Bangladesh J. Plant Taxon.

31(2): 329-347, 2024 (December) - Review paper

© 2024 Bangladesh Association of Plant Taxonomists DOI: [Link]
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF ALBIZIA PROCERA:
A MULTIFUNCTIONAL TREE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
AND CLIMATE RESILIENCE
SYED SHAHEEN SHAH1, M. NASIRUZZAMAN SHAIKH2, TANZILUR RAHMAN3,
MD. IFTEKHAR SHAMS4, MD. ALMUJADDADE ALFASANE5, SYED MASIUR RAHMAN6,
ASIF RAIHAN6, S.M. ABU NAYEM7 AND MD. ABDUL AZIZ2*
1
Socio-Environmental Energy Science Department, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto
University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
2
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen Technology and Carbon Management (IRC-
HTCM), King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, KFUPM Box 5040, Dhahran 31261,
Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Bioengineering, College of Chemicals and Materials, King Fahd University of
Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
4
Forestry and Wood Technology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna 9208, Bangladesh
5
Department of Botany, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
6
Applied Research Center for Environment and Marine Studies, King Fahd University of
Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
7
Department of Chemistry, Jagannath University, Dhaka 1100, Bangladesh

Keywords: Albizia procera; Sustainable development; Climate resilience; Agroforestry; Carbon

sequestration.

Abstract
Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth., a versatile and fast-growing tree species under the
family Fabaceae, holds substantial potential for advancing sustainable development and
climate resilience. This review highlights the taxonomy, ecological benefits, and diverse
applications and ecological benefits of A. procera, emphasizing its role in reforestation,
agroforestry, and sustainable forestry practices. A. procera is also valued for its high-
quality timber, contributing to traditional woodworking and modern engineered products
like Glulam beams, demonstrating its economic value. Additionally, A. procera
contributes to its carbon sequestration, aligning with climate action goals due to its high
biomass productivity. While acknowledging the need for careful management to mitigate
risks such as invasiveness, this review underscores the significance of A. procera in
fostering ecological restoration, sustainable livelihoods, and climate adaptation strategies.
Its multifaceted benefits position A. procera as a critical asset in pursuing a sustainable
and resilient future.

Introduction
The intensifying challenges of climate change, environmental degradation, and the need for
sustainable development have placed unprecedented pressure on ecosystems and natural resources.
Pursuing sustainable and climate-resilient strategies has become a global priority, calling for
innovative solutions that balance ecological integrity with socioeconomic growth (Nuţă et al.,
2024; Neira et al., 2023). Among the diverse plant species contributing to these efforts, Albizia
procera (Roxb.) Benth., a versatile and fast-growing deciduous tree, stands out because of its
multifaceted applications and ecological benefits. Native to the tropical and subtropical regions of

*Corresponding author, E-mail: maziz@[Link]

330 SHAH et al.

Asia and Australia, A. procera holds promise in various sectors, from reforestation and
afforestation to sustainable forestry practices and bio-based industrial applications. This review
delves into the wide-ranging potential of A. procera as a cornerstone species in sustainable
development and climate resilience, emphasizing its ecological adaptability, economic uses, and
contributions to environmental conservation.
A. procera, commonly known as White Siris, is a member of the Fabaceae family,
taxonomically placed under the class Magnoliopsida, and is renowned for its adaptability to
diverse ecological conditions (Kumar et al., 1998). This species exhibits a robust growth rate
(Khurana and Singh, 2000), making it particularly suitable for reforestation and afforestation
initiatives to restore degraded land and enhance carbon sequestration (Das and Maiti, 2016). Its
ability to thrive in varying soil types, including poor, sandy, and alkaline soils, further underscores
its potential for addressing land degradation challenges (Hossen and Kato-Noguchi, 2022). This
adaptability is not limited to specific climatic conditions. A. procera has demonstrated resilience in
tropical monsoon climates and arid regions, making it a valuable candidate for ecological
restoration projects in diverse environments, including the challenging terrains of the Middle East.
Consequently, it aligns well with large-scale environmental initiatives such as Saudi Arabia's
Vision 2030, which emphasizes afforestation and sustainable land management as key strategies
for combating desertification and mitigating climate change. One of the primary ecological
functions of A. procera lies in its ability to improve soil quality through nitrogen fixation (Ghabru
and Rana, 2023), a crucial process for enhancing soil fertility and promoting sustainable
agriculture. By enriching soil nutrients, trees support the cultivation of various crops in
agroforestry systems, thereby contributing to food security and sustainable farming practices
(Newaj et al., 2005). Integrating A. procera into agroforestry systems also aids in increasing
biodiversity (Singh et al., 2004), offering habitat and shade for other plant and animal species. Its
rapid growth and dense canopy provide additional environmental benefits, such as reducing soil
erosion and offering a green cover that enhances local microclimates (Pachuau et al., 2012). These
attributes position A. procera as a key player in combating soil degradation, promoting land
reclamation, and fostering ecological resilience.
Beyond its ecological contributions, A. procera also holds significant economic importance
(Alam et al., 2005). The tree is widely recognized for its high-quality timber due to its strength,
durability, and aesthetic appeal (Das et al., 2023). This makes it a sought-after material for various
woodworking applications, including furniture, cabinetries, and construction. The mechanical
properties of A. procera wood, such as high bending strength and resistance to termite damage,
further extend its utility in structural applications, particularly in regions where sustainable timber
alternatives are needed (Pachuau and Mazumder, 2013). The production of Glulam beams from A.
procera has shown promise as a structural timber product that exhibits superior mechanical
properties compared with solid timber (Das et al., 2023). This diversification in timber products
emphasizes the potential of A. procera to support both traditional and modern industries, providing
a sustainable alternative to more vulnerable hardwood species.
The versatility of A. procera extends to its role in supporting the livelihoods of communities
in rural and urban areas. Leaves of the species are rich in essential nutrients, and used as fodder,
contributing to the sustenance of pastoral economies. Moreover, it has a nurse tree role in
agroforestry systems, providing shade, improving soil conditions, and enhancing the productivity
of tea, coffee, and other crop plantations. Its adaptability to diverse environmental conditions
makes it a reliable choice for boundary planting, shade provision, and land stabilization,
supporting community-based conservation efforts and improving local resilience to climate
change. Despite its numerous benefits, A. procera presents challenges that warrant careful
consideration. Additionally, toxic compounds in certain parts of the tree, such as those used as fish
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF ALBIZIA PROCERA 331

