
o appearance of weld deposit
o quality of weld etc.
 These are required to select the most suitable electrode.

3.2.7 Indian system:

L X X X X X X L

Letter Digits Letter

1st letter – It can be E or R.

E indicates that the electrode is solid extruded
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 5
 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

R means an electrode extruded with reinforcement

1st digit – It indicates the class of covering.

It can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 9.
1 means high cellulose content, 2 means high titania content, 4 means high iron/ or Mn
oxides etc.
2nd digit – It indicates the positions in which electrode can weld satisfactorily.
It can be 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 9.
0 & 1 signify that the electrode can be used for welding in all positions, and in flat,
horizontal, overhead and vertical positions respectively.
4 indicates flat & horizontal fillet positions.
2, 3 & 9 mean flat, horizontal; flat only; and not classified respectively.
3rd digit – It gives the idea of current, polarity and open circuit voltage of the welding power
source.
4th & 5th digit – They indicate the range of tensile strength and value of minimum yield
stress.
Ex: 41 (fourth and fifth digits) and 51 mean that tensile strength ranges from 410 – 510 and
510 – 610 N/mm2 and minimum yield stress is 330 and 360 N/mm2 respectively.
6th digit – It tells percentage elongation and impact value.
Last letter – P indicates a deep penetration electrode, H hydrogen-controlled electrode, and
J, K, L indicate electrode with iron powder coating and metal recovery 110 – 130%, 130 –
150% and above 150% respectively
Example: E207411 means
a) It is a solid extruded electrode
b) Its covering contains appreciable amount of Titania
c) It is all position electrode
d) It can be operated on DC or AC with a power source having, open circuit voltage 50
volts
e) Weld metal tensile strength ranges between 410 and 510 N/mm2 and minimum
yield stress is 330N/mm2
f) Minimum % elongation of weld metal is 20%

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 6

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

3.2.8 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW):

Figure 3.8: Arc welding operations

Figure 3.9: A typical multi pass bead

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a commonly used arc welding process manually
carried by welder. It is an arc welding process in which heat for welding is produced through
an electric arc set up between a flux coated electrode and the workpiece. The flux coating of
electrode decomposes due to arc heat and serves many functions, like weld metal
protection, arc stability etc. Inner core of the electrode supply the filler material for making
a weld. The basic setup of MMAW is depicted in Fig. 4.8 and the configuration of weld zone
is shown in Fig.4.8. If the parent metal is thick it may be necessary to make two or three
passes for completing the weld. A typical multi pass bead in this case is shown in Fig. 4.9.

Advantages
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) can be carried out in any position with highest
weld quality.
2. MMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
[Link] welding process finds innumerable applications, because of the availability of
a wide variety of electrodes.
4. Big range of metals and their alloys can be welded easily.
5. The process can be very well employed for hard facing and metal resistance etc.
6. Joints (e.g., between nozzles and shell in a pressure vessel) which because of their
position are difficult to be welded by automatic welding machines can be easily
accomplished by flux shielded metal arc welding.
7. The MMAW welding equipment is portable and the cost is fairly low.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 7

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Disadvantages
1. Due to flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and other related defects
are more as compared to MIG and TIG welding.
2. Duo to fumes and particles of slag, the arc and metal transfer is not very clear and thus
welding control in this process is a bit difficult as compared to MIG welding.
3. Due to limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on it, mechanization
is difficult.
4. In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the weld is to
be progressed with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect (like slag inclusion or
insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where welding is restarted with the new
electrode
5. The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to MIG welding.

Applications
1. Building and Bridge construction
2. Automotive and aircraft industry, etc.
3. Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrication
4. Ship building
5. Pipes and
6. Penstock joining

3.3 Submerged arc welding

Submerged Arc Welding:

Schematic submerged arc welding process is shown in Fig. 3.10. In this welding process, a
consumable bare electrode is used in combination with a flux feeder tube. The arc, end of
the bare electrode and molten pool remain completely submerged under blanket of
granular flux. The feed of electrode and tube is automatic and the welding is homogenous in
structure. No pressure is applied for welding purposes. This process is used for welding low
carbon steel, bronze, nickel and other non-ferrous materials.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 8

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Figure 3.10: Submerged arc welding process

3.4 TIG
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG):
In this process a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used with an envelope of inert
shielding gas around it. The shielding gas protects the tungsten electrode and the molten
metal weld pool from the atmospheric contamination. The shielding gases generally used
are argon, helium or their mixtures. Typical tungsten inert gas welding setup is shown in Fig.
3.11.

