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"CASE STUDY OF RAMMED EARTH BUILDING'S WALL AND FOUNDATION"

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Research · February 2024

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24512.03847

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Nepal College of Information Technology
(Affiliated to Pokhara University)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

A REPORT ON
"CASE STUDY OF RAMMED EARTH BUILDING’S WALL AND

FOUNDATION”

SUBMITTED BY

Swastika Kadari

SUBMITTED TO

Department Of Civil Engineering

Feb 2024
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This review could not have been possible without the contribution from a number of
individuals who allowed us to visit them in their homes and workplaces or gave up
their time to be interviewed by phone. We are particularly grateful to Mr. Narayan
Acharya and Miss Ramika Joshi.

We also gratefully acknowledge the support of our Head of Department Er. Mani
Poudel, and group members, our friends without whose support this project would not
have been possible.

ii
 ABSTRACT
Rammed earth is an ancient and everlasting material-process. Traditionally associated
with rural construction and underdeveloped settings, the material has begun to enter the
construction. While its use is not yet wide spread in the modern construction, its benefits
and positive applications to that setting are numerous. Rammed earth as a building
material possesses high aesthetic qualities and hard geometric forms which frame the
basis of the material’s compatibility. As a building process, rammed earth has an
exceptional opportunity for mechanization, allowing for its integration with the
conventional modes of contemporary construction. Because of these advantages over
other natural building strategies, rammed earth is poised as a viable building technique
for the industrialized urban built environment. The desire for raw, unprocessed building
materials should not be limited to the rural settings which hold most natural buildings.
This requirement is evident in the building practices worldwide, but it is particularly
pronounced in developed urban areas where there is a concentrated depletion of
resources for construction materials. Rammed earth satisfies the pressing demand for
low impact materials, along with the goals of efficiency, longevity, and energy autonomy
of architecture; the fundamental goals of sustainable architecture.

This report explores the contributions of rammed earth to the built environment. The
material can be adapted to suit the cold, wet climate and used as an effective exterior
wall assembly. It can be used as an interior service and partition wall, providing an ideal
sound and fire barrier to the houses. The three specific applications of this abundant,
low-carbon material demonstrate its viability, desirability, and compatibility with the
modern residence

iii
 Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................................... ii

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................. v

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................. vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 8

1.1)BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................... 8

1.2) PROBLEM STATEMENT ..........................................................................................................11

1.3) SCOPES: .....................................................................................................................................11

1.4) LIMITATIONS
............................................................................................................................11

1.5) SIGNIFICANCE: .......................................................................................................................

12

CHAPTER 2: OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................ 14

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 28

4.1) CASE STUDY: .......................................................................................................................... 29

4.2) METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................................................

32

4.3) QUESTIONNAIRE.................................................................................................................... 36

CHAPTER 5: RESULT AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 39

CHAPTER 7: REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 40

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Rammed Earth Block ........................................................................................

8

Figure 2 Accham Hospital Nepal [2] .............................................................................

10

Figure 3 Great wall of China [3] ....................................................................................

10

iv
Figure 4 Process overview .............................................................................................
16

Figure 5 Testing Phases of Soil ......................................................................................

20

Figure 6 Plasticity test ....................................................................................................

21

Figure 7 Assuring proper mixing of clay and admixtures .............................................

22

Figure 8 Hand ball test ...................................................................................................

22

Figure 9 Damaged Rammed Earth Blocks ....................................................................

23

Figure 10 Proper Rammed Earth Block .........................................................................

23

Figure 11 Completed Rammed Earth Residence with Wall Design ..............................

24

Figure 12 Site Work for Earth Construction ..................................................................

26

Figure 13 Framework for Wall [1] .................................................................................

27

Figure 14 Design on Wall Due to Formwork's Internal Face ........................................

27

Figure 15 Narayan Acharya's House, Godawari ............................................................

29

Figure 16 Measuring Work ............................................................................................

30

Figure 17 Mixing ...........................................................................................................

30

Figure 18 Loading On Formwork ..................................................................................

31

Figure 19 Construction Worker Ramming .....................................................................

31

Figure 20 Rammering Instrument ..................................................................................

31

Figure 21 Mould and sample .........................................................................................

32

v
Figure 22 Material Selection ..........................................................................................
32

Figure 23 Mixture ..........................................................................................................

33

Figure 24 Experimental Setup .......................................................................................

33

Figure 25 Test Procedure ...............................................................................................

34

vi
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Soil composition and characteristics .................................................................
18

Table 2. Plasticity Test................................................................................................... 34

Table 3. Observations……………................................................................................ 34

vii
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1) BACKGROUND

Rammed earth is an ancient technique for constructing foundation, floors, walls using compacted
natural materials such as earth, chalk, lime, or gravel. Rammed earth as a material has a range of
applications that contribute to this sustainable reputation. It utilizes bulk resources readily
available in nearly any location, has a significantly diminished life cycle impact, and is
unparalleled in its solar thermal applications when compared to most conventional wall
assemblies.