poisons, call for careful application and management to avoid negative effects on aquatic
ecosystems. These aspects highlight the importance of balancing the beneficial applications of A.
procera with measures that mitigate potential risks, ensuring that its use remains sustainable
across different ecological contexts. One of the primary applications of A. procera is in
agroforestry systems. It is recognized for its rapid growth and ability to fix nitrogen, which
enhances soil fertility and supports the growth of companion crops (Tiwari and Dhuria, 2018;
Shukla et al., 2009). The tree leaves are rich in protein and serve as fodder for livestock, making
them an integral part of rural agricultural practices. Studies have demonstrated that incorporating
A. procera into agroforestry systems can improve soil quality and increase crop yields, particularly
in semi-arid regions, for instance, the pruned biomass of A. procera contributes significantly to
nitrogen dynamics in the soil, promoting healthier crop growth (Gupta et al., 2017; Prasad et al.,
2016). Environmental sustainability is another critical aspect of A. procera's significance. This
species plays a vital role in restoring degraded ecosystems through its ability to improve soil
structure and fertility, making it suitable for land restoration projects (Edrisi and Abhilash, 2021).
Its use in agroforestry not only aids carbon sequestration but also enhances biodiversity by
providing habitats for various organisms (Brandt et al., 2024). Moreover, the tree's adaptability to
different soil types, including saline conditions, makes it a valuable species for reforestation and
afforestation efforts in challenging environments (Paudel and Sun, 2022). As research continues to
uncover its benefits, A. procera is poised to play an even more significant role in addressing
contemporary environmental challenges. The significance of A. procera in sustainable
development is particularly evident in its contribution to climate change mitigation efforts. As a
fast-growing tree with high biomass productivity, A. procera plays a pivotal role in carbon
sequestration, capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide and storing it in its biomass and soil. Studies
have shown that A. procera-based agroforestry systems can significantly increase biomass and
carbon storage, creating carbon sinks in semi-arid and tropical regions (Hanif et al., 2023; Ahirwal
et al., 2020; Shah and Aziz, 2020; Mohamedkhair et al., 2020; Aziz et al., 2021; Shah et al., 2019;
Buliyaminu et al., 2020). This characteristic aligns with global climate targets and underscores the
potential of this tree to contribute to national and international climate action frameworks.
Additionally, its use in afforestation projects in regions such as Saudi Arabia offers a strategic
approach to enhancing local carbon stocks and improving soil health in arid landscapes.
The diverse applications and benefits of A. procera position it as a valuable species in the
quest for sustainable development and climate resilience. Its ecological adaptability, economic
potential, and contributions to soil fertility, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration make it an asset
for efforts to restore degraded ecosystems and support sustainable livelihoods. This review aims to
provide a comprehensive overview of the multiple functionalities of A. procera, exploring its role
in ecological restoration, industrial applications, and community resilience. By highlighting the
species' versatility and resilience, this study seeks to inform future research, policy-making, and
practical applications that leverage the full potential of A. procera in advancing sustainable
development goals and addressing the pressing challenges of climate change.
A. procera and its various functionalities
With reference to nomenclature, A. procera is known by various synonyms viz., Acacia
procera (Roxb.) Willd., Mimosa elata Roxb., and M. procera Roxb. In English, it is commonly
known as White Siris. Still, it also goes by several other names, including Forest Siris, Safed Siris,
Sil-koroi, each highlighting a particular aspect of its identity or habitat. These diverse names
signify the tree's widespread ecological presence and importance in different cultural contexts.
The genus Albizia consists of over 160 species thriving in tropical and subtropical regions.
Among the species, A. procera stands out as a significant species within the Fabaceae family and
332 SHAH et al.

Mimosoideae subfamily, as classified under the APG II (2003) and APG IV (2016) systems
(Group et al., 2016; Group, 2003). Earlier taxonomic systems, including those proposed by
Cronquist and Dahlgren, categorized A. procera under the family Mimosaceae. A. procera is
adorned with a lush canopy of green leaves, signifying its healthy and vigorous state (Fig. 1).
Dense and vibrant foliage offers a refreshing verdure often sought in urban landscapes for
aesthetic and ecological benefits. Beneath the verdant umbrella, the tree trunk is robust and sturdy,
displaying the characteristic solidity and hardness of the species. This hardy trunk supports an
extensive canopy, indicating the maturity and resilience of the tree.