Figure 3.11: Tungsten inert gas welding setup

The electrode material may be tungsten, or tungsten alloy (thoriated tungsten or zirconiated
tungsten). Alloy-tungsten electrodes possess higher current carrying capacity; produce a
steadier arc as compared to pure tungsten electrodes and high resistance to contamination.
Both AC and DC power source can be used for TIG welding. DC is preferred for welding of
copper, copper alloys, nickel and stainless steel whereas DC reverse polarity (DCRP) or AC is
used for welding aluminium, magnesium or their alloys. DCRP removes oxide film on
magnesium and aluminium. The nozzle or shield size (the diameter of the opening of the
shroud around the electrode) to be chosen depends on the shape of the groove to be
welded as well as the required gas flow rate. The gas flow rate depends on the position of
the weld as well as its size. Too high a gas consumption would give rise to turbulence of the
weld metal pool and consequently porous welds. Because of the use of shielding gases, no
fluxes are required to be used in inert gas shielded arc welding. However for thicker
sections, it may be desirable to protect the root side of the joint by providing a flux. The
process is generally used for welding aluminium, magnesium and stainless steel.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 9

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

3.5 MIG
Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG):

(a)

(b)
Figure 3.12: MIG welding setup

Metal inert gas arc welding (MIG) or more appropriately called as gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) utilizes a consumable electrode and hence, the term metal appears in the title.
There are other gas shielded arc welding processes utilizing the consumable electrodes,
such as flux cored arc welding (FCAW) all of which can be termed under MIG. Though gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) can be used to weld all types of metals, it is more suitable for
thin sheets. When thicker sheets are to be welded, the filler metal requirement makes

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 10

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

GTAW difficult to use. In this situation, the GMAW comes handy. The typical setup for
GMAW or MIG welding process is shown in Fig. 3.12. The consumable electrode is in the
form of a wire reel which is fed at a constant rate, through the feed rollers. The welding
torch is connected to the gas supply cylinder which provides the necessary inert gas. The
electrode and the work-piece are connected to the welding power supply. The power
supplies are always of the constant voltage type only. The current from the welding machine
is changed by the rate of feeding of the electrode wire. Normally DC arc welding machines
are used for GMAW with electrode positive (DCRP). The DCRP increases the metal
deposition rate and also provides for a stable arc and smooth electrode metal transfer. With
DCSP, the arc becomes highly unstable and also results in a large spatter. But special
electrodes having calcium and titanium oxide mixtures as coatings are found to be good for
welding steel with DCSP. In the GMAW process, the filler metal is transferred from the
electrode to the joint. Depending on the current and voltage used for a given electrode, the
metal
transfer is done in different ways.

3.6 Electro-slag
Electro slag welding:
The electroslag welding (ESW) process is developed essentially to weld very large plates
without any edge preparation. This is essentially a single pass process using a consumable
electrode for filling the gap between the two heavy plates. The heat required for melting
the plates and the electrode is obtained initially by means of an arc so that flux will form the
molten slag. Once the molten slag is formed, the arc is extinguished and the heat of welding
is obtained by the resistance heating of the slag itself. The typical electroslag welding set up
is ·shown in Fig 3.13. For the effective welding it is necessary to maintain a continuous slag
pool and therefore the best way to maintain it, is to weld vertically. The slag pool is
contained in the groove with the help of two water cooled copper dam plates which move
along with the weld, as shown. The size and type of electrodes chosen depending on the
width of the joint.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 11

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Figure 3.13: Electro slag welding process

In the Fig 3.13, two electrodes for feeding through the feed rollers (not shown) into the
weld zone are shown. The flux required to maintain a satisfactory amount of slag is fairly
small, of the order of 0.2 to 0.3 kg per metre of weld length irrespective of the plate
thickness. Thus, the heat utilized for melting the slag is much less. Most of the heat supplied
in electroslag welding thus, melts the joint. By this process, a plate of thickness, 200 mm,
can easily be welded in a single pass. Because of the vertical welding, any gas present easily
bubbles out through the slag and therefore, better welds can be had. The heating and
cooling of the edge is more gradual. The slag floating at the top would be preheating the
joint before the actual melting by the heat liberated from the electrode. Whatever be the
thickness of the plate no edge preparation is required. Electroslag welding is useful for
welding very thick plates, the workpieces whose thicknesses are less than 50 mm may not
be economical for welding by this process unlike submerged arc welding.

Applications
Fabrication of high pressure vessels, frames of heavy mechanical and hydraulic presses,
rolling mill frames, ship hulls, locomotive frames, etc.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 12

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

3.7 Electric Resistance Welding

The electric resistance welding is commonly used. It can be applied to any metals. Electric
current passes through the materials being joined. The resistance offered to the flow of
current results in raising the temperature of the two metal pieces to melting point at their
junction. Mechanical pressure is applied at this moment to complete the weld. Two copper
electrodes of low resistance are used in a circuit.
The mechanical pressure or force required after the surfaces are heated to a plastic
temperature is approximately 0.3 N/m2 at the welded surface.
This method of welding is widely used in modern practice for making welded joints in sheet
metal parts, bars and tubes etc.

