BIOLOGY

CH-HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Prepared By- ABHISHEK NAMDEV
bandhuclasses@[Link]

Reproduction- The production of new organisms from the existing organism of the same species is
known as reproduction.

Significance of reproduction

● Reproduction is essential for the survival of a species on the earth

● The process of reproduction ensures the continuity of life on the earth
● It plays an important role in evolution by transmitting favourable variations from one
generation to another
● It increases the population of species.

Types of Reproduction

1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction- It is the process of producing a new organism from a single parent without
using sex cells or gametes. Ex- binary fission in amoeba, budding in yeast etc.

Sexual reproduction- It is the process of producing new organisms from two parents by making use
of sex cells or gametes.

Modes of Asexual Reproduction

1. Fission- In the process of fission, a unicellular organism splits or divides to form two or
more new organisms.

Binary fission- In binary fission, the parent organism splits to form two new organisms (daughter
cells). Ex- amoeba, paramecium, leishmania etc

Note- In amoeba, binary fission can occur in any plane while in leishmania (kala azar), it divides
longitudinally and in paramecium it occurs transversally.

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Multiple fission- in multiple fission , the parent cell divides or splits to form many new daughter cells
or organisms of the same type. Ex- plasmodium.

2. Budding- In budding, a small part of the body of the parent organism grows out as a bud,
which when detached, becomes a new organism. Ex- Hydra, yeast

3. Spore formation- Spores are the microscopic asexual reproductive bodies which are covered
by a hard protective coat in spore formation. The parent plant produces hundreds of
microscopic reproductive units called spores. When the spore case of the plant bursts, then
spores spread into the air. When these airborne spores land on food or soil under favorable
conditions like damp and warm conditions, they germinate and produce new plants..

4. Regeneration- The process of getting back full organism from its lost body parts is known as
regeneration. There are specialised cells which proliferate and make large numbers of cells
called tutiputent cells and the property is called totipotency. Ex- planaria, hydra, starfish etc.
It is not truly a type of reproduction as reproduction involves the production of whole new
organism.

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 5. Fragmentation- The breaking up of the body of a simple multicellular organism into two or
more pieces or fragments on maturing, each of which subsequently grows to form a complete
new organism is called fragmentation. Ex- spirogyra, sea anemones etc.

6. Vegetative Propagation- In this method, new plants are obtained from the vegetative parts
of the old plants like stem, leaves, roots etc without the help of any reproductive part (
flower). Ex- Leaf buds of bryophyllum plant, stem piece of money plant, buds/tuber ( eyes) of
potato, rhizome of ginger, bulb of onion etc
● Artificial propagation of plants- The process of growing many plants from one plant by
man-made methods is known as artificial propagation. It is mainly of three types-
● i) Cutting- A small part of a plant is removed by making a cut with a sharp knife and burried
partially in the moist soil. This method of plant growing is known as cutting. Ex-
Bougainvillea, rose, grapes, sugarcane, cactus etc.
● ii) Layering- In this method, a branch of the plant is pulled towards the ground and a part of
it is covered with moist soil leaving the tip of the branch exposed above the ground. After
sometime new roots develop from the part of the branch buried in the soil, the branch is then
cut off and the new one grows itself. Ex- jasmine, strawberry, lemon, hibiscus etc.
● iii) Grafting- In this method, two plants of closely related varieties are joined together so that
they live as one single plant.

Stock- The cut stem of a plant having roots (fixed in soil) is called stock.

Scion- The cut stem of another plant without roots is called scion.

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Advantages of Artificial Vegetative Propagation

● The traits of the parent plant are preserved by vegetative propagation.

● It results in the propagation of those plants which do not produce viable seeds or seeds with
longer periods of dormancy.
● Many plants can be grown from just one parent planned by artificial propagation
● The plants grown by this method needs less attention in their early time period then the plant
grown from seeds.
● We can also get seedless plants by this method
● The new plant grown by this method will be exactly like the parent plant.

Tissue Culture / Micropropagation- The production of new plants from a small piece of plant tissue
(or cells) removed from the growing tips of a plant in a suitable growth called culture solution is
called tissue culture. The production of plants by the method of tissue culture is also known as
micropropagation.

Function- i) it is very fast technique.

ii) it can produce thousands of plantlets in a few weeks.

iii) The new plant produced are disease-free.

iv) tissue culture and grow plants around the year irrespective of weather or season.

v) It requires very little space for developing plants.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

In this reproduction, a male gamete fuses with the female gamete to form a new cell called zygote.

Two major processes of sexual reproduction-

● Formation of gametes
● Fertilisation or fusion of gametes

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

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This takes place in following steps-

● The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in flowers.

● Stamen and carpel are the reproductive parts of the flower which contain germ cells or sex
cells.
● The male organ of flower called stamen makes the male gamete which are present in pollen
grains.
● The female organ of flower called Carpel or Pistil makes the female gametes which are
present in ovules of plants.
● The male gamete present in pollen grain fertilises with the female gamete present in ovule.
● The fertilised ovule grows and becomes seed and fertilsed ovary become fruit.
● The seed grows into new plant.

