Section-3
Early difficulties after the partition of Pakistan
Geographical problems:
East and West Pakistan were separated by a 1600 km stretch of Indian Territory. The
geographical gap created difficulties in communication between the two wings of Pakistan.
People living in the two wings were often ignorant of each other's problems.
The geographical gap was exploited by India to create difficulties for Pakistan. During the
Pak-India war, the Indian government would deny its territory to Pakistani airplanes flying
between East and West Pakistan.
Cultural differences between the two wings and within West Pakistan created political and
social problems.
Political problems:
There was a shortage of state buildings and office equipment, resulting in the use of military
barracks as an alternative, hindering the government's functioning.
Apart from leaders like Jinnah and Liaqat Ali Khan, most politicians were either
inexperienced or insincere, resulting in the delayed constitution-making process due to a
lack of experts in the Constituent Assembly.
India, however, had a significant advantage with a large team of skilled politicians and Lord
Mountbatten as its first Governor-General.
Due to these limitations, Pakistan struggled to build a strong political base, and Jinnah's
deteriorating health and his death within a year of Pakistan's creation worsened political
problems.
Economic problems:
Pakistan was composed of states that were mostly underdeveloped, with very little industry.
Although Karachi was a modern port with substantial trading and business activity, much of
Pakistan, especially NWFP, was not developed and industrialized.
Around 90% of the population lived in the countryside, and there were only 8 towns with a
population of more than 100,000.
Pakistan was not a wealthy country, and its major industry, agriculture, didn't produce
enough surplus, with the exception of jute.
East Pakistan in 1947 produced nearly 70% of the world's jute; however, all of the jute mills
were in newly independent India.
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Social problems:
Pakistan is a state with diverse regional and linguistic groups who had little in common
except for Islam, thus there was a lack of nationalism of a single nation.
Upon Pakistan’s independence, some provinces like Balochistan, Bengal, and NWFP
reluctantly joined Pakistan while not sincerely accepting Urdu as the national language.
Accession of princely states:
The partition of India in 1947 brought forth the challenge of dealing with 462 princely
states.
The states were given the choice of accession to either India or Pakistan, with 459 states
smoothly aligning themselves with either nation based on their location and population
composition.
However, complications arose notably in Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Kashmir.
Hyderabad and Junagadh had Muslim rulers governing non-Muslim majority states, which
faced India’s military intervention to secure control.
Meanwhile, in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, despite a Muslim majority, the ruler of the
Dogra Dynasty, Maharaja, delayed announcing accession to Pakistan, causing protest and
violence in Kashmir.
The Maharaja invited the Indian army for assistance, triggering the first Pak-India war in
early 1948.
A ceasefire was achieved with the help of the UN, and a temporary boundary line, the Line
of Control (LoC), was established; however, the Kashmir issue remains unresolved between
India and Pakistan.
Division of assets:
The post-partition of military and financial assets in 1947 was marked by disputes.
Pakistan, in need of funds and military equipment, encountered disagreements with India
over the allocation of resources.
The weapons provided by India were notably worn-out, constituting only 36% of the agreed-
upon military assets. Thus, Pakistan was compelled to establish the Pakistan Ordnance
Factory (POF) at Wah.
Financial allocations became a source of contention.
Despite a relatively smooth division of troops, financial support from India was initially
constrained, providing only 200 million rupees out of the agreed-upon 750 million.
The outbreak of the Kashmir conflict led to withholding the remaining payment. The
intervention of Mahatma Gandhi resulted in an additional disbursement of 500 million
rupees, though the outstanding 50 million rupees were never paid.
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The Canal Water Dispute:
After partition, the Indian government promised not to interfere with the supply of water to
Pakistan, but India and Pakistan were soon in dispute, especially over the waters from the
Bari-Doab canal.
In April 1948, India closed the two main headworks, Madhupur and Firozpur, which
controlled the water of the Ravi and Sutlej rivers, threatening millions of acres of
agricultural land in Punjab.
The Pakistani government called for the matter to be settled by the International Court of
Justice. In May 1948, a temporary agreement was reached when India agreed to allow water
from East Punjab to flow into West Punjab, but only if Pakistan agreed to try to find
alternative water supplies.
The issue was finally solved under the mediation of the World Bank through the Indus
Water Treaty in 1960.
Accommodation of refugees:
After the boundary award was announced in August 1947, numerous people found
themselves living in the wrong country and about over 10 million migrated.
During the migration, people were attacked leading to 1 million getting killed and 20 million
people being made homeless.
The government of Pakistan had little to provide, such as shelter, medical care, and food, to
millions of refugees on urgent grounds. Karachi alone received 2 million refugees.