Rammed earth is both a building material and a building process. A material-process, wherein the
process itself directly creates the material, on site and by hand. This process involves a mixture of
raw soil, moisture, and additives, tamped into temporary formwork to an extremely hard-packed
state. Through this process, free-standing, solid masonry walls are created. The walls are built in
shallow layers called lifts, the loose material for each lift being compacted to roughly 50 percent
of its volume within the formwork. The ramming process is repeated until a wall has reached the
desired height. The formwork can be removed immediately, revealing the monolithic wall.
Finished against the inside face of the formwork, the material is beautiful in its natural state.
Rammed earth typically needs no cladding, finishes, plasters, or paints. The material is a portrait
of its process, where the labour of each lift is communicated by the face of a rammed earth wall.
Much of the contemporary interest in rammed earth as a viable wall system comes from its
characterization as a sustainable material.

Figure 1 Rammed Earth Block

8
1.1.1) HISTORY OF RAMMED EARTH

Rammed earth has its roots in adobe building. Nearly every text on earth building will open in
reference to the adobe walls which demonstrate the timeless application of earth as a building
material. The next most common adobe reference is the Great wall of China, an example of 2000
year old earth walls which survive to the present day. In fact, most of China’s great wall was
originally constructed of rammed earth, and later clad with stone to appear as a masonry wall.
Both of these historical examples demonstrate earth as a viable, logical building material where
local, bulk resources are demanded in great abundance. Other notable adobe examples are
residential dwelling communities including BAYALPATA HOSPITAL (ACCHAM, NEPAL).
These less ancient, but no less historic examples demonstrate rural to urban earth buildings with
centuries of useful service life. These are the examples which establish the desirability, durability,
utility, and appeal of earth construction.

The rich history of adobe building has evolved with human culture along four distinct
trajectories: mud bricks, wattle and daub, cob, and rammed earth. Because of the established
appeal and sustainable attributes of earthen construction, all four of these building technologies
have experienced some form of revival in recent decades. Rammed Earth are again becoming a
dominate contemporary building technique.

Precedents of contemporary rammed earth construction originate from François Cointeraux:

father of pisé de terre. His use of rammed earth for fireproof buildings in the Hautes-Alpes
French landscape earned him the 1878 Accademia di Amiens award. His model of incombustible
building was considered advantageous for use all across the European countryside. Rammed
earth is a much slimmer, straighter form of adobe. Its high strength, durability, and orthogonal
nature allow it to happily participate in the industrialized urban vernacular.[1]

Figure 2 Accham Hospital Nepal [2] Figure 3 Great wall of China [3]

9
1.2) PROBLEM STATEMENT

The construction industry faces a pressing need for sustainable building practices to address
environmental concerns and resource depletion. Despite the potential benefits of rammed earth
construction, such as low environmental impact and energy efficiency, its adoption remains
limited.

This case study aims to investigate the challenges and opportunities associated with rammed
earth construction, exploring factors hindering its widespread implementation and proposing
viable solutions to promote its integration into mainstream building practice.

1.3) SCOPES:

To meet the objectives of our case study on earthen construction, the research and study were
made regarding following topics:

• Historical Context:

Investigate the history and cultural significance of rammed earth

construction in different regions.

• Material Properties:

Analyze the properties of rammed earth, including its strength, durability,

thermal performance, and environmental impact.

• Construction Techniques:

Examine different methods and technologies used in rammed earth

construction, including formwork, soil composition, and stabilization
techniques

1.4) LIMITATIONS

Our study on Rammed earth has its limitations as well.

• Lack of laboratory test:

The absence of crucial laboratory tests in our case study project poses a
significant challenge, as these tests are integral to obtaining accurate and
reliable results. Without access to these specific tests, there is a risk of
compromising the completeness of our findings and the overall validity of
the study. To address this limitation, we explored alternative methods and
sought potential collaborations to ensure the validity of our research

10
 outcomes. Overcoming resource constraints and emphasizing the importance
of these tests for future studies are key aspects of our strategy to mitigate the
impact of this challenge on the project's scientific integrity.

• Minimal presence of rammed earth sites in construction:

The minimal presence of Rammed Earth Sites in Kathmandu presented a

notable limitation in our study, hindering a comprehensive understanding of
this traditional building method's historical and cultural significance in the
region. Without adequate representation of Rammed Earth Sites, there was a
risk of overlooking key aspects that contribute to the broader architectural
landscape and heritage preservation. To address this problem, we explored
alternative research approaches, considering potential collaborations. Efforts
to overcome these limitations aim to ensure a more inclusive and refined
exploration of Katmandu's architectural history.

