MODULE CONTENT

Topic 1: Ethics and Morality

Nominal Duration: 1.5 hours

Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this topic, the student must be able to:
1. distinguish Ethics from Morality;
2. explain the difference of good from right; and
3. explain the implications of following rules.

Introduction

Ethics (Greek ethika, from ethos, “character,” “custom”), principles or standards of human
conduct, sometimes called morals (Latin mores, “customs”), and, by extension, the study of such
principles, sometimes called moral philosophy. From the etymology of ethics and morality, they
both speak of character and a customary way of doing good/bad and right/wrong. Custom refers to
tradition or community habit. Hence, it is something a community of persons always does in a
particular way; a way a person or community usually or routinely behaves in a particular situation.
According to Gaffney (1979), the difference is basically between the realm of theory and the realm
of practice. Ethics refers to a set of ideas, principles or convictions determining what one
considers right and wrong in moral conduct, whereas morality refers to practical behavior as
judged according to someone’s ideas about right and wrong. Ethics points to how one thinks about
right and wrong and morality points to actual conduct with respect to its rightness or wrongness. At
the outset, ethics and morality have somehow almost a comparable meaning, although ethics is
sometimes limited to the concern for the individual character and morality to the rules concerning
good and bad. For the purpose of this course, both ethics and morality will be used
interchangeably while keeping in mind the distinction to avoid a category error.

According to Meacham (2011), the primary task of ethics, or morality, is to guide one’s
actions. To guide one’s actions may seem obviously easy. Any person in general, through the rule
of thumb, would readily distinguish what is good from what is bad, and what is right from what is
wrong. A striking problem arises when an individual could hardly make a fine line distinction
between what is good from what is right. This is because what is right does not necessarily mean
that it is good, and vice versa, what is good does not necessarily mean that it is right. In other
words, there are many ways of thinking about ethics whose focuses are on whether specific
actions are good or bad, or right or wrong. They help an individual decide what should be done in
a particular case or class of cases, or evaluate the actions that a person has done.

Meacham (2011) describes two ways of thinking about ethics, which manifest themselves
as two clusters of concepts and language, or domains of discourse, used to recommend or
command specific actions or habits of character: they are called the good and the right (The
subsequent discussion was availed with a special permission from the author).

The Good and the Right

The good has to do with achievement of goals; the right, with laws and rules. The goodness
paradigm recognizes that people have desires and aspirations, and frames values in terms of what
enables a being to achieve its ends. The rightness paradigm recognizes that people live in groups
that require organization and regulations, and frames values in terms of duty and conformance to
rules. Goodness and rightness “are not complementary portions of the moral field but alternative
ways of organizing the whole field to carry out the tasks of morality.”
 Another approach, virtue ethics, focuses on qualities of character and motives for action.
Within Virtue Ethics the distinction between the good and the right is also applicable. Questions
about what sort of character traits one should cultivate can be answered on the basis either of
what is good or of what is right. Compassion and insight are typical goodness virtues, and a
disposition of conscientious obedience is a typical rightness virtue.

The good and the right each have their area of applicability; they often get confused and
students need to know the difference so that errors in ethical judgements are avoided.

The Good

What is good has to do with benefits. Something that benefits something or someone else
is called good for that thing or person. We can think of this instrumentally or biologically.
Instrumentally, an android phone is good for sending emails, sending and receiving text
messages, watching movies, playing online and offline games, shopping and many other activities;
what is good for the phone is what enables it to do so well. Biologically, air, water, and food are
good for living beings.

Instrumentally, what is good for a thing enables that thing to serve its purpose. To make
sense, an instrumental usage of the term “good” requires reference to somebody’s purpose or
intention. Thus, all products of technologies are good for students, professionals, businessmen
and everybody in this fast-paced environment for so many reasons. We want the comfort and
utility they afford us. The instrumental usage is expressed in terms of usefulness, of utility for
achieving a purpose or intention. Some gadgets are better than others in that they have better and
updated software and applications and thus can be used more effectively and efficiently.

The instrumental usage leads to the biological usage. Why is it good for human beings to
have comfort and utility? It is because comfort and utility nourish us and keep us alive. Unlike the
instrumental usage, the biological usage does not require reference to conscious purpose or
intention.