Solution to the early difficulties
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Political difficulties:
Jinnah, in his efforts to govern the newly formed state, established a Constituent Assembly
under his chairmanship on August 10th, 1947. He urged them to draft a constitution on
August 11th, 1947. As a result, the 1935 Act was adopted as the interim constitution with
several amendments. Additionally, Jinnah formed the first cabinet and appointed Liaqat Ali
Khan as the Prime Minister.
However, Jinnah retained executive powers, which set a wrong precedent that was
subsequently misused by future Governor Generals. Additionally, the constitution-making
process persisted even after his death due to a shortage of genuine politicians.
Economic Problems:
Jinnah inaugurated the State Bank of Pakistan in July 1948, allowing Pakistan to introduce its
own currency. The Government of Pakistan presented its first budget in 1948-49, which was
balanced, reflecting Pakistan's stable economic conditions. Additionally, he announced the
First Industrial Policy of Pakistan.
However, despite his best efforts, there was no significant industrial development until the
1960s.
Social Problems:
The Quaid was opposed to religious intolerance, provincialism, and racialism. He toured all
areas of Pakistan to spread the message of Pakistani nationalism and promote unity.
However, Jinnah could do little about the geographical distance of 1,000 miles between East
and West Pakistan. This geographical distance gradually became a political gulf that led to
the separation of East Pakistan in 1971.
Canal Water dispute:
He negotiated with the Indian government for the Canal Water dispute and persuaded it not
to stop the water altogether, while also referring the matter to the UNO.
However, the conflict was fully resolved years after his death in 1960.
Accommodation of refugees:
To assist the newly arrived refugees, he established a Relief Fund to rehabilitate them as
quickly as possible. He temporarily shifted his headquarters to Lahore to personally
supervise the process of their accommodation.
National security:
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Jinnah inaugurated the headquarters of the three armed forces and negotiated with India
for the release of military and financial assets to bolster Pakistan's defense.
However, due to a shortage of trained personnel, British officers were still overseeing the
operations of the armed forces.
Accession of princely states:
Jinnah aimed to resolve the issue of the three princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh, and
Jammu and Kashmir. However, he faced difficulties as India occupied the first two states by
force, and in April 1948, imposed war on Pakistan over Kashmir.
Liaqat Ali Khan and Khwaja Nazimuddin
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(1948-51)
Objectives Resolution 1949:
The first Constituent Assembly of Pakistan established a Basic Principles Committee
consisting of 25 members to draft the constitution. It presented the Objectives Resolution
on 12th March 1949, recommending the observance of democracy, freedom, equality,
tolerance, and social justice to ensure that both Muslims and non-Muslims could practice
their faith comfortably. It also proposed a bicameral parliament. However, this draft was
sharply criticized by religious scholars (Ulama) and East Pakistan. The draft was presented to
the Constituent Assembly on 28th September 1950.
Constitutional crises of 1950:
In 1950, there were divergent views on the future constitution of Pakistan. It was presented
to the Basic Principles Committee in September 1950, but the majority opposed the
committee's proposals.
In 1950, East Pakistan disagreed with the draft proposals because it felt that its people were
underrepresented, especially considering its large population. It wanted representation in
the bicameral parliament proportional to its population size; however, West Pakistan
insisted on equal representation for both wings. Additionally, it objected to Urdu being
designated as the main language, advocating for the recognition of Bengali. Riots against the
imposition of Urdu erupted in East Pakistan until both Urdu and Bengali were declared
national languages.
There was opposition from local and provincial politicians as they had no input under the
proposed system for approving the power of the head of state and central government, thus
sought to reduce the powers of the President and central government to ensure provincial
autonomy.
Religious groups also objected, arguing that the new constitution wouldn’t sufficiently
emphasize Islam and contending that Pakistan should be governed based on Islamic
principles. Ultimately, Liaquat Ali Khan withdrew the constitutional proposals, and Pakistan
would have to wait another six years to establish its own constitution.
Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act (PRODA) 1949:
The law was passed by the government of Liaquat Ali Khan and Khwaja Nazimuddin in 1949.
It aimed to curb corruption and misuse of power by politicians and civil servants. Complaints
in this regard could be made to the Governor-General or Provincial Governors, who could
order an inquiry by judges. Anyone found guilty could be barred from office for a suitable
period of time. However, it was seen as a device that allowed the ruling elite to remove
those it did not like. It was repealed in September 1954 by the Assembly of Malik Ghulam
Muhammad.
Liaqat-Nehru Pact or the Minorities Pact 1950:
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The agreement was signed to halt the movement of minorities across the Pak-India border.