• This case study is based on already constructed site:

Since our study remained constraint to already built house and structure, we
faced some challenges to gather exact information about construction
process. To overcome this issue, we gathered as much as possible
knowledge, ideas from Architects and engineers based on their work
experience dealing with earth buildings.

1.5) SIGNIFICANCE:

As Rammed earth construction offers several significances like environmentally friendly, using
natural materials, and has a low carbon footprint. It provides excellent thermal mass, regulating
indoor temperatures. Additionally, it's durable, fire-resistant, and can be cost-effective in certain
regions due to local material availability, to enlighten on such characteristics of rammed
construction our case study emphasizes following significance:

1. Environmental Sustainability

-Rammed earth structures utilize locally-sourced materials, reducing the environmental impact
associated with transportation and extraction of traditional construction materials. The
construction process itself has a lower carbon footprint.

2. Energy Efficiency:

- The thermal mass of rammed earth provides natural insulation, contributing to energy
efficiency by helping regulate indoor temperatures and reducing the need for additional heating
or cooling systems.

11
3. Cost-Effectiveness:

- Rammed earth construction often proves cost-effective, especially in regions where

suitable raw materials are readily available. The simplicity of the construction process can also
reduce labor costs.

4. Local Economic Development:

- By promoting the use of locally-sourced materials and traditional construction methods,

rammed earth structures can contribute to the economic development of local communities,
fostering sustainable practices.

5. Cultural Preservation

- Rammed earth construction can be a means of preserving cultural heritage and traditions,
as it often aligns with local architectural styles and materials, maintaining a connection to the
past.

6. Reduced Carbon Emissions:

- The use of earth as a primary construction material reduces the need for energy-intensive
production processes associated with traditional building materials like cement and steel,
contributing to lower overall carbon emissions.

7. Adaptability to Local Conditions:

- Rammed earth structures can be adapted to various climatic conditions and seismic zones,
providing a versatile and resilient construction solution that aligns with the specific needs of
different regions.

8. Aesthetic Appeal:

- Rammed earth construction offers a unique and natural aesthetic, contributing to visually
appealing and culturally rich built environments. The textures and colors of rammed earth can
enhance architectural diversity.

9. Low Maintenance Requirements:

CHAPTER 2: OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this study is to prepare a detailed report on case study of Rammed Earth
building’s walls and foundation other systematical objectives are:

• Analyze Construction Techniques:

12
 Evaluate different methods and technologies used in rammed earth
construction to identify best practices for optimizing efficiency, quality, and
cost-effectiveness.

• Document Case Studies:

Document and analyze specific examples of rammed earth buildings to

understand their design process, construction challenges, performance in
various climates, and user satisfaction.

13
 CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW
The ability of rammed earth to function in virtually any climate zone, apply passive performance,
and outlive most conventionally constructed buildings all demonstrate its sustainable
characteristics. Sustainable architecture aims to tread lightly on the earth and to make a positive
contribution to the built environment. Despite its great mass, a rammed-earth building can tread
lightly on the earth. A rammed earth building, despite being made of a low-grade, unengineered
material, can and will last for generations. It is enduring.

Rammed earth construction, an age-old architectural technique rooted in history, is experiencing a

renaissance in contemporary sustainable building practices. Historical marvels such as the Great
Wall of China and the Alhambra in Spain stand as enduring testaments to the durability and
longevity of structures built using rammed earth.

The revival of interest in this construction method is closely tied to its environmental
sustainability. By utilizing locally sourced raw materials, rammed earth significantly reduces the
carbon footprint associated with transportation. Moreover, the inherent thermal mass properties of
rammed earth contribute to energy efficiency by moderating indoor temperatures, diminishing the
reliance on conventional heating and cooling systems.

A wealth of research has been dedicated to understanding the engineering properties of rammed
earth, including its impressive compressive and shear strength, as well as resistance to moisture,
fire, and pests. As we go through contemporary applications, projects like mentioned above
illustrate the versatility of rammed earth in modern architecture, showcasing its adaptability to
diverse climates and aesthetic preferences.

This literature review lays the groundwork for a deeper exploration in the forthcoming case study,
shedding light on the historical significance, environmental sustainability, structural properties,
and contemporary applications of rammed earth construction.[1]

3.1.1) MAKING PROCESS

The process of building with earth is significantly divergent to most conventional building
methods. While rammed earth specifically is undoubtedly enhanced by contemporary modes of
building.

Rammed earth is not manufactured or assembled in the method of conventional wall assemblies.
It is not a product which can be purchased, but instead is a material to be created: in-situ, by
hand, and tailored to each individual project.

