0.

Introduction
●​ Reinforcement and Antecedent Stimuli
○​ The reinforcement of an operant response increases the probability that the
response will occur again in the future.
○​ Reinforcement also influences the antecedent stimuli (events or conditions that
immediately precede the behavior).
○​ These antecedent stimuli acquire an evocative effect, meaning they tend to
trigger the relevant behavior.
○​ Example: A rat is reinforced with a food pellet for pressing a lever. The frequency
of lever pressing increases.
●​ Discriminative Stimuli and Stimulus Control
○​ A discriminative stimulus (SD) is a specific antecedent stimulus that signals the
availability of reinforcement for a particular response.
○​ A stimulus delta (SΔ) is a stimulus in whose presence a response is not
reinforced.
○​ Stimulus control is a behavioral principle that occurs when a behavior is emitted
more often in the presence of an SD than in its absence (SΔ).
○​ Example: A rat only receives a food pellet for pressing a lever when a buzzer is
sounding.
■​ The buzzer sound is the SD.
■​ The absence of the buzzer sound is the SΔ.
■​ The rat learns to press the lever primarily when the buzzer is on. The
lever-pressing behavior is now under stimulus control.
●​ Technical Definition of Stimulus Control
○​ Stimulus control is technically achieved when the presence of an antecedent
stimulus alters the rate (frequency), latency (time to start), duration, or
amplitude (intensity) of a response.
○​ A stimulus only acquires control if responses emitted in its presence produce
reinforcement more reliably than responses in its absence.
●​ Real-World Applications and Importance
○​ Stimulus control is a fundamental component of complex everyday behaviors.
○​ Examples:
■​ A ringing phone (SD) evokes the behavior of answering it.
■​ A red traffic light (SD) evokes the behavior of stopping the car.
■​ A Spanish-speaking audience (SD) evokes the use of the Spanish
language.
●​ Stimulus Control and "Inappropriate" Behavior
○​ Many behaviors are not inherently problematic but are considered "inappropriate"
because they occur in the wrong context (i.e., in the presence of the wrong
stimuli).
○​ This is viewed as a problem of stimulus control, a major area of focus for
applied behavior analysts.
○​ Examples:
 ■​ Loud talking is appropriate on a playground (SD) but not in a classroom
(SΔ).
■​ Arriving 15 minutes late is acceptable for a party (SD) but not for a job
interview (SΔ).

1. Antecedent Stimuli
Distinguishing Antecedent Stimuli: SD vs. CS
●​ Core Similarity: Both a discriminative stimulus (SD) in operant conditioning and a
conditioned stimulus (CS) in respondent conditioning are antecedent stimuli that
evoke behavior.
●​ Crucial Difference: The way they acquire control over behavior is fundamentally
different.
○​ Discriminative Stimulus (SD): Acquires its function by being associated with the
consequences that follow a behavior. It signals that reinforcement is available for
a specific response.
○​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Acquires its function by being paired with another
antecedent stimulus (like an unconditioned stimulus) that already elicits the
response.
●​ Example (Respondent Conditioning): A buzzer (neutral stimulus) is paired with food
(unconditioned stimulus), which naturally elicits salivation. After pairing, the buzzer
becomes a CS that elicits salivation on its own.
●​ Example (Operant Conditioning): A rat learns that pressing a lever only produces food
when a buzzer is on. The buzzer becomes the SD that signals food is available for lever
pressing.

Physical Properties of Stimuli

●​ A stimulus is any form of physical energy that an organism can detect through its
sensory receptors (e.g., eyes, ears, skin).
●​ For a physical energy to function as a stimulus, it must relate to the organism's sensory
capabilities.
●​ Example: A dog whistle functions as a stimulus for dogs because they can hear its
high-frequency vibrations, but it is not a stimulus for humans who cannot. Similarly,
humans cannot detect ultraviolet radiation without special equipment.