Fig. 1. Habit of A. procera tree as observed on the King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM)
campus.

Taxonomy, distribution, and ecological significance

A. procera is a deciduous tree, attaining 10-40 m tall, characterized by a straight, unbuttressed
trunk and a smooth bark that varies in color from pale grey to brownish grey. It has unbuttressed
bole that can be straight or crooked, nearly smooth, bark pale grey to brownish grey, distinctly
visible from a distance, as shiny brown, exfoliating in thin flakes, many reddish-brown lenticels
present in branchlets. The young shoots were white and silky pubescent. Leaves bipinnately
compound, stipulate, stipule minute, 0.8 mm long, caducous, rachis about 8-27 cm long,
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF ALBIZIA PROCERA 333

triangular, glabrous, channeled on the upper side, elongated or oval shaped, sessile, c. 5-8×2-2.5
mm, exist 1.0-3.0 cm above the base of petioles, pinnae 1-6 pairs, c. 11-27 cm long, glabrous,
triangular, often with 1-3 small, oblong glands between the bases of upper leaflets pair, leaflets c.
3-10 pairs, opposite to sub-opposite, c. 1.5-5.8 ×1-2.5 cm, shortly stalked, obliquely oblong, ovate
to rhomboid-oblong or trapezoid, obtuse or retuse, entire, rigidly chartaceous, midrib diagonal.
Extended canopy is evergreen, but in the dry season, it is leafless for a short period. Inflorescence
large, terminal, copious panicles and pedunculate heads, peduncles usually in bunches of 2-5
together or often solitary, c. 0.6-3.0 cm long, each head c. 1.5 cm across, consisting of 16-30
flowers. Flowers yellowish-white and sessile. Calyx pale green, c. 1.5-2.7 mm long, tubular, teeth
5, small, triangular, acute, unequal, and glabrous outside. Corolla c. 4.5-6.8 mm long, funnel-
shaped, greenish-white, lobes 5, c. 1.2-2.5 mm long, elliptic, acute. Stamens extended numerous
large, yellow, bilobed, staminal tubes longer than the corolla tube. The ovary is nearly sessile, c.
1.8 mm long, glabrous, has a filiform style, and has stigmas minute. The fruit is a pod, c. 10-
19×1.3-3.0 cm, linear-oblong, smooth, flattened, shiny reddish-brown with distinct marks over the
seeds, dehiscent along lower suture only, fruits long persisting on the tree. Seeds 7-13 per pod, c.
6.5×5.0 mm, obovate-elliptic, flattened, c. 2.0 mm thick with areole c. 4.0×3.5 mm (Taylor, 2000).
The flowering and fruiting period of A. procera spans from May to January, showcasing its
extended seasonal cycle.
A. procera is a species of remarkable ecological and geographical significance with broad
distribution and distinct morphological features. This species predominantly flourishes in
Bangladesh, especially in the forested regions of the Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Cox's
Bazar, and Dhaka-Mymensingh Sal forests. It extends its presence to community and village forest
areas across the country, but its cultivation is not limited to natural habitats. A. procera is also a
prominent component of afforestation initiatives in residential and roadside areas in Bangladesh,
driven by both public and private entities. Globally, A. procera is indigenous to many regions,
demonstrating its adaptability and ecological resilience. Its native range spans central India across
the tropical expanses of Asia, including Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, and New
Guinea, and throughout Indo-China, Taiwan, South China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Australia, Brunei, and the Philippines, excluding the Malaya Peninsula. The species has
also been introduced and thrives in various countries such as Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas,
Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica,
Martinique, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, Puerto Rico, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent
and the Grenadines, Sudan, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, the Virgin Islands (US), and
Zimbabwe. This wide-ranging distribution underscores the adaptability of A. procera to diverse
ecological environments and highlights its importance in regional ecosystems (Rahman and Keya,
2015).
A. procera (Sil Koroi) is notable for its wide distribution, distinct morphology, and ability to
adapt to various climatic conditions. This species contributes significantly to the ecological
diversity of the regions it inhabits and offers extensive potential for sustainable forestry practices
and environmental conservation.

Habitat and propagation

A. procera flourishes in environments ranging from lowland rainforests and monsoon forests
to more challenging terrains, such as fire-induced grasslands, pyrogenic lands, and stunted and
seasonal swamp forests. Additionally, it is found in mixed deciduous forests, savannah woodlands,
alongside roadsides, dry gullies, and commonly in open secondary forests, demonstrating its
ability to adapt to a variety of ecological niches (He et al., 2020). Propagation of A. procera is
predominantly through its seeds, which exhibit a high germination rate of 90-100% (Parvin,
334 SHAH et al.