This distinct building process occurs in three phases: Soil Selection, Testing, and Construction.
The first two phases are unique to earth building and generally do not form part of the
conventional residential building process. The latter phase is also fairly unique compared to
typical conventions, but borrows from aspects of conventional construction, and employs tools
and methods which are highly recognizable within standard residential building practices

14
All three of these stages of the rammed earth building process allow a high level of control on
quality, aesthetic, and design potential, but are also a labor-intensive process which requires a
great deal of careful examination and assessment to ensure the success of a rammed earth
building project.

SOIL SELECTION TESTING CONSTRUCTION

Soil selection in volves assessment of Once a soil is deemed suitable for The construction process involves
the raw material for possible use in construction, a series of testing phases creation of the material on -site and by
building. Contemporary applications are performed to ensure the success of hand. Doing so demands efficient
of ramm ed e arth building will usually the building project. The testing phase project sequencing and diligent
source the base material from a local will establish the parameters of Laboure. Despite the effort and time,
quarry, in which case the available construction for both aesthetic and the process is both intuitive and
options must be compared. performance qualities. repetitive.
Figure 5 Process Overview [8]
Figure 4 Process overview

[Link]) Soil selection:

Soil is the chief component of any earth building system, and appropriate soil selection is
essential for the success of an earth building. In a rammed earth wall, soil will compose around
ninety percent of the wall by volume. This bulk material may be naturally occurring on site, or
may be an engineered mix obtained from a local quarry. In contemporary applications, the soil
for rammed earth is generally obtained from a quarry, allowing a higher level of control on the
soil characteristics and minimizing much of the testing required to assess a material which is
excavated on site. Regardless of where the soil is obtained, it will have unique characteristics
which determine if it is suitable for building.

The primary assessment will be the composition of the soil. Soil is a broad term which contains
any varying ratio of the four main soil classification groups:

15
 • Clay
• Silt
• Sand
• Gravel

These groups are designated by particle size, each with different contributions to the soil’s
performance as a building material. The soil for rammed earth building is likely to be classified
as an inorganic, coursed-grained soil with fines.

Building soils must not contain any organic content. If organic matter is present in soils used for
building walls, those walls will be structurally compromised and susceptible to decay or damage.
The other four major classifications of soil are inorganic subsoils and should all be present in a
soil used for building.

Definition Characteristics Contribution Particle Ratio Comments

size
CLAY • Inorganic • High • Binding • Specific
Dry Strength Element clay type
• Fine- <0.002mm 5%20% must be
grained soil • Medium • Stabilizer identified
Plasticity for viability
in earth
building.

SLIT • Inorganic • • Low Dry • Binding 0.002mm- >10% • Must be

Fine- grained Strength Element 0.75mm verified as
soil inorganic
• Low soil.
Plasticity Organic
matter can
be mistaken
for silt
without
proper
testing.

16
 SAND • Inorgani • High •Weathering 0.75mm - 30% - • Sand must
c Cohesion resistance 4.75mm 50% be the
majority by
• Coarse • Cohesion volume to
grained soil contribute
to a uniform
finished
aesthetic.

GRAVEL • Inorgani • High Strength •The structural 4.75mm 30% - • Gravel

c matrix (Ideally 40% provides the
<19mm) skeleton for
• Coarse the
grained soil structural
building
element.
Table 1 Soil composition and characteristics

Clay is the cornerstone of earth building. It is perhaps the most important factor of soil selection.
For rammed earth applications, clay should be professionally tested for its specific properties. It
must be dimensionally-stable, non-expansive clay, known as kaolinite. A non-expansive clay is
useful as a binding and stabilizing element, making it ideal for building.

Stabilization is the method by which contemporary rammed earth achieves compliance with
regulatory bodies. The percentage of stabilizers used in rammed earth construction can vary
depending on factors such as soil composition, project requirements, and local building practices.
As a general guideline, stabilizers like cement or lime are typically added in the range of 5% to
15% by weight of the soil mixture. However, it's crucial to conduct soil testing and trials to
determine the optimal percentage for a specific project, ensuring the desired strength, durability,
and workability of the rammed earth walls.

Other classifications of clay include montmorillonites and illites, which are expansive clays,
characterized by their ability to swell and retain water, making them problematic for building. If
an expansive clay is naturally occurring in a soil which must be used for building, chemical
forces such as lime or bitumen can be used to neutralize the swelling properties of these clays, but
will also have the effect of neutralizing their binding properties.

Chemical stabilization can be any mixture of insoluble binders such as cement, fly-ash, trass,
lime, or gypsum. These stabilizers induce a chemical reaction between the particles of the soil

17
while the walls cure. They act in the place of clay to enhance the strength of the earth structure as
they increase cohesion, decrease permeability and enhance compaction.