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1.2 Distinguishing Discriminative (SD) and Motivational (MO) Functions

 ●​ Shared Traits: Both discriminative stimuli (SD) and motivating operations (MOs) are
antecedent events that have an evocative function, meaning they occasion or call up
behavior.
●​ The Key Distinction:
○​ An SD signals that reinforcement is available due to a history of differential
reinforcement (i.e., the response has been reinforced in its presence and not in
its absence).
○​ A motivating operation (MO), like an establishing operation (EO), changes
the value of a reinforcer. It makes you "want" something more or less and evokes
behavior related to getting that thing.
●​ Misconception Example (Shock Escape): An animal is shocked and responds to turn
it off. The shock is NOT an SD.
○​ Reasoning: An SD must signal a higher chance of reinforcement compared to its
absence. Here, the response can only be reinforced (by shock removal) when the
shock is on.
○​ Correct Function: The shock acts as an establishing operation (EO) because
it establishes the value of its own removal as a reinforcer.
●​ Applied Example (Student Aggression): A teacher's request evokes aggression from
a student, which results in the request being removed. The request is an EO, not an SD.
○​ Reasoning: The request creates a state where its removal becomes reinforcing.
It makes no sense to talk about the student escaping the request when the
request is absent.

Establishing True Stimulus Control

●​ To demonstrate true stimulus control, the availability of reinforcement must differ
between the presence and absence of a specific stimulus.
●​ Modified Lab Example: If the shock could only be removed when a response occurs
while a buzzer is sounding, the buzzer would become the SD. It signals the specific
condition under which reinforcement is available.
●​ Modified Applied Example: If aggression only works to remove requests with Teacher
A, but not with Teacher B, then Teacher A becomes an SD for aggression. Her presence
signals that aggression will be reinforced.

2. Stimulus Generalization
●​ Stimulus Generalization: The tendency for a response that has been reinforced in the
presence of one stimulus to also be evoked by other, new stimuli that share similar
physical properties.
○​ This reflects a loose degree of stimulus control.
 ○​ Example: A young child learns to say “daddy” to her father. She then says
“daddy” when she sees other men like a neighbor or a store clerk.
●​ Stimulus Discrimination: This occurs when different stimuli do not evoke the response.
It is the opposite of generalization.
○​ This reflects a tight degree of stimulus control.
○​ Example: After more experience and learning, the child only says “daddy” in the
presence of her actual father, not other men.

The Stimulus Generalization Gradient

●​ A stimulus generalization gradient is a graph that visually shows the degree of
stimulus generalization and discrimination. It plots how frequently a behavior occurs in
the presence of various untrained stimuli that are similar to the original training stimulus.
○​ A flat slope on the gradient indicates high generalization and very little stimulus
control.
○​ A steep slope on the gradient indicates high discrimination and strong
stimulus control.

Studying Stimulus Generalization

●​ Classic Technique (Guttman & Kalish, 1956): This study was pivotal because it
provided a method to get generalization gradients for individual subjects, which
previous group-based methods could not do.
○​ Procedure:
1.​ Pigeons were reinforced for pecking a key lit with a specific color (e.g.,
yellow-green).
2.​ Once the behavior was stable, testing began.
3.​ During testing, the key was lit with the original color and a series of other,
new colors in a random order.
●​ Testing During Extinction: It's critical to test for generalization during extinction (i.e.,
without providing any reinforcement).
○​ Reasoning: If reinforcement were given during the test, it would be impossible to
know if the pigeon's pecking of a new color was due to generalization or because
it was just reinforced for pecking that new color.

Applied Example
●​ Lalli et al. (1998) used a stimulus generalization gradient to assess the self-injurious
behavior (SIB) of a 10-year-old girl.
 ○​ Finding: The assessment showed a clear relationship between the SIB and the
physical proximity of an adult. The SIB was highest when the therapist was very
close and became progressively lower as the therapist moved farther away.
○​ Conclusion: This demonstrated a generalization gradient where the stimulus
dimension was distance. The adult's close proximity was the primary stimulus
(SD) for the SIB.