2005). These seeds maintain viability for 4–5 months and are potentially longer under optimal
conditions. To enhance germination, a recommended practice involves briefly soaking the seeds in
boiling water for five seconds, followed by overnight soaking in cool water before immediate
sowing. This treatment doubled the germination rate. Additionally, scarifying the seed coat before
boiling can further improve germination efficiency. Direct sowing in the field is preferable to
planting in the nursery for healthy seedling development. During the seedling stage, maintaining
soil moisture and regular weeding is crucial to minimize soil particle loosening and promote
healthy growth. Line sowing is effective in facilitating weeding and ensuring optimal growth
conditions. The seedlings of A. procera are characterized by the development of thick and long
taproots, indicative of their robust nature. Regarding seed storage, the species exhibits orthodox
behaviour, allowing fresh seeds to remain viable at room temperature for up to 10 months.
However, without proper management, the germination rate can decrease to 50% after storage
(Abdullah et al., 2019). Seeds can remain viable for over ten years at room temperature, and
airtight storage can preserve seed viability for over three years with a moisture content of
approximately 13 ± 2%. Apart from seed propagation, A. procera can also be propagated
vegetatively through stem or root cuttings, although this is less advisable during the peak of the
rainy or dry seasons. Layering is another effective method of vegetative propagation, and root
suckers can be produced from exposed roots, offering alternative propagation strategies for this
species. This adaptability in both habitat preference and propagation methods underscores the
versatility and resilience of A. procera, making it a valuable species for ecological restoration and
sustainable forestry practices.

Cultivation techniques
A. procera successfully grows at elevations from sea level up to 1,500 m, encompassing
tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate zones. The species demonstrates a wide temperature
tolerance, ranging from 1-20 °C to 36-48 °C, and is well suited to areas with annual average
rainfall between 90 and 5500 mm (Tsukada, 1983). A. procera can withstand frost and desert
conditions, underscoring its resilience. In terms of soil adaptability, this species is well suited to
various soil types, including shallow, fertile, alkaline or acidic, sandy, dry, and stony soils. Young
plants prefer growth in shaded areas, whereas mature plants are drought-tolerant (Park et al.,
2006). This species is known for its aggressive growth rate, which can lead to it behaving as a
weed in some environments. The annual growth rate in diameter ranges from 1-4.5 cm, enabling
the plant to achieve a diameter at breast height (dbh) of 40-65 cm within 30-40 years. In unburned
areas, A. procera colonizes alongside the Alang-Alang (Imperata cylindrica) grasslands. This
results in canopy closure with a 2.5-3.5 × 0.5 meters spacing in pure stands within approximately
three years. Owing to its dense canopy, regular weeding is necessary to manage undergrowth. The
species can be mixed with other plant species, and for optimal growth, it is recommended to plant
at a spacing of 3.25 × 1.25 meters. Such mixed planting and pruning in the upper canopy promote
plant growth and bushy crown development (Potter et al., 2000).
Thinning practices are advised every alternate nine years. Phosphorus has been noted to
enhance nodulation and nitrogen fixation, particularly in infertile soils. For timber production, a
rotation period of at least 40 years is required, involving the coppicing of the plant. In contrast, a
shorter rotation period of approximately 20 years is sufficient for fuelwood production. The
cultivation process necessitates weeding twice in the first year and once in the second year, with
care not to disturb the deeper soil layers but to focus on eradicating weeds close to the seedlings.
As an ornamental plant, A. procera is also planted along avenues and in gardens, adding aesthetic
value to these environments. The cultivation status of A. procera varies, including cultivated,
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF ALBIZIA PROCERA 335

ornamental, semi-cultivated, and wild categories, reflecting its versatility and adaptability to
different cultivation practices and environmental conditions (Mali and Panchal, 2017).

Economic uses and harmful aspects

A. procera is renowned for its diverse economic uses, values, and certain harmful aspects.
Primarily, this plant serves crucial ecological functions, such as erosion control, providing shade
and shelter, and land reclamation. Additionally, its ornamental value is recognized, with its use in
landscaping for boundary marking, barriers, or support structures. One of the standout economic
uses of A. procera is in timber production. In Bangladesh, it is celebrated as one of the best-known
timber trees owing to its hard, strong, and durable wood. This quality suits various applications,
including furniture, cabinet works, pillars, wheels, house buildings, and agricultural implements. It
is also used in constructing railway sleepers, sugarcane crushers, bridges, rice pounders, and tea
boxes, highlighting its versatility. The leaves of A. procera possess insecticidal properties, adding
to its economic value. Traditionally, the paste made from its leaves has been applied as a poultice
to treat ulcers, indicating its medicinal potential. However, it is important to note that A. procera
has been recorded as a fish-poisoning plant in Australia. This suggests the need for careful
management and consideration of its use in different ecological contexts to prevent unintended
harmful impacts on local fauna. A. procera has many economic uses and values, from its robust
and versatile timber to its ecological benefits. However, its potentially harmful effects, such as its
use as a fish poison, warrant careful utilization and management in various environments (Ahlawat
and Sharma, 1997; Halliday, 1984; Matin and Rashid, 1992; Abraham et al., 1995).

Physical properties
An in-depth analysis of its physical properties is essential for understanding the
comprehensive profile of A. procera. These properties, crucial for application in various species,
have been meticulously documented in the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)
report (ITTO, 2024). Table 1 presents a detailed enumeration of these physical properties, offering
valuable insights into the structural characteristics of the species and their potential utility in
various industrial and environmental applications. These data enhance our understanding of A.
procera's physical attributes and aid in determining its suitability for specific uses, ranging from
timber production to ecological restoration projects.

Table 1. Physical properties of A. procera (ITTO, 2024).