Structure of flower

Main parts of the flower are-

1. Receptacle- The base of a flower to which all the parts of the flower are attached.
2. Sepals (Calyx)- Sepals are green leaf-like structures in the outermost ring of the flower. All
the sepals taken together are called Calyx. Function- it protects the flower in bud stage and
performs photosynthesis.
3. Petals (corolla)- petals are colourful part of the flower whose base lies inside the sepals. All
the petals taken together are called Corolla. Function- petals attract the insects for pollination
and protects the reproductive parts of flower.
4. Stamen/ Androecium- it is the male reproductive organ of a plant. A flower usually has a
number of stamens. Each stamen is made up of two parts- i) Filament- stalk of stamen.
ii) Anther- the swollen top of stamen.
5. Carpel- it is the female reproductive part of a flower. It consists of three parts-
A. Stigma- it is a terminal part of carpel, which is sticky and act as a platform for pollen grains
to land on it.
B. Style- it is a middle elongated part which connects stigma to ovary

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 C. Ovary- it is swollen bottom part of carpel which contain ovules and each ovule has an egg
cell/ female gamete.

Unisexual and Bisexual Flower- The flower in which either carp or stem is present is called
unisexual flower. Ex- papaya, watermelon

The flower in which both stamen and carpel are present is called bisexual flower. Ex- Hibiscus,
mustard

Pollination- The transfer of pollen grains from stamen of a flower to the Carpel (stigma) of a flower
is known as pollination. It is transferred by many agents like insects, wind, water, etc

It is transferred by many agents-

Insect pollination- Entomophily ; Wind pollination- Anemophily

Water pollination- Hydrophily. ; Animal pollination- zoophily

Types of pollination-

1. Self pollination- It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
carpel of same flower or another flower of the same plant is called self pollination. It occurs
in bisexual flowers Ex- pea, china rose, wheat, rice, potato etc
2. Cross pollination- It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower of a different plant of the same species. It occurs in unisexual as well
as bisexual flowers. Ex- maize etc

Advantages of Cross pollination-

● Cross pollination results in healthier Offsprings.

● The genetic effect of the breed can be removed
● More abundant and viable seeds are produced
● Variations are introduced by cross pollination.

Gametes- the cells involved in sexual reproduction are called gametes.

Zygote- The cell which is formed by the fusion of male and female gamete.

Embryo- it is the stage development between the zygote and the newly formed offspring.

Steps of fertilisation in Plants-

● After the pollen grains lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ cell in
ovary.

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 ● Now, a pollen tube is developed by pollen grain from the style to reach ovary
● After fertilisation, zygote divides several times within the ovule.
● The ovule gets converted into the seed and the ovary gets converted into the fruit.

Germination- It is the initial stages in the growth of the seed to develop into the seedling under
appropriate conditions.

Radicle- develop into the future root

Plumule- develop into the future shoot

Double fertilisation in plants

Double fertilisation is the unique characteristics of angiosperms. It involves two processes-

1. Syngamy- the fusion of male game with the female game to produce zygote is called
syngamy.

Male gamete (n) + female gamete (n) —> zygote (2n)

2. Triple fusion- In triple fusion, second male gamete fuses with the polar nuclei to form PEN
(Primary Endosperm Nucleus). Here, the fusion of three nuclei ( 1 from male gamete & 2
from polar nuclei) takes place hence, name triple fusion.

IInd male gamete (n) + Polar nuclei (2n) —> PEN (3n)

Syngamy + Triple fusion —-> Double fertilisation

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Sperm- The male gamete in animals

Ovum- The female gamete in animals

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Fertilisation - The fusion of sperm (n) with the ovum (n) to form as zygote (2n) during sexually
reproduction is called fertilisation.

Embryo- The stage of development between the zygote and the newly formed baby is called embryo.

Types of fertilisation

1. Internal fertilisation- The fertilisation which occurs inside the female body is called internal
fertilisation. It takes place in mammals, birds and reptiles
2. External fertilisation- The fertilisation which occurs outside the female body is called
external fertilisation. It takes place in amphibians and fishes.

Advantages of Sexual Reproduction

● Sexual reproduction leads to a greater variety in population i.e it promotes genetic variations.
● Sexual reproduction play the important role in the origin of new species having different
characteristics.
● Sexual reproduction helps to promote the adaptability according to environmental condition.
● It helps in the evolution process.

Viviparous and Oviparous animals

Viviparous animals give birth to the young ones. Ex- Mammals.

Oviparous animals lay eggs. Development of young ones occur outside the body of the female
(mother). Ex- birds, fishes, reptiles etc.

Note- Platypus is the mammal that gives eggs instead of giving birth to young ones

Archaeopteryx- connective link between Birds and Reptiles

Sexual reproduction in humans

Puberty- The age when reproductive organs become functional. It is the age at which sex hormones
begins to be produced and the boy and the girl become sexually mature is called puberty.

It occurs at the age of 10 to 14 years in girls and 13-15 years in boys.