Earth walls may be chemically stabilized for many reasons such as:

stabilization can

• limit water absorption

• stabilize volume
• increase strength
• durability

The need for stabilization will vary from project to project, depending on location, climate, and
experience of those undertaking the work. The decision is generally subject to professional
knowledge and experience. For the most part, stabilization is cautioned, and should only be
employed where the strength and durability requirements of the project cannot be demonstrated
with raw soil alone. Chemical stabilization will significantly increase both the end-of-life impact
and embodied energy of the material.

[Link]) TESTING OF SOILS:

The decision to stabilize a rammed earth building project will eliminate much of the testing
required to assess a soil used in building. This is why stabilization is currently such an attractive
solution to rammed earth building.

The testing required to assess a suitable base material is a tedious and intensive process.
Stabilization eliminates much of this tedium by providing the structural stability of the wall, and
relying less on comprehension of the minute variabilities of soil.

Yet regardless of stabilization, a suitable soil must be tested and assessed along factors which will
contribute to the final aesthetic, strength, utility, and durability of the rammed earth. Testing will
occur in the following three phases:

• Soil Property Testing

• Construction Mix Testing
• Quality Control Testing

18
 SOIL PROPERTY CONSTRUCTION QUALITY CONTROL
TESTING MIX TESTING TESTING

Property testing provides the detailed Construction mix testing will Quality control testing is usually
characteristics of a selected soil, establish the desired ratio of the soil professionally performed to discover
establishes its suitability for building, to moisture and admixtures, for use any possible complications which may
and will help to predict the in construction. Creation of samples arise due to a particular soil or
performance characteristics of that soil. for analysis is a core component of construction mix.
mix testing.

Figure 5 Testing Phases of Soil

[Link].1 SOIL PROPERTY TESTING:

Soil property testing should take place long before the building process is scheduled to begin.
Soil will be analyzed using various field tests an7d laboratory tests to determine the very specific
characteristics of a soil.

a) PLASTICITY LIMIT TEST:

The plasticity limit test in rammed earth construction involves assessing the plasticity of the soil
used in the construction process. This test helps determine the moisture content at which the soil
exhibits a specific level of plasticity. In rammed earth construction, understanding the plasticity
limit is crucial as it influences the workability of the soil mix and ultimately contributes to the
strength and stability of the rammed earth structure. The test typically follows standardized
procedures to ensure consistency and reliability in evaluating the plasticity characteristics of the
construction material.

19
 Figure 6 Plasticity test

The plasticity index is a key parameter in soil mechanics and construction, including rammed
earth construction, for several reasons:

I. Workability: Plasticity index helps assess the workability of the soil. It indicates the
range of moisture content over which the soil can be easily molded and compacted. In
rammed earth construction, achieving the right workability is crucial for proper
compaction and structural integrity.
II. Material selection: Different soils exhibit varying levels of plasticity. Knowing the
plasticity index aids in selecting appropriate soils for rammed earth construction. Soils
with excessive plasticity may lead to difficulties in compaction or undesirable shrinkswell
characteristics.
III. Structural integrity: The plasticity index influences the compressibility and shear
strength of the soil. For rammed earth structures, understanding these properties is
essential for ensuring the stability and long-term durability of the construction

[Link].2) CONTRUCTION MIXING TEST:

An experienced earth builder will have cultivated a sense of what a proper building soil is like.
They will likely be able to assess a soil by hand testing combined with prior knowledge.

These experiments provide for immediate visual assessment of material. It also helps to This
stage of testing involves experimenting with admixtures, tinting, or stabilization provide working
experience with the materials, prior to beginning construction. These tests will give a sense of the
right moisture content needed for a soil, the aesthetic effect of any admixtures like oxides or
stabilizers, or the final texture to be anticipated by using a particular soil.

Mixing is a vulnerable area of the rammed earth construction process. It demands a trained eye to
assess a perfect mix. This mixture will be prepared on site in sizable batches for the full process
of building rammed earth walls, but during testing will be made in small batches in a bucket to
fill premade form boxes. The mixture will involve ratios of roughly 90% of the selected soil, 9%
of any stabilization if being used, perhaps 1% oxide powders if coloring is considered, and water
added as required.

20
 Figure 7 Assuring proper mixing of clay and admixtures

Moisture content is the main vulnerability of the rammed earth process. Too little moisture will
make a crumbly and weak mix, and will not provide for proper binding in the compaction
process. Too much moisture will make a sticky mix, prone to shrink or crack, leading to water
penetration and speeding decay. Moisture content is added continuously during mixing until the
mixture reaches the right consistency, and enough water is added to hydrate and activate all the
stabilizing particles.