Properties Estimates
Basic density or specific gravity (O.D. weight/vol. Green) (g/cm³) 0.64
Air-dry density (weight and volume at 12%mc) (g/cm³) 0.71
Total shrinkage tangential (saturated to 0% mc) (%) 6.2
Total shrinkage radial (saturated to 0% mc) (%) 3.0
Drying defects Ease of Drying Shrinkage
during air drying is moderate
Recommended dry kiln schedule JP-24
Dimensional stability ratio (total tangential shrinkage %/total radial 2.1
shrinkage %)
336 SHAH et al.

Mechanical properties
A. procera stands out for its exceptional mechanical properties and versatile wood
composition. The sapwood, with its yellowish-white hue, contrasts sharply with the heartwood,
which is robust, dense, and varies from light to dark brown, often adorned with walnut-like
alternating bands. Its straight grain pattern enhances its visual appeal and mechanical performance,
while its high propensity for splitting is advantageous for specific woodworking applications. The
wood seasons well, further improving its workability and durability, making it a preferred material
across various industries.
Renowned for its strength, elasticity, toughness, and hardness, A. procera wood is extensively
used in crafting high-quality cabinets and furniture, as well as construction materials, agricultural
tools, and household products (Rojas-Sandoval, 2016). Its adaptability extends to specialized
applications such as poles, house posts, truck and bus bodies, packing cases, mouldings, carts,
cane crushers, carvings, boats, oars, oil presses, and rice pounders. The wood's resistance to
termites-including Bifiditermes beesoni, Cryptotermes cynocephalus, and Coptotermes
curvignathus-further enhances its suitability for use in termite-prone regions. However,
Coptotermes curvignathus is also recognized as a pest of the tree in India, necessitating careful
consideration in its cultivation and utilization (Abraham et al., 1995). This combination of
durability, versatility, and resistance underpins the widespread use and economic importance of A.
procera.

Fig. 2. (a) Cross-sectional anatomy of tree wood, highlighting the distinctive layers from the periphery to the
core. (b) A. procera Glulam beam. Reproduced with permission (Das et al., 2023). Reproduced under
the term CC BY 4.0.
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF ALBIZIA PROCERA 337

Fig. 2a presents a generalized cross-section of plant wood, detailing the internal structure with
distinct layers, including the outer cork, living phloem, vascular cambium, sapwood, and central
heartwood, a structure with which A. procera shares more or less. Table 2 shows the mechanical
properties of A. procera based on the findings of the ITTO report (ITTO, 2024). The mechanical
properties of A. procera wood, including its strength, elasticity, durability, and resistance to pests,
underline its significance as a valuable resource in various industries. Its ease of operation and
aesthetic and functional qualities make it an ideal choice for a wide range of products, from fine
furniture to structural materials. A. procera Glulam beams demonstrate superior physical and
mechanical properties than solid A. procera timber (Das et al., 2023). It exhibited a significant
increase in density with a notable decrease in water absorption, linear expansion, and thickness
swelling. The mechanical properties, including the modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity,
were also markedly enhanced in the Glulam beams, underscoring their potential as reliable
structural timber products. Fig. 2b illustrates the A. procera Glulam beam, offering insights into its
structural composition.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of A. procera.

Properties Estimates
Bending strength (MOR),12%MC (kgf/cm²) 1135
Stiffness (MOR) 12% MC (kgf/cm²) 126781
Compression parallel to fibre 12% MC (kgf/cm²) 621
Shear strength radial 12%mc (kgf/cm²) 121
Janka hardness (side) 12%mc (kgf) 817
Janka hardness (end grain) 12%mc (kgf) 677

Chemical properties
The chemical composition of A. procera, particularly its wood, plays a pivotal role in
determining its utility in various industries, notably in producing pulp, paper, boards, and
furniture. Understanding the chemical properties of this wood is crucial for evaluating its
suitability as a raw material in biorefineries and for devising efficient conversion methodologies.
A comprehensive analysis of A. procera wood revealed significant contents of primary chemical
components essential for industrial applications. The α-cellulose content, a key element
influencing the strength and quality of paper and textile fibres, is approximately 37% (Alam et al.,
2007). This relatively high percentage of α-cellulose indicates the potential of A. procera wood in
producing high-grade pulp and paper products. In addition to α-cellulose, the wood of A. procera
contains approximately 64% hemicellulose, encompassing the total cellulose and hemicellulose
content. This hemicellulose component is instrumental in providing structural integrity and
flexibility to wood, making it suitable for various applications in the paper and board industries.
The lignin content in A. procera wood is estimated to be approximately 27% (Alam et al., 2007).
Lignin, a complex organic polymer, contributes to the rigidity and resistance to rotting of the
wood. This substantial lignin content enhances the durability and longevity of products made from
this wood, making it a valuable material for furniture and construction (Hossain et al., 2023).
Furthermore, the solubility of A. procera wood in various solvents has been studied to understand
its reactivity and processability. The solubility in cold water is approximately 5%, that in hot water
is approximately 8%, and notably higher at 24% in a 1% caustic soda (NaOH) solution. These
solubility metrics are critical for processing wood in different industrial contexts, especially
treatments and finishes. Additionally, the benzene-ethanol extractive content of A. procera wood is
approximately 6.5%. Extractives contribute to wood's colour, odor, and resistance to biological
degradation. This relatively high extractive content could influence the properties of wood and its
338 SHAH et al.