Changes in Boys Changes in Girls

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 ● Hair grow under armpits and pubic ● Breast size begins to increase
reason ● Hair grow under armpits and pubic
● Hair grow on chest and face region
● Body becomes muscular ● Fallopian, tube, uterus, vagina becomes
● Voice deepens enlarge
● The penis and testis becomes larger ● Ovary starts to release Eggs
● Start of menstruation

Male Reproductive System

It consists of testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, prostate gland , urethra and penis.

Testes- a pair of testes (oval shaped) lies in a small sac like a muscular structure outside the
abdominal cavity called scrotum. It produces sperms and testosterone.

Note- testes lie outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum because it requires 2 to 3° less temperature
then the body temperature for sperm formation.

Vas deferens- Tubular structure transfers the sperms to Urethra, a common passage for urine and
sperms.

Prostate Gland/ Seminal vesicles- There are a pair of thin walled, muscular elongated sac, which
secrete fluid for nourishment of sperms. ( seminal vesicles)

Prostate gland- it produce fluid for lubrication of sperms which is released in urethra.

Secretion of these glands with sperms is called semen.

Female Reproductive System

It consist of ovaries, fallopian tube (oviduct), uterus, vagina and cervix.

Ovaries- A pair of small oval shaped organs located in the abdominal cavity near the kidney. It is the
primary productive organ of the female. Two functions -

● It produce eggs
● Its secret hormones like oestrogen and progesterone, which is stimulate secondary sexual
characters.

Fallopian tube/ oviduct- Egg gets fertilised in the oviduct only if it meets a sperm. Fallopian tube is
the site of fertilisation.

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Uterus- Elastic bag like a structure. Zygote gets implanted in the uterus. It is commonly called as
womb.

Vagina and cervix- Vagina is a tubular structure and cervix is the narrow opening These are
collectively called the birth canal. It receives the sperms as well as the child is born through it.

Placenta- It is a disc like a structure which is embedded in the uterus. In placenta, the embryo blood
vessels are close to mothers blood vessel, but they are not joined. It provides physiological connection
between mother and the embryo through umbilical cord.

Functions of Placenta-

● it provides nutrition to the developing embryo from its mother

● It helps in removing waste
● Placenta play an important role in the respiration in embryonic stage.

Gestation Period- The time period from the development of fetus inside the uterus till birth is called
gestation period. Or

Total period of ethnic development from the time of fertilisation till birth. It is 40 weeks or 9 months
7days in humans.

Implantation- The embedding of embryo in the thick lining of the uterus is called implantation.

Menstrual Cycle- The cycle of events, taking place in the ovaries and in the uterus every 28 days or
roughly 1 month and marked by the menstrual flow in females is called menstrual cycle.

Note- first menstruation is called Menarche.

At the age of 50 to 55 years, menstruation stop, it is called menopause.

Ovulation - It is the release of mature ovum from the ovary. It occurs in 13th or 14th day of Mastrual
cycle.

Parturition- The act of giving birth to the fully developed foetus at the end of gastation period is
called parturition

Reproductive Health

It is a state of physical, mental and social fitness to lead a responsible, safe and satisfying reproductive
life. It includes prevention of STDs ( Sexually Transmitted Disease)to maintain reproductive health.

STDs are certain infectious diseases spread from an infected person to a healthy person by sexual
contact.

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Some common STDs are-

Bacterial- Gonorrhoea, Syphilis

Viral- AIDS, warts

Protozoan- Trichomoniasis

Modes of transmission of AIDS

● By having sexual contact with an infected person

● By transfusion of blood from an infected person
● Through infected needles used for injection and razor used for shaving.
● Through the placenta from mother to child during pregnancy.

Population Control- population can be controlled by following methods-

1. Barrier method
2. Chemical method
3. Surgical method
4. Withdrawal method
5. Calendar method
6. IUCD (IntraUterine Contraceptive Device)

1. Barrier Method- In the barrier method, the physical devices such as condoms(male),
diaphragms(female )are used to prevent pregnancy.

Note- An important benefit in the use of condom is that it protects a person from STDs as it prevents
the fluid to fluid connection.

2. Chemical method- This method females used two types of pills, oral pills and vaginal pills.
Oral pills are also called Oral Contraceptives contains hormones which prevent ovulation i.e
the release of egg from ovary. Vaginal pills contain the chemicals called as spermicides
which killed the sperms.
3. IUCDs- IUCD like Copper-T is placed inside the uterus that prevents the implantation of
fertilised egg.
4. Surgical method- It is the permanent method of contraception.
a. Vasectomy- In males, each vas deferens is cut off and tied at both ends by a thread. Sperms
will be blocked. Hence fertilisation stops.

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 b. Tubectomy- In females, each fallopian tube is cut off and tied so that egg will not reach the
uterus.

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

● Asexual reproduction is uniparental. ● sexually production is generally

● Gametes are not formed biparental.
● All divisions are mitotic ● Gametes are always formed
● Fertilisation is absent ● Meiosis occurs once and all other
● Variations are very few divisions are mitotic
● It is more common in lower organisms. ● Fertilisation or fusion of game takes
place
● Variation occurs during sexual
reproduction
● Sexually production occurs in all higher
organisms along with a number of lower
organisms

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