3. Development of Stimulus Control

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3.1 Stimulus Discrimination
●​ Definition: A procedure where one behavior is reinforced in one antecedent stimulus
condition but not in another.
●​ Core Components:
○​ Discriminative Stimulus (SD): The stimulus condition where a response is
reinforced.
○​ Stimulus Delta (SΔ): The stimulus condition where the same response is not
reinforced. This can mean zero reinforcement (extinction) or a lesser
amount/quality of reinforcement compared to the SD condition.
●​ Outcome: Consistent training leads to the behavior occurring reliably in the presence of
the SD and rarely or not at all in the presence of the SΔ.
●​ Applied Example (Food Stealing):
○​ A girl with Prader-Willi syndrome was taught to differentiate between two cookie
containers.
○​ SD: A container with no warning label. Choosing this was reinforced with a
cookie.
○​ SΔ: A container with a warning label.
○​ Result: The training successfully decreased food stealing from the container
marked with the warning label.

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3.2 Concept Formation

●​ Behavioral View: Concept formation is the behavioral result of stimulus

generalization and stimulus discrimination, not a hypothetical mental process.
●​ Two Critical Processes:
 ○​ Stimulus Generalization within a stimulus class: The behavior occurs in the
presence of a wide range of stimuli that share a common property.
■​ Example: After learning to identify a red ball, a child can also identify a
red balloon, red car, and red pencil without specific training for each item.
○​ Stimulus Discrimination between stimulus classes: The behavior does not
occur in the presence of stimuli that do not belong to that class.
■​ Example: The child learns to say "red" for a red car but not for a white
car.
●​ Teaching Concepts: Requires presenting both exemplars (examples of the concept;
the SD) and non-exemplars (what the concept is not; the SΔ).
●​ Vicarious Discrimination Training: Concepts can also be learned indirectly through
verbal definitions or stories that provide examples and non-examples with clear
consequences.
○​ Example: A children's story about honesty where an applicant who returns a
found dollar bill gets a job (reinforcement), while those who don't, do not.

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3.3 Types of Antecedent Stimulus Classes
An antecedent stimulus class is a set of stimuli that evoke the same response.
●​ Feature Stimulus Class:
○​ Stimuli in the class share common physical features (e.g., shape, size) or
common relative relations (e.g., bigger than, on top of).
○​ Stimulus generalization is a key characteristic.
○​ These classes can contain an infinite number of stimuli.
○​ Examples: The concept of "dog" (common physical form) or "hotter than"
(common relative relation).
●​ Arbitrary Stimulus Class:
○​ Stimuli in the class evoke the same response but do not share any common
physical features. They don't look alike.
○​ Stimulus generalization does not occur. Each member must be taught.
○​ These classes have a limited number of stimuli.
○​ Instructional Method: Often requires specific training like matching-to-sample
to establish stimulus equivalence.
○​ Examples:
■​ The stimuli 50%, 1/2, and .5 all evoke the response "a half".
■​ The letters A, E, I, O, U form the arbitrary class of "vowels".
 4. Stimulus Equivalence

●​ Definition: Stimulus equivalence is the emergence of accurate responding to

untrained and non-reinforced stimulus-stimulus relations after other related
stimulus-stimulus relations have been directly taught.
●​ The "Big Prize": It allows for a massive expansion of skills, like receptive and
expressive language, beyond what was explicitly taught. This makes it a powerful and
efficient principle for teaching and curriculum design.
●​ Foundational Experiment (Sidman, 1971):
○​ A boy was taught only one relation: matching written words to their spoken
names.
○​ As a result, three new relations emerged without any further training:
1.​ Matching written words to pictures.
2.​ Matching pictures to written words.
3.​ Naming (saying) the written words.