processing in various industrial applications (Hossain et al., 2023). The chemical composition of
A. procera wood, characterized by significant contents of α-cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and
extractives, along with its solubility profile, underscores its potential as a versatile and valuable
raw material for diverse industrial applications. This detailed understanding of its chemical
properties is essential for optimizing its use in biorefinery processes and other fields.
A. procera in green synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles
Because of their incredibly small size and attractive physicochemical properties, nanoparticles
are well-suited for various biomedical applications. Researchers have examined various possible
applications of these special compounds, such as biocatalysis, antiviral therapies, targeted drug
delivery, medical imaging contrast agents, biomarkers, and antimicrobial and antibacterial
properties (Chandni et al., 2013; Bindhu and Umadevi, 2013). Nanoscale antimicrobial materials
have potential use in various fields, such as food processing, water treatment, and biodevices,
where microbial contamination is common (Zada et al., 2024). As a result, the demand for metal
oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) is rising, leading researchers to investigate novel fabrication
techniques to produce MNPs with precise structural control (Pal et al., 2007; Hasan et al., 2022).
However, it has been discovered that chemical processes may be hazardous to people because they
increase the toxicity and reactivity of particles. Utilizing plant extracts is one environmentally
responsible way to produce MNPs; this process has recently gained favor because it can guarantee
a high output while being non-toxic and ecologically beneficial (Kuppusamy et al., 2016; Nayak
et al., 2016; Kirankumar and Sumathi, 2017). The leaf extract of A. procera contains proteins,
glycosides, alkaloids, reducing sugars, phenols, and carbohydrates. (khatoon et al., 2013). Fig. 3
illustrates the biosynthesis of Ag-NPs through reduction by biological sources, followed by
nanoparticle growth, and stabilization and capping mediated by bio-compounds from plants, fungi,
or bacteria (Mikhailova, 2025). A similar procedure was adopted to explore the potential use of
alkaloids, particularly phenols, as capping and reducing agents in the synthesis of Ag-NPs. It was
reported that spherical Ag-NPs, approximately 6.18 nm in size, were capable of eliminating the
organic pollutant dye methylene blue (MB) (Rafique et al., 2019). They also demonstrated strong
antibacterial properties against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of Ag-NPs biosynthesis. (a) Reduction process facilitated by various biological sources;
(b) growth and formation of nanoparticles; (c) stabilization and capping involving compounds derived from plants,
fungi, or bacteria. Reproduced with permission (Mikhailova, 2025). Reproduced under the term CC BY 4.0.
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF ALBIZIA PROCERA 339

A. procera for the modern household furniture application

According to a report by the ITTO, it has been determined that A. procera can be successfully
laminated using both rotary veneer cutting and sliced veneer methods (ITTO, 2024). Moreover, it
has been noted that the workability of this particular species ranges from fair to difficult. In
planning and moulding, limiting the cutting angle to a maximum of 20° is advisable to minimize
the wood's tendency to pick up. The hand tools perform satisfactorily, whereas the finishing
process yields commendable results. Hence, it can be inferred that A. procera can produce
plywood and particleboard. Nanomaterials possess diverse potential uses, including their
utilization in composite materials and their efficacy as reinforcing agents. The synthesis of
nanomaterials from wood entails the fragmentation of wood into constituent components at the
nanoscale level. Although not a conventional use for A. procera, it is theoretically feasible to
extract cellulose nanofibers or other nanoscale constituents from its wood owing to its α-cellulose
content of approximately 37% (Alam et al., 2007).

Contribution of A. procera as an organic fertilizer

In the agricultural initiative, we ventured to the small village of Harriaghop in Jashore,
Bangladesh, to collect leaves from the A. procera plant. To ensure the leaves were impurity-free,
they were meticulously washed with clean, drinkable water, removing any mud or unwanted
particles. The next step involved transforming these leaves into compost fertilizer. Where the
leaves were mixed with a small amount of soil and placed in a cave. After patiently waiting for
approximately 25 days, our composite fertilizer was successfully produced (Fig. 4). Using the
fertilizer we obtained, we conducted a cultivation experiment involving Amaranthus dubius,
commonly known as Lal Shak. We compared Amaranthus dubius's growth with applying our
composite fertilizer against a control group without any additional fertilizer. The results were
striking, revealing the outstanding growth-promoting qualities of our compound fertilizer (Fig. 5a
& 5b), as opposed to the comparatively minor growth observed in Amaranthus dubius without the
benefit of our specialized fertilizer (Fig. 5a). This experiment highlights the potential of our
locally sourced compost to enhance agricultural productivity.

Fig. 4. Preparation of fertilizers using A. procera leaves.

340 SHAH et al.

Fig. 5. Cultivation of Amaranthus dubius using prepared fertilizer (a, b) and without using prepared fertilizer (b).