A wet sample of the mix is compressed by hand and dropped to the ground from waist height.
The ball should break into several coherent clumps, it should neither shatter or splatter, which
would indicate too little or too much moisture respectively.

Figure 8 Hand ball test

[Link].3) QUALITY CONTROL TESTING:

The final phase of testing is done to determine how the chosen construction mix will perform
under normal stresses. The successful samples which were made for mix testing, will be quality
control tested after they have had about a month to cure and stabilize. Some of these tests are
simple enough to perform manually, like erosion testing with a garden hose or pressure washer,
leeching tests with sun and water, or break tests with applied forces. If the structure is to be held
up to contemporary code requirements the samples will also require structural material testing.

21
Typical strength testing is performed at 28-days, as established with concrete curing time.
Rammed earth possesses a longer curing cycle where 56-day testing is ideal. 28-day testing will
likely reveal only 60-70 percent of the rammed earth’s material strength. It is crucial in our
developed building culture to provide the technical data needed to evaluate what is safe and
reliable in earth building systems, and provide a base of knowledge which will further ease earth
construction in the future.

Figure 9 Damaged Rammed Earth Blocks

Figure 10 Proper Rammed Earth Block

[Link] CONSTRUCTION:

Once the soil has been assessed and selected, an appropriate mixture has been determined, and
the structural qualities of that mix are known and accepted, the building process may begin.

22
This process is likely to vary drastically depending on location, climate, builder, or design. In
general, concrete foundations will be laid, formwork will be constructed, and material will be
stockpiled. It is important to establish detailed construction sequencing of forms and walls for
rammed earth building.

The appropriate moisture content of the material provides quick curing, allowing forms to be
removed and re-set the same day a wall is completed. Using these forms optimally will mean
tailoring the building design to aid the construction sequence.

Walls built to the same lengths, or established on a simple module will allow forms to operate
efficiently without much customization between dismantling and resetting the forms. Well placed
openings, of identical or modular sizing, will further minimize customization of the formwork for
each wall or segment. Service conduits and electrical boxes must all be established prior to
construction. Unlike a conventional wall assembly, these design factors cannot be decided later as
construction progresses. A well-designed project will lead to an efficient and organized building
process.

Figure 11 Completed Rammed Earth Residence with Wall Design

[Link].1 The Site

The site is an integral part of the building process for rammed earth. It is not only the location of
the build, but the location of the material manufacturing. There must be a well-drained location to
stockpile the soil.

The stockpile, or total amount of soil required should have a volume equal to 150% the volume
of the walls. This additional 50% loose material will account for the compaction process which

23
reduces the volume of the soil by about half in forming the walls. It is essential that the soil
stockpile be kept sheltered from rain, which would introduce an excess of moisture to the
material.

A generous space on the site is also needed for the mixing area. If a front loader is being used,
this space must be adequately connected to the building site. If manual labor is used to transport
the material, proximity will facilitate that intense labor. Ideally a level concrete pad, 25-40m² will
be used for mixing

24
 Figure 12 Site Work for Earth Construction

[Link].2 FOUNDATION:

Constructing a foundation for a rammed earth structure involves several considerations to ensure
stability and durability. Here's a general guideline:

1. Site Preparation: Clear the site of vegetation, debris, and topsoil. Level the ground and
compact it thoroughly to provide a stable base.
2. Footings: Excavate trenches for footings according to local building codes and the
structural requirements of your building. Typically, footings for rammed earth walls are wider
than the walls themselves to distribute the weight evenly.
3. Foundation Material: The choice of foundation material depends on various factors such
as soil type, climate, and local building codes. Common options include concrete, rubble trench,
or gravel. Ensure proper drainage by adding gravel or drainage pipes if necessary.
4. Formwork: Construct formwork to define the shape and dimensions of the foundation.
Use durable materials such as wood or metal that can withstand the pressure exerted during
ramming.
5. Compaction: Compact the foundation material thoroughly using a mechanical compactor
or manual ramming to achieve the desired density. This step is crucial for ensuring the stability
and load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
6. Reinforcement: Depending on the structural requirements and soil conditions, you may
need to reinforce the foundation with steel rebar or mesh to improve its tensile strength and
prevent cracking.
7. Moisture Barrier: Install a moisture barrier such as a layer of asphalt or plastic sheeting
between the foundation and the rammed earth walls to prevent moisture from seeping into the
walls and causing deterioration.
[Link].2 The Formwork For Walls

25
The formwork, although temporary, is essential to the success of rammed earth and must be well
made, strong, stiff, stable, plumb, and level. It must be made of durable materials to withstand
repeated placement, yet lightweight enough to be movable.

Figure 13 Framework for Wall [1]

Formwork is the main variability of this building process, subject to builder experience and
aesthetic preference. Formwork may be wood or steel, and can be created in a variety of ways,
with no specific method being better than the rest.