The biological usage is expressed in terms of health and well-being. Biologically, what is
good for an organism is what helps it survive and thrive, what nourishes it. Some things are better
for us than others in this respect. For instance, a diet of whole grains and vegetables is better, in
the sense of providing better health for humans, than a diet of simple carbohydrates and fats.
Another example: some plants need full sunlight to thrive, and others need shade; thus full
sunlight is good for the former, and shade is good for the latter. The good, in this sense, is that
which enables a thing to function well.

The instrumental usage intersects the biological when we consider what is good for
something that is itself good for a purpose or intention. For instance, keeping one’s clothes clean
and taken cared of from dirt is good for the clothes; if they get too dirty or tattered easily to provide
a good impact on your personality, they are not useful as clothes. So we can talk about what is
good for the clothes in a way that is analogous to what is good for a living being. The good, in this
sense also, is that which enables a thing to function well.

The approach to ethics that emphasizes goodness is called the teleological approach, from
a Greek word, telos, which means “end”, “purpose”, or “goal”. Biologically, what is good for an
organism helps that organism survive and thrive. Instrumentally, what is good for a thing enables
that thing to serve its purpose.

Just as good is defined in relation to an end, the value of the end is defined in relation to
another end. For instance, a hammer is good for driving nails. Driving nails is good for, among
other things, building houses. We build houses to have shelter and warmth. And we desire shelter
and warmth because they sustain our life. This chain of goods and ends stretches in both
directions from wherever we arbitrarily start looking.

This approach is also sometimes called a consequentialist approach or an effect-oriented

approach because both usages give meaning to the term “good” by reference to the
consequences or effects of an action or event. That whole grains are good for humans means that
the effect of eating them is healthful. That a cellphone is good for faster communication means
that using it for that purpose is likely to have the effect you want.

The Goodness approach to ethics uses the terms “good” and “bad” and their variants and
synonyms to evaluate actions, things, people, states of affairs, etc., as well as maxims or
guidelines for conduct. Some synonyms for “good” in this context are “helpful,” “nourishing,”
“beneficial,” “useful” and “effective.” Some synonyms for “bad” are their opposites: “unhelpful,”
“unhealthy,” “damaging,” “useless” and “ineffective.”

There are degrees of goodness and its opposite, badness. That some plants need full
sunlight to thrive and others need shade means that full sunlight is good for the former and not so
good for the latter.

An ethics – a set of moral principles or values – based on goodness applied to concerns

about choices between courses of action will ask questions about the anticipated or hoped-for
benefits of one course of action as opposed to another. An ethics based on goodness applied to
concerns about character will ask questions about the anticipated or hoped-for effects on one’s
habitual way of approaching life of one course of action as opposed to another.

The Right

What is right has to do with conformance to rules or regulations. This is easy to see in non-
ethical situations. For instance, the right answer to “9 divided by 3” is 3. We apply a mathematical
rule, the rule for how to do long division, and derive the right, or correct, answer. In ethical
situations, we apply a moral rule to determine what the right course of action is. If one finds a
wallet with some money in it and the owner's identification as well, the right thing to do is to return
the money to the owner because it is wrong to keep something that does not belong to one,
especially if one knows who the owner is. The moral rule in this case is “it is wrong to keep
something that does not belong to you.”

The approach to ethics that emphasizes rightness is called the deontological approach,
from a Greek word, deon, that means “duty.” A person does her duty when she acts according to
the moral rules. We could also call this a rules-based approach. (By “rules” we mean prescribed
guides for conduct, not generalizations that describe physical reality, such as the laws of nature).

According to the deontological approach, an action is justified on the basis of a quality or

characteristic of the act itself, regardless of its consequences. That characteristic is its
conformance to a rule. Morality is concerned with identifying and obeying moral rules. It is right to
obey the rules and wrong to disobey them. Any particular act can be judged right or wrong
according to whether and to what extent it conforms to the moral rules. A central concern, then, is
to identify the rules so one can make sure one is acting in accordance with them. Once the rules
are established, all one needs to do in order to be moral is to do one's duty, which is to act in
accordance with the rules.