The prospect of reforestation in the vast unused land in Saudi Arabia as an initiative for the
2030 vision
A. procera can grow in a variety of soils. It grows best on moist alluvial soils, well-drained
loams, or clay soils. Its ability to grow in dry, sandy, stony, and shallow soils makes it a useful
species for afforestation of difficult sites. Good survival and rapid early growth have been reported
in afforestation trials in saline and alkaline soils. A. procera can tolerate a pH of 5.5–7.5 and is
moderately tolerant of acid to alkaline soils. A. procera can tolerate annual temperatures ranging
from 1 to 18°C to 37–46°C and yearly rainfall of 100–5,000 mm. Established plants are drought-
tolerant. Adult plants succeed in full sun and light shade, although young trees require more shade.
Phosphorus fertilizer can improve nodulation and nitrogen fixation, particularly in infertile soils.
The data on soil samples from different locations in the Empty Quarter (20°N 50°E? / ?20°N
50°E), also known as the no man's land, of Saudi Arabia, are presented in Table 3. These areas are
dominated by fine sand, and highly challenging weather prevails throughout the year, mainly in
summer, because of the high heat. As A. procera can grow on dry, sandy, stony, and shallow soils,
it has the potential to grow in the Empty Quarter (Rub' al Khali) of Saudi Arabia. However, young

Table 3. Results of soil samples from different locations in the Empty Quarter of Saudi Arabia
(Alsabhan et al., 2022; Laik et al., 2009).]

Sample location Gravel Coarse Medium sand Fine sand Silt/clay pH Electrical
(%) sand (%) (%) (%) (%) conductivity
(mmhos/cm)
Tukhman area 14.17 21.17 27.48 31.9 5.28 7.46 13.22
Mushayeb area 29.93 27.49 14.13 25.64 2.81 7.57 19.01
Faydah area 19.25 26.41 17.69 32.67 3.97 8.02 13.33
Mulayhah area 13.96 13.33 26.1 43.23 3.38 7.53 30.11
Kharif area 18.42 24.58 23.6 31.95 1.44 7.63 4.30
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF ALBIZIA PROCERA 341

trees require shade. Moreover, the pH value of the soil samples tested in the Empty Quarter of
Saudi Arabia was neutral to moderately alkaline (range 7.5-8.2). According to the literature, A.
procera can tolerate a pH of 7.5. Thus, it is crucial to experiment with the soil pH suitability of A.
procera in the empty quarter of Saudi Arabia.
The ideal range for soil electrical conductivity (EC) levels is between 1.1 and 5.7 millimhos
per centimeter (mmhos/cm). Extreme levels of soil EC, whether too high or excessively low, can
impede crop growth. Low EC levels suggest a scarcity of accessible nutrients, whereas excessive
EC levels indicate an abundance of nutrients. The EC in several sample plots inside the Empty
Quarter of Saudi Arabia had a wider range of values, with greater EC levels observed. Alsabhan
et al. reported that the soil EC in Saudi Arabia varies between 2.5 and 37.4 mmhos/cm (Alsabhan
et al., 2022). Elevated EC levels can result in salt stress, disrupting the water balance in plants and
impeding nutrient absorption. A. procera can enhance soil quality by decreasing soil EC. Laik
et al. discovered a notable reduction in soil EC in the afforested areas where A. procera was
planted (Laik et al., 2009). The breakdown of organic matter, accompanied by the production of
organic acids, has reduced the soil conductivity of afforested areas with A. procera. The efficacy
of A. procera in enhancing soil quality by reducing its electrical conductivity may be attributed to
its inherent resilience to unfavorable soil conditions (Laik et al., 2009). Investigating climatic
conditions is also crucial for assessing the viability of afforestation through A. procera in the
Empty Quarter.
The monthly air temperature and precipitation in Saudi Arabia are shown in Fig. 6. The
average temperatures in Saudi Arabia for the coolest months, December through February, are
23°C at Jeddah, 14°C at Riyadh, and 17°C at Al-Dammām. From June to August, summers are
fiercely hot, with daytime temperatures in the shade exceeding 38° C in almost the entire country.
As A. procera can tolerate annual temperatures of up to 37–46° C, it has the potential to grow in
the Empty Quarter of Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the average yearly rainfall in most parts of Saudi
Arabia is below 150 mm throughout the year, except in the southwestern part, where rainfall
occurs between 400 and 600 mm annually. As A. procera can survive with a minimum annual
rainfall of 100 mm, it has the potential to grow in the Empty Quarter of Saudi Arabia.

Fig. 6. The monthly air temperature and precipitation in Saudi Arabia are based on data from the years
between 1991 and 2022 (Bank, 2023).
342 SHAH et al.

A. procera and environmental sustainability: Beyond climate change mitigation

A. procera extends its influence beyond traditional climate change mitigation and serves as a
cornerstone in the broader context of environmental sustainability through its multifaceted benefits
and applications. Forests play a crucial role in storing atmospheric carbon and mitigating climate
change. In a forest ecosystem, carbon is stored in various components, including trees, plants on
the forest floor, leaf litter, and decaying soil matter. As plants grow, they capture carbon and
release oxygen, leading to carbon sequestration. The more forest biomass grows, the more carbon
it holds, creating a valuable carbon stock (Keith et al., 2009; Shah et al., 2024). Additionally,
plants on the forest floor contribute to carbon storage. Over time, fallen branches, leaves, and
other organic materials accumulate on the forest floor, storing carbon until decomposition. Soil
plays a role by sequestering carbon through root interactions with decomposing plant litter. Tree
planting is a way to create new carbon sinks through afforestation, reforestation, or other schemes.
The role of forest ecosystems as either carbon sinks or carbon sources is determined by the net
ecosystem carbon exchange (Lal, 2005). This exchange balances the total carbon absorbed through
gross ecosystem primary productivity with the carbon released by ecosystem respiration (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. The process of carbon storage in forest ecosystems.