3.7.1 Types of resistance welding

1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding
3. Projection welding

3.7.2 Spot Welding

Spot welding is used to lap weld joints in thin metallic plates (up to 12.7 mm thick) for
mechanical strength and not for tightness.
The metallic plates are overlapped and held between two copper electrodes. A high current,
depending upon plate thickness, at a very low volt-age (4-12 volts), is passed between the
electrodes. The contact resistance of the plates causes to heat rapidly to a plastic state.
Mechanical pressure is applied. Supply is cut-off for the metal to regain strength. The
pressure is released. The process is repeated at another portion of the plates. Thus, spot
joints at regular interval depending upon the strength required are obtained. The electrodes
are water cooled to avoid overheating and softening of the tips.
Spot welding is mainly used in the manufacture of automobile parts refrigerators, metallic
toys, racks, frames, boxes, radio chassis, etc.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 13

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Figure 3.5: Spot welding

3.7.3 Seam Welding

The metallic plates are held by two copper roller electrodes with one roller driven by motor
so that the plates are moved between the rollers at a suitable speed. The high current is
passed between the electrodes holding metallic plates pressed together with suitable force
and pushes together to travel between the revolving electrodes as showing in Fig. 4.6. The
plates between the electrodes get heated to welding (fusion) heat and welded continuously
under constant pressure of rotating electrodes. This is a quicker operation than spot welding
and gives a stronger joint.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 14

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Figure 3.6: Seam welding

3.7.4 Projection Welding

There are raised projections in the workpiece at all points where a weld is desired as shown
in Fig4.7. As the current is switched on the projection are melted and the workpieces
pressed together to complete the weld. The melted projections form the welds. This
method enables production of several spot welds simultaneously.

Figure 3.7: Projection welding

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 15

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Advantages of Resistance Welding

(a) It is well suited for mass production.
(b) It is economical in operation, since nothing is consumed except electrical power.
(c) Skilled welders are not required.
(d) Welds are quickly made.
(e) It is possible to weld dissimilar metals.

Disadvantages of Resistance Welding

(a) High initial cost of the resistance welding equipment
(b) Certain resistance welding processes are limited to lap joints.
(c) A lap joint has an inherent service between the two metal pieces, which causes stress
concentrations in applications where fatigue is present. This service may also cause trouble
when corrosion is present

3.7.5 Carbon Arc Welding

In this process, a pure graphite or baked carbon rod is used as a non-consumable electrode
to create an electric arc between it and the workpiece. The electric arc produces heat and
weld can be made with or without the addition of filler material. Carbon arc welding may be
classified as-
(1) Single electrode arc welding, and
(2) Twin carbon electrode arc welding

In single electrode arc welding, an electric arc is struck between a carbon electrode and the
workpiece. Welding may be carried out in air or in an inert atmosphere. Direct current
straight polarity (DCSP) is preferred to restrict electrode disintegration and the amount of
carbon going into the weld metal. This process is mainly used for providing heat source for
brazing, braze welding, soldering and heat treating as well as for repairing iron and steel
castings. It is also used for welding of galvanized steel and copper.
In twin carbon arc welding the arc struck between two carbon electrodes produces heat and
welds the joint. The arc produced between these two electrodes heats the metal to the
melting temperature and welds the joint after solidification. The power source used is AC
(Alternating Current) to keep the electrodes at the same temperature. Twin-electrode
carbon arc welding can be used for welding in any position. This process is mainly used for
joining copper alloys to each other or to ferrous metal. It can also be used for welding
aluminium, nickel, zinc and lead alloys.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 16

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

3.8 Special type of welding:

3.8.1 Thermit welding:

Figure 3.14: Thermit welding process

It may be of forge or fusion kind of welding. Fusion welding requires no pressure. Thermit
welding process is depicted in Fig. 3.14. It is a process which uses a mixture of iron oxide and
granular aluminium. This mixture in superheat liquid state is poured around the parts to be
joined. The joint is equipped with the refractory mold structure all around. In case of
thermit pressure welding, only the heat of thermit reaction is utilized to bring the surface of
metal to be welded in plastic state and pressure is the applied to complete the weld. The
temperature produced in the thermit reaction is of the order of 3000°C. Thermit welding is
used for welding pipes, cables, conductors, shafts, and broken machinery frames, rails and
repair of large gear tooth.

3.8.2 Friction Welding:

Friction Welding is a “solid-state joint process that produces coalescence of materials under
compressive force contact of workpieces rotating or moving relative to one another to
produce heat and to plastically displace material from the faying surfaces. Friction welding
has been used in the United States and Europe for more than 50 years. While well-known to
some, it’s been a very well-kept secret. Sometimes it is referred to as spin weld or spin
welding, because one part is rotated in process. As customers learn and understand the
process, benefits become clearly obvious.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 17

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

In continuous “direct drive” friction welding, one workpiece is attached to a rotating motor
drive unit as shown above. The other workpiece is clamped in a non-rotating axial drive
unit. The two workpieces are gradually brought together with one rotating and the other
still. When they make contact, heat is generated at the interface due to friction. Additional
axial force is applied. The axial force is raised to a final constant value and held for a
predetermined time, or until a preset amount of upset takes place. The rotational driving
force is disconnected, and the rotating workpiece is stopped by the application of a braking
force. The axial force (forging force) is maintained or increased for a predetermined time
after rotation ceases.
The ability to create near-net shape blanks offers manufacturers an opportunity to reduce
material consumption and shorten machining cycle time. Joining dissimilar metals like
stainless steel alloys to other metals provides unique design flexibility. Used in automotive
industry to manufacture gears, engine valves, and shock absorbers. Used to join jet engine
and compressor parts.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 18

 Manufacturing Processes I (MIE 2122)

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 19