The language associated with this school uses the terms “right” and “wrong” to evaluate
actions. Some synonyms for “right” are “proper,” “legal” and “correct.” Some synonyms for “wrong”
are “improper,” “illegal” and “incorrect.”
 The problem, of course, is how to determine the moral rules. Humans seem to have an
innate sense of morality, of right and wrong; but, notoriously, the actual set of rules they espouse
varies from culture to culture. Although many people unreflectively adopt the rules taught them by
their parents, teachers, religious leaders and culture, the task of philosophy is to provide a rational
grounding for one’s choice of what rules to follow. Philosophers have proposed numerous ways of
determining what the rules are, such as divine command, the dictates of pure reason, and using
an intuitive moral sense to apprehend an unseen but existent world of values. So far, there is no
agreement on which of these is correct.

The primary meaning of “right” in an ethical context is conformance to moral rules. There
are a number of other uses of the term “right” in addition to conformance to moral rules, such as
the following:

1) Correct, truthful, as in “the right answer.” This implies that rightness is exclusive, that there is
one right answer or opinion and that others are wrong.
2) The best possible option or a very good option, as in “the right choice.” This also implies
exclusivity, but is problematic. Often one does not need to do what is best. Sometimes one
only needs to do something good enough to get a useful response, a response that gives
feedback so one can further hone one’s strategy, one’s response to what is happening.
3) Fitting, appropriate, in harmony with the way things are. This sense is more akin to the
goodness paradigm. It asserts an aesthetic component of rightness, as when one artistically
puts an element of a composition in “the right place.”
4) What the speaker approves of or assumes people generally approve of. This is an uncritical
usage and is the least useful.

Confusion between the Good and the Right

All too often people confuse the notions of good and right. Both concepts apply to what one
should do, and often the debate is really about persuading someone to act in a certain way. Clarity
of language and conceptual rigor seem to be less important than rhetoric. Here is an example on
iPhones and android phones: “Some phones are problematic to unsuspecting consumers. We
certainly respect companies’ desires to protect their products, but the whole thing has become a
mess. You want to install some very important applications, and guess what, they do not work as
they should, and you have to ask help from a lot of people to make them work, and worst you are
paralyzed of an activity if they do not totally function well. That's just wrong.”

This argument quoted is partly in terms of the effects of some phones on unsuspecting
consumers – they have to jump through hoops, and doing so is undesirable – and partly in terms
of some unstated moral rule.

Here is another example: “With the glaring poverty being experienced by almost all Filipinos
including average families, both the senate and congress should be figuring out more ways for
poor families to have foods on their table and eat three times a day. Unfortunately, it appears both
the TRAIN Law and Rice Tariffication Law have found their way to stab the poor and send them to
their graves alive. That is wrong ....” “With the Balik Probinsya Program of the government on this
pandemic, a lot of locally stranded individuals in the National Capital Region (NCR) are
transporting the Corona Virus to the provinces thereby deliberately spreading the virus. That is a
wrong …”

Again one does not need to understand TRAIN Law or Rice Tariffication Law to understand
what the remark is pointing but then says “That is wrong” as if the lack of benefits of TRAIN Law or
Rice Tariffication Law is what caused it to be wrong. It is the same way with the remark on the
Balik Probinsya Program of the government.
 It is this way of using “right” and “wrong” – to express emphatically one’s approval or
disapproval – that leads some thinkers to assert that moral discourse is actually meaningless and
merely expresses the speaker’s preference or the speaker’s attempt to influence someone else’s
behavior.

Why It Matters

If someone says something is good, one can always ask “good for what?” If someone says
something is right, one can always ask “according to what rule?” The two domains of discourse
really are separate, and it is not useful to mix them. Mixing them is a form of category error, that is,
an error “by which a property is ascribed to a thing that could not possibly have that property.”
That something has good effects does not make it right. That something is in accordance with a
moral rule does not make it good.

Implication to Following Rules

Rules are not just sufficient but rather necessary to social beings in the promotion of the
common good in every society. Making the distinction between good and right is important
because it promotes clarity of thought and allows an individual to assess oneself and understand
why rules have to be followed. It does not mean, however, that clarity of language is a necessary
condition for clarity of thought, but it certainly helps. The clearer one’s thinking, the more likely one
is to follow rules. Accurate thinking based on accurate perception leads to accuracy of action,
action that leads to attainment of one’s goals.