Data Transmission – Error Detection & Encryption
(Detailed Notes)
2.2 Methods of Error Detection
2.2.1 Why Errors Occur in Transmission
- Errors may occur due to electrical interference, signal degradation, hardware faults, packet loss,
or timing issues.
- Error detection ensures data integrity, prevents critical system failures, and allows detection
before processing.
- Error detection does not prevent errors, it only identifies them.
2.2.2 Parity Checks
- Adds an extra parity bit (0 or 1) to make total 1s even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
- Sender sets parity, receiver checks it.
- Example (Even Parity): 1011010 → 10110100
- Example (Odd Parity): 1101001 → 11010011
- Detects single-bit errors but fails with two-bit errors.
2.2.3 Checksums
- Mathematical method: add data bytes, divide by fixed value, remainder = checksum.
- Receiver recalculates and compares.
- Example: Data = 100,150,50 → Sum = 300 → Remainder = 44.
- More reliable than parity, but still possible for rare undetected errors.
2.2.4 Echo Check
- Data is sent and then echoed back to sender.
- Sender compares echoed with original.
- Example: HELLO → HELLO (correct), HELLO → HEILO (error).
- Simple but doubles transmission time.
2.2.5 Check Digits
- Extra digit added to numbers (ISBN, credit cards, barcodes).
- Calculated using formula (e.g., mod 10).
- Detects typing mistakes and digit swaps.
2.2.6 Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
- Uses acknowledgements (ACKs) and timeouts.
- If ACK not received, data is resent.
- Ensures accuracy but can cause delays.
2.3 Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
2.3.1 Purpose of Encryption
- Converts plaintext into ciphertext to prevent unauthorised access.
- Used in banking, email, Wi-Fi, online shopping, etc.
- Decryption converts ciphertext back to plaintext.
2.3.2 Symmetric Encryption
- Same key used for encryption and decryption.
- Fast and efficient.
- Example: Caesar shift, AES, DES.
- Disadvantage: key sharing is risky.
2.3.3 Asymmetric Encryption
- Uses two keys: public (encrypt) and private (decrypt).
- More secure since private key is never shared.
- Slower but safer.
- Example: RSA, ECC.
- Often combined with symmetric encryption: asymmetric for key exchange, symmetric for bulk
data.
Summary Comparison
- Parity: simple, detects single errors only.
- Checksum: stronger, used in networking.
- Echo check: simple, but inefficient.
- Check digits: used in numbers like ISBN/credit cards.
- ARQ: ensures reliable transmission by retransmission.
- Symmetric Encryption: fast, but key sharing is risky.
- Asymmetric Encryption: secure, but slower.