Afforestation is crucial for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, thus mitigating the
impact of climate change. Additionally, afforestation improves soil quality, prevents erosion, and
enhances land fertility. It is also instrumental in reversing or preventing desertification, thereby
preserving ecosystems. On the other hand, agroforestry serves as a dynamic natural resource
management system. Both practices play vital roles in carbon sequestration. A. procera is suitable
for afforestation and agroforestry. One of the most important benefits is its ability to sequester
carbon from the atmosphere and store it in biomass and soil. A five-year-old agricultural system in
a semi-arid region was examined. This system included combinations of A. procera with two
different crops: A. procera paired with black gram mustard and A. procera paired with green gram
wheat. The biomass measurements in these combinations were 34.77 tC/ha and 35.13 tC/ha,
respectively (Reang et al., 2021; Siarudin et al., 2021).
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF ALBIZIA PROCERA 343

The carbon sequestration potential of A. procera varies depending on the management system,
type of shade tree, and environmental conditions. A. procera can be grown in different
agroforestry systems, such as mixed tree-shaded, Albizia-shaded, Syzygium-shaded, and pure
stands (Hossen and Kato-Noguchi, 2022). In an agroforestry study conducted in 2011, biomass
and carbon storage were evaluated for A. procera and Dalbergia sissoo in irrigated environments
and Emblica officinalis and Hardwickia binata in rainfed conditions. A. procera showed the
highest biomass accumulation of 120.42 tons per hectare at 11 years, surpassing Dalbergia sissoo's
84.75 tons under irrigation at 17 years. Under rainfed conditions, Emblica officinalis and
Hardwickia binata recorded 14.99 and 101.34 tons of biomass per hectare at 15 and 20 years,
respectively. A. procera, as a fast-growing tree, had a superior biomass productivity of 10.95 tons
per hectare per year, followed by Dalbergia sissoo and Hardwickia binata. However, Emblica
officinalis, a fruit-bearing plant, had the lowest biomass productivity. Carbon storage was highest
in A. procera, followed by Dalbergia sissoo under irrigated conditions (Reang et al., 2021;
Siarudin et al., 2021).
Implementing afforestation programs in arid and semi-arid areas of Saudi Arabia, specifically
focusing on A. procera, offers climate change mitigation benefits. Given its ability to grow in dry
conditions and its high biomass growth, it could be a key species in Saudi Arabia's afforestation
programs. This initiative aligns with the goals of the Saudi Green Initiative, Middle East Green
Initiative, and other environmental strategies aimed at combating desertification and climate
change. Therefore, its high carbon sequestration capacity should be exploited. Policies should
support research and implement optimal planting and management practices to maximize carbon
capture. Considering the adaptability of A. procera to different environmental conditions,
afforestation projects should be tailored to local climatic and soil conditions. This includes
utilizing their tolerance to saline water in areas with such soil characteristics. The integration of A.
procera in mixed farming systems needs to be explored in local conditions. Continuous
monitoring of afforestation projects is essential. Support for ongoing research into the growth
patterns, carbon sequestration rates, and ecological impacts of A. procera will inform future policy
and management decisions. Community involvement in afforestation projects can ensure
sustainability and foster a sense of ownership and responsibility towards environmental
conservation. Coordination with agricultural, environmental, and water resource management
policies is crucial for the success of afforestation programs.
Conclusion and future prospects
Albizia procera is a multipurpose species with immense potential in sustainable development,
ecological restoration, and climate resilience. Its fast growth, adaptability to degraded and saline
soils, and contributions to carbon sequestration make it invaluable for afforestation and
reforestation efforts, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. The species enhances soil fertility
and biodiversity in agroforestry systems, supports rural livelihoods through high-quality timber
production, and aligns with global initiatives such as the Saudi Green Initiative to combat land
degradation and desertification. Emerging applications, such as green nanoparticle synthesis,
further highlight its role in advancing eco-friendly industrial and biomedical solutions. Despite its
advantages, challenges such as its potential invasiveness and toxicity in specific contexts
necessitate sustainable management and responsible applications to avoid ecological imbalances.
Addressing these issues through stakeholder engagement and evidence-based strategies is critical
for maximizing benefits while minimizing risks. Future research should focus on optimizing
propagation methods, water-use efficiency, and soil management for A. procera in challenging
environments. Its integration into agroforestry systems can enhance food security and promote
sustainable agriculture by improving soil health and crop productivity. Exploring its
pharmaceutical potential, including bioactive compounds with therapeutic properties, can lead to
344 SHAH et al.

innovative plant-based therapies. Additionally, its use in bio-based materials such as cellulose
nanofibers and green nanoparticles offers promising industrial applications aligned with the
circular economy. To fully realize the potential of A. procera, a collaborative approach involving
researchers, policymakers, and communities is essential. By integrating scientific research with
sustainable practices and community participation, A. procera can significantly contribute to
combating climate change, restoring degraded ecosystems, and achieving sustainable development
goals globally.

Acknowledgements
The funding support provided by the Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen
Technology and Carbon Management (IRC-HTCM), King Fahd University of Petroleum &
Minerals, Saudi Arabia, through the project INHE 2311, is highly acknowledged.

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(Manuscript received on 25 July 2024; revised on 20 November 2024)