As the inside face of the formwork will generate the exposing face of the rammed earth, its finish
and joining must be considered. Paper-faced plywood will leave a smooth and rarified surface,
textured wood, or slatted forms will affect the surface differently.

Figure 14 Design on Wall Due to Formwork's Internal Face

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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Flowchart depicting the methodology employed to complete this analysis report:

METHODOLOGY

Case Study

Questionnaire

Sample Construction

RESULT AND
CONCLUSION

4.1) CASE STUDY:

In response to the increasing demand for sustainable and energy-efficient housing, a construction
company, rammed earth solution, Godawari (J964+74V), embarks on a project to build a green
residential housing in Nepal in an economic and sustainable manner. The focus is on employing
environmentally friendly exterior construction methods and materials to create homes that are
both aesthetically pleasing and ecologically responsible.

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 Figure 15 Narayan Acharya's House, Godawari

4.2) STEPS FOR SAMPLE CONSTRUCTION:

a) MEASURING:

The construction mix will be proportioned based on a predetermined ratio determined through
mix testing. In practical application, this ratio is likely to be established using a unique unit of
measurement, depending on the equipment used for soil transport or mixing. For instance, if a
front loader is employed, the volume of its bucket becomes the unit of measure. Alternatively, if
wheelbarrows are utilized, the specific wheelbarrow serves as the unit of measure. The quantities
of additional admixtures are then calculated based on the established ratio and the chosen unit of
measure for the soil.

Figure 16 Measuring Work

b) MIXING:

The soil and additives will undergo a comprehensive blending process before the introduction of
water. Mixing will be conducted using the front loader's bucket, manual efforts from crew

28
members with shovels, and a consistent, controlled water spray. Although the soil is expected to
be thoroughly mixed concerning its composition and diverse particle sizes, special attention is
required for the even dispersion of additives. Particularly in the case of chemical stabilizers or
tinting pigments, it is crucial for these particles to be uniformly distributed throughout the soil to
ensure their effective functionality.

Figure 17 Mixing

c) LOADING:
Efficiently transporting the mix to the formwork and transferring the material inside should be a
swift and smooth process. Similar to the measuring phase, the lift sizes are expected to be defined by
the established unit of measure (such as the front loader bucket or wheelbarrow). The loose material
will be manually placed into the forms using shovels or released from a loading bucket. It is essential
to ensure that the material is evenly spread along the length of the wall within the formwork.

Figure 18 Loading On Formwork

d)RAMMING:

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 Ramming was done manually. Mixture was loaded into the mold and slowly
rammed using trowel.

Figure 20 Rammering Instrument Figure 19 Construction Worker Ramming

4.2) METHODOLOGY

Figure 21 Mould and sample

For the preparation of rammed earth block of earthen materials, a mould of size
15cm*15cm*15cm was taken. The amount of cement, clay, aggregates, water required for the
preparation of rammed earth was calculated. The number of materials required for a rammed
earth block preparation in lab is cement 350gm and 700gm, sandy soil 2426gm, aggregate 1040
gm and water as much as workable.

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4.2.1 Material Selection

A mold of size 15cm*15cm*15cm was taken. cement, normal aggregate, sandy soil, clay, and
water were taken.

Figure 22 Material Selection

4.2.2 Mix design

For the preparation of block:

Clay=35% of total wt.

Sand=35% of total wt.

Aggregate=15% of total wt.

Cement=5% of total wt.

Additives=10% of total wt.

Figure 23 Mixture

4.2.3 Experimental setup

Mold was then prepared and then slowly the mixture was added into it and filled and the
mixture was cast in a rectangular shape. Grease was applied in the mold so that the concrete
doesn’t stick in the mold and the block gets a smooth finishing.

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 Figure 24 Experimental Setup

4.2.4 Testing Procedures

For the sample preparation initially plasticity test was conducted and the after mixing water the hand
ball test was conducted.

A compressive strength test was conducted. The block was compressed under the compressive

strength testing machine and the maximum stress resisted by the block was noted.

Figure 25 Test Procedure

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4.2.5 Data Collection

All the relevant data like the area of the block, mass of the block, and collapsed load during the
test was noted.

Observation For Sample Preparation:

Sample No 1 2 3
Wt of 9.8 9.8 9.8

container(gm)
Wt of moist soil and 75.2 87.8 64.2
container(gm)
Wt of dry soil and 57.9 66.2 50
container(gm)
Wt of water(gm) 17.3 21.6 14.2
Wt of dry soil(gm) 48.1 56.4 40.2
Water content (%) 35.96 38.29 35.32
Average(%) 36.52
Table 2 Plasticity Test

Observation Of Prepared Sample

PARAMETER BLOCK A BLOCK B

Length(cm) 23.2 23.1

Breadth 11.2 11.2

Height 7.5 7.5

Mass(kg) 3.869 3.842

Cement Percentage(%) 5 10

Collapsed load(kN) 10 15

Setting Time(hrs) 24 24
Table 3 Result

4.2.6) RESULT OF EXPERIMENT:

The compressive strength test of the block was conducted after 24hrs of loading. From the the test the
strength of block B was observed to be slightly more than that of block A.