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4.1 The Three Tests for Equivalence

For a set of stimuli to be considered equivalent, they must pass three specific behavioral tests:
reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. This is based on the mathematical logic: If A = B and B
= C, then A = C.
1.​ Reflexivity (A = A)
○​ Definition: The ability to select a stimulus that is identical to the sample stimulus,
without any training. This is also called generalized identity matching.
○​ Example: When shown a picture of a bicycle (sample A), and given a choice of
three pictures (bicycle, car, airplane), the learner correctly selects the picture of
the bicycle (match A).
2.​ Symmetry (If A = B, then B = A)
 ○​ Definition: The reversibility of a trained relation. If you teach A -> B, you test if B
-> A emerges without training.
○​ Example: You teach the learner that when they hear the spoken word "car" (A),
they should select the picture of a car (B). Symmetry is demonstrated if, when
shown the picture of the car (B), they can select the correct spoken word "car"
(A) without any further instruction.
3.​ Transitivity (If A = B and B = C, then A = C)
○​ Definition: The emergence of a new, derived stimulus-stimulus relation after two
other relations have been taught. This is the final and critical test for
equivalence.
○​ Example (using the provided figures):
■​ Train Relation 1 (A = B): The learner is taught to match the spoken name
"bicycle" (A) to the picture of a bicycle (B).​
* Train Relation 2 (B = C): The learner is taught to match the picture of a
bicycle (B) to the written word "bicycle" (C).​
* Test for Transitivity (C = A): The new relation emerges without training.
The learner can now match the written word "bicycle" (C) to the spoken
name "bicycle" (A).

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4.2 Matching-to-Sample Procedure

●​ Definition: The primary experimental procedure used to teach and test for stimulus
equivalence.
●​ Conditional Discrimination: The procedure operates on a four-term contingency,
where a sample stimulus acts as a contextual or conditional stimulus.
1.​ Contextual Stimulus (Sample)→SD→Response→Reinforcement
●​ How a Trial Works:
1.​ An observing response is made to see the conditional sample (e.g., the
learner touches the sample stimulus).
2.​ An array of comparison stimuli is presented. One matches the sample (the SD)
and the others do not (the SΔs).
3.​ A response selecting the matching comparison is reinforced.
4.​ Responses selecting non-matching comparisons are not reinforced.
●​ Procedural Controls: To ensure learning is robust, trainers often use a correction
procedure (repeating a trial after an error) and random positioning of the comparison
stimuli to prevent the learner from just responding to a specific location.

5. Factors affecting the development of stimulus control

●​ Stimulus control is developed through differential reinforcement, which involves
consistently reinforcing a behavior in the presence of a discriminative stimulus (S^D)
and not in its absence.
●​ Several factors can affect this process: preattending skills, stimulus salience,
masking, and overshadowing.

5.1 Preattending Skills

●​ Definition: These are prerequisite skills where a learner engages in orienting behaviors
appropriate to the S^D. They must be present for stimulus control to be established.
●​ Importance: The learner must be able to orient their sensory receptors (e.g., eyes, ears)
toward the instructional stimuli.
●​ Examples:
○​ Looking at the instructional materials or the teacher.
○​ Listening to oral instructions.
○​ Sitting quietly for short periods.
●​ Note: If a learner lacks these skills, they must be taught directly through behavioral
interventions.

5.2 Stimulus Salience

●​ Definition: The prominence or noticeability of a stimulus within a person's environment.
Salience influences whether a person attends to the stimulus.
●​ Effect: The development of stimulus control is more efficient and effective when the S^D
is highly salient.
●​ Factors Influencing Salience:
○​ Sensory Capabilities: Poor vision may prevent a student from noticing words on
a blackboard.
○​ Past Reinforcement History: A history of failure with certain materials can
decrease their salience.
○​ Environmental Context: A toy on a desk can be more salient than a teacher's
directions.
●​ Example: In a study, using salient cues like a specific room color made functional
analysis outcomes faster and clearer compared to when those cues were absent.