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This result can’t be used as a medium to conclude that the block with more cement percentage
has more strength than that of another one, cause of:

• Less setting time

4.3) QUESTIONNAIRE

Section 1: Respondent Information

• Name: Ramika Joshi

• Position/Title: Helper
• Affiliation/Organization: Rammed Earth Solutions
• Years of Experience in the Field: 10years

Section 2: Details

1)Materials used in construction of rammed earth walls and foundation: a)

Clay and sand mixture

b) Cement and gravel mixture

c) Adobe bricks
d) Cob and straw mixture

2)Description of rammed earth construction process:

a) Layering moistened earth and compacting with pneumatic tools

b) Pouring concrete into formworks and letting it set
c) Stacking adobe bricks and sealing gaps with mud mortar
d) Molding cob mixture into desired shapes and letting it dry 3)Considerations for

structural integrity and stability:

a) Reinforcing with steel bars and mesh

b) Adding chemical stabilizers to earth mixture
c) Controlling moisture content during construction.

4)Addressing soil composition, moisture levels, and climate conditions:

a) Testing soil samples and adjusting mix

b) Installing proper drainage systems
c) Applying breathable coatings to walls

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 d) Implementing passive solar design

4)Overcoming challenges during construction:

a) Sourcing suitable earth materials

b) Ensuring uniform compaction
c) Mitigating cracking during drying 5)Strategies for maintenance and longevity:

a) Regular inspection for erosion or damage

b) Replenishing protective coatings
c) Addressing water intrusion promptly 6)Connecting walls with foundation

structure:

a) Bond beam
b) Steel tie rods
c) Timber lintel
d) Mortar joint

7)Role of anchor bolts:

a) Provide lateral stability

b) Distribute load evenly
c) Reinforce top of walls
d) Serve as moisture barrier 8)Anchor bolt installation method:

a) Embedding into concrete foundation

b) Attaching to exterior walls
c) Drilling into walls and inserting bolts
d) Suspending from roof trusses

9)Measures for proper alignment and spacing of anchor bolts:

a) Using templates or guides

b) Measuring and marking precise locations
c) Adjusting bolt positions as needed
CHAPTER 5: RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The objective of this case study was to demonstrate the feasibility and benefits of using rammed earth
construction for exterior walls in a sustainable housing project.

35
The various performance parameters of the rammed earth walls were studied through the experience

shared by the rammed earth building residents in RAMMED EARTH SOLUTIONS, GODAWARI;

This case study aims to showcase the advantages of rammed earth construction for sustainable
housing projects. Environmental assessments highlight the lower impact of rammed earth
construction compared to traditional methods, attributed to locally sourced materials and minimal
processing. Economically, rammed earth construction proves significantly more cost-effective than
concrete alternatives, thanks to reduced material expenses and reliance on locally available resources.
Rammed earth blocks are found to be equally strong and durable if not more than the traditional
bricks.

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 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

The case study demonstrated that rammed earth construction for exterior walls is a viable and
sustainable alternative to conventional building methods. The results highlighted the thermal
performance, energy efficiency, the environmentally friendly aspects of rammed earth
construction, such as the use of natural and locally sourced materials, low energy consumption,
and minimal waste generation. Emphasize how these features contribute to sustainable building
practices.

Moreover, Community feedback indicated a positive response to the aesthetic appeal of the
rammed earth walls and a growing interest in sustainable building practices. The educational
initiatives helped raise awareness about the environmental benefits and potential cost savings
associated with rammed earth construction. Based on the findings, it is recommended to further
promote rammed earth construction methods, educate construction professionals, and integrate
sustainable building practices into building codes. Continued research and development in
optimizing rammed earth techniques could further enhance its widespread adoption in the
construction industry, contributing to a more sustainable and resilient built environment. The
positive community response suggests a growing interest in adopting eco-friendly construction
practices.

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 CHAPTER 7: REFERENCES
1. Cautius, Cassandra (2014), Thesis on“Rammed Earth: Adaptations to Urban
Toronto”, the University of Waterloo
2. Deezen,(2020), picture, “Sharon Davis Design builds rammed-earth hospital in
Nepal”
3. Picaro, Adolfo(2020), “Rammed earth sustainability and durability in seismic areas as
a building material”(Research gate)
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