5.3 Masking and Overshadowing

●​ These phenomena decrease the salience and effectiveness of stimuli, hindering the
development of stimulus control.
●​ Masking
○​ Definition: Occurs when a competing stimulus blocks the evocative function of a
stimulus that already has acquired stimulus control.
○​ Example: A student knows the answers to a teacher's questions (S^D has
control), but they will not respond in the presence of their peer group. The peer
group's presence masks the control of the teacher's questions.
 ●​ Overshadowing
○​ Definition: Occurs when the presence of one stimulus condition interferes with
the acquisition of stimulus control by another, less salient stimulus.
○​ Example: A student is distracted by watching cheerleaders practice outside the
window (a highly salient stimulus). This overshadows the algebra lesson (a less
salient stimulus), preventing the student from learning the material.
●​ Strategies to Reduce Masking and Overshadowing:
○​ Rearrange the physical environment (e.g., lower a window shade, change
seating assignments).
○​ Make instructional stimuli more intense (e.g., increase the pace of instruction,
provide many opportunities to respond).
○​ Consistently reinforce the target behavior in the presence of the instructionally
relevant stimuli.

6. Using prompts to develop stimulus control

Introduction to Prompts
●​ Prompts are supplementary antecedent stimuli used to occasion a correct response in
the presence of a discriminative stimulus (S^D) that will eventually control the
behavior.
●​ They are given before or during the performance of a behavior.
●​ There are two main types of prompts: response prompts and stimulus prompts.

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6.1 Response Prompts

●​ Definition: These prompts operate directly on the response itself.

●​ There are three major forms: verbal instructions, modeling, and physical guidance.

I. Verbal Instructions
●​ Definition: Using functionally appropriate verbal cues as prompts, which can be vocal or
nonvocal.
●​ Vocal Verbal Instructions (e.g., oral, telling):
○​ Example: When a student gets stuck reading the sentence "Plants need soil, air,
and water," the teacher might say, "The next word is soil."
○​ Example: Caregivers used vocal prompts for adults with incontinence to use the
toilet at scheduled times, resulting in a mean reduction of urine collected by
55%-69%.
●​ Nonvocal Verbal Instructions (e.g., written words, pictures, manual signs):
○​ Example: Using embedded text scripts like "look" and "watch" in activity
schedules to prompt social exchanges for children with autism.
○​ Example: A person with memory impairments used a 54-step checklist to
self-assess their blood glucose level.

II. Modeling
●​ Definition: The teacher or coach demonstrates the desired behavior.
●​ Requirements for Effectiveness:
1.​ The learner must have imitative skills.
2.​ The learner must have attending skills (they must observe the model).
3.​ It is most effective when the learner already knows some of the component
behaviors.
●​ Example: A coach shows a basketball player the correct form for shooting a hoop.
●​ When Not to Use: Modeling is not effective for teaching complex skills to learners who
cannot perform the basic components (e.g., teaching shoe-tying to a child who cannot
hold the laces).

III. Physical Guidance

●​ Definition: The teacher partially or fully physically guides the student through the
required movements.
●​ Commonly Used With: Young children, learners with severe disabilities, and older
adults with physical limitations.
●​ Example: A trainer physically guides an older adult's arm movements during dumbbell
exercises to ensure they complete the repetition.
●​ Drawbacks:
○​ It is the most intrusive type of response prompt.
○​ It requires direct physical contact, which some learners may resist.
○​ It makes it difficult to assess student progress accurately.
○​ It provides little opportunity for the student to perform the behavior independently.

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6.2 Stimulus Prompts

●​ Definition: These prompts operate directly on the antecedent task stimuli to cue a
correct response in conjunction with the S^D.
●​ Common types include prompts related to movement, position, and redundancy.
●​ Movement Cues:
 ○​ Definition: Highlighting the correct stimulus by pointing to, tapping, or looking at
it.
○​ Example: To teach the difference between a penny and a dime, the teacher taps
the penny.
●​ Position Cue:
○​ Definition: Placing the correct stimulus closer to the student.
○​ Example: In the coin discrimination task, the teacher places the correct coin
nearer to the learner.
●​ Redundancy Cues:
○​ Definition: Pairing one or more stimulus dimensions (like color, size, or shape)
with the correct choice.
○​ Example: A teacher associates a specific color with a numeral to help a student
learn arithmetic facts.

7. Transfer of stimulus control

Introduction
●​ Definition: The process of systematically shifting control from supplementary prompts to
the naturally existing stimulus (S^D).
●​ Goal: To enable a learner to respond correctly to the natural S^D without assistance,
minimizing errors during the learning process. This is sometimes called errorless
learning.
●​ Core Method: Fading, which involves gradually removing prompts.
●​ Classic Example (Terrace, 1963):
○​ Taught pigeons to discriminate between a green light (S^D) and a red light
(S^{\Delta}). He introduced the red light briefly and at low intensity, then gradually
increased its duration and intensity, teaching the discrimination with minimal
errors.
○​ He then transferred this control by superimposing vertical and horizontal lines
onto the green and red lights, respectively. He gradually faded out the colored
lights, leaving the lines to control the behavior.

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7.1 Transferring Control from Response Prompts

These procedures focus on fading prompts that guide the learner's actual behavior.
1.​ Most-to-Least Prompts
 ○​ Definition: A fading procedure that begins with the most intrusive prompt and
gradually moves to less intrusive prompts as the learner succeeds.
○​ Typical Sequence: The analyst starts with full physical guidance, then fades to a
visual prompt, then a verbal prompt, and finally no prompt.
○​ When to Use: Best for when a learner is not responding or is making incorrect
responses to the natural stimulus.
2.​ Graduated Guidance
○​ Definition: A specific method for fading physical prompts where the teacher's
physical contact is gradually reduced.
○​ Process: The teacher starts by following the learner's movements closely with
their hands but not touching. They then gradually increase the distance of their
hands from the learner's body.
○​ Example: When teaching a child to zipper a coat, the prompt might move from
the hand, to the wrist, to the elbow, to the shoulder, and finally to no physical
contact.
3.​ Least-to-Most Prompts
○​ Definition: The analyst gives the learner an opportunity to respond
independently first. If no correct response occurs within a set time, a prompt from
a predetermined hierarchy is given.
○​ Process:
1.​ Present the natural S^D and wait for a response (e.g., 3 seconds).
2.​ If no response, present the S^D again with the least intrusive prompt
(e.g., a verbal cue).
3.​ If still no response, present the S^D with a more intrusive prompt (e.g., a
gesture or model).
4.​ Continue up the hierarchy to partial or full physical guidance if necessary.
4.​ Time Delay
○​ Definition: An antecedent procedure that transfers control by systematically
increasing the time between the presentation of the natural S^D and the prompt.
○​ Constant Time Delay: Begins with several trials at a 0-second delay (prompt
and S^D are simultaneous), then switches to a fixed time delay (e.g., 4 seconds)
for all subsequent trials.
○​ Progressive Time Delay: Also begins with a 0-second delay. After the learner is
successful, the delay is gradually and systematically extended, often in small
increments (e.g., 1 second at a time).

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7.2 Transferring Control with Stimulus Prompt Fading & Shaping

These procedures involve modifying the antecedent stimuli themselves.

1.​ Stimulus Fading
 ○​ Definition: Involves highlighting a physical dimension (e.g., color, size, position)
of a stimulus to prompt a correct response, and then gradually fading that
exaggeration.
○​ Fading Out: Removing the highlighted feature.
■​ Example: Fading out written script cards for children with autism by first
printing them large and bold, then physically cutting away parts of the
card until it is gone.
○​ Fading In: Gradually introducing a new stimulus.
■​ Example: For a child with a feeding disorder who only drinks water,
gradually fading in Carnation Instant Breakfast powder and then milk into
the water over many sessions.
○​ Superimposition: One stimulus is faded in or out while another is present. The
Terrace experiment is a classic example.

2.​ Stimulus Shape Transformations

○​ Definition: The initial stimulus, which reliably prompts a correct response, is
gradually changed to form the natural stimulus.
○​ Example: To teach the word "car," you might start with a clear picture of a car
(the initial stimulus), which is then gradually morphed over successive trials into
the written word "car" (the natural stimulus).
Summary
●​ A variety of procedures exist to transfer stimulus control from prompts to natural stimuli.
●​ In applied settings, procedures for transferring control from response prompts (e.g.,
most-to-least, time delay) are often considered more practical than stimulus change
procedures (e.g., stimulus shaping), as the latter can require significant time and skill to
prepare the materials.