In April 1950, Pakistani PM Liaqat Ali Khan and Indian PM Jawaharlal Nehru signed this
agreement. It was agreed that each country would provide protection and religious freedom
to the religious minorities living in Pakistan and India so that these minorities would be
encouraged to stay back in their native state. Additionally, the introduction of a visa system
for refugees and restricting free passage for refugees was implemented. However, the
movement of people belonging to religious minorities continued to migrate across the
border as they did not trust any such statements made by the government regarding giving
them protection.
Rawalpindi Conspiracy 1951:
Since partition, many army officers had complained about the presence of the British in
senior positions. By 1951, most army officers were Pakistani; despite this, some army
officers were not happy with the government, and they plotted a coup to overthrow it. In
March 1951, the ‘Rawalpindi Conspiracy Case’ was discovered by General Ayub Khan, and
the conspirators were arrested, tried, and imprisoned. They included senior officers like
Major-General Akbar Khan and 14 other officers, including the famous poet Faiz Ahmed
Faiz. This proved to be a forerunner of the involvement of the army in the politics of
Pakistan.
Ghulam Muhammed
(1951-55)
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Constitutional Crisis of 1954-55
The constitutional crisis in Pakistan between 1954 and 1955 emerged from various factors.
Following the deaths of Muhammad Ali Jinnah in 1948 and Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951, the
nation grappled with the absence of its founding leaders during a critical phase of nation-
building. This loss of leadership, coupled with unresolved issues from partition, contributed
to the challenges of establishing a stable state.
Political instability further deepened the crisis, with successive governments formed and
dissolved. In December 1952, criticism of a revised report by the Basic Principles Committee
led to the dismissal of Prime Minister Nazimuddin's government in 1953, replaced by
Muhammad Ali Bogra. However, Bogra's inexperience exacerbated the turmoil, aggravating
the unresolved issues outlined in the committee's report.
Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad and Prime Minister Bogra clashed over executive
powers, with Ghulam Muhammad seeking to retain authority while Bogra advocated for a
parliamentary system with the Prime Minister as the executive head. Bogra's successful
passage of a significant bill in the Assembly on September 21, 1954, limiting the Governor-
General's powers, prompted Ghulam Muhammad's swift response. Dissolving the
Constituent Assembly and dismissing the Bogra government on September 29, 1954,
Ghulam Muhammad cited a loss of public confidence in Bogra's leadership. Despite legal
challenges, Ghulam Muhammad's decision prevailed, further exacerbating the constitutional
crisis.
Iskander Mirza
(1955-58)
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One Unit Scheme 1955:
On October 14, 1955, Governor-General Iskander Mirza implemented the One Unit Scheme,
which unified all provinces of West Pakistan into a single province, contrasting with the
single province of East Pakistan. Despite East Pakistan's population exceeding that of West
Pakistan by 10 million, both regions were granted equal representation in the National
Assembly. Mirza argued that this consolidation would enhance efficiency and expedite
development. Consequently, the scheme faced opposition from East Pakistan and the
smaller provinces of West Pakistan. Nevertheless, it persisted through the 1956 and 1962
constitutions.
1956 Constitution:
Approved by the 2nd Constituent Assembly elected under the rule of Iskander Mirza, the
constitution was a compromise between the Muslim League and the United Front.
Renaming Pakistan as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Mirza assumed the presidency. The
constitution endowed the president with the authority to appoint the Prime Minister and
dissolve both the National Assembly and the Cabinet under emergency powers. It mandated
that the President be 40 year old and a Muslim and ensured equal representation for East
and West Pakistan in the Assembly under the One Unit Scheme. However, it was abrogated
in October 1958 during the first martial law of Pakistan.
Constitutional crisis in 1958:
Pakistan did not have a good team of skilled politicians after the death of Jinnah and Liaquat
Ali Khan. Due to flawed policies, there was political instability and uncertainty between 1951
and 1958. Several prime ministers were dismissed, and the first Constituent Assembly was
dissolved by Malik Ghulam Muhammad in September 1954. Thus, it reached a stage where
Ayub Khan felt the army should take control until stability had been restored.
Previous governments endured several problems that hampered development, such as food
shortages and drought from 1951-53 and severe flooding in East Pakistan in 1955, which led
to demonstrations of discontent and various riots. As successive governments found
difficulty in dealing with these matters, there were many personnel changes to try to find a
solution. As a result, little constitutional development could take place.
President Iskander Mirza terminated as many as four governments between 1955 and 1958,
as a result of which he lost the support of many leading politicians. Iskander Mirza was
alarmed at a plan by Prime Minister Suhrawardy to unite the political leadership of Bengal
and Punjab against him as he challenged Mirza to hold a vote in the Assembly to test his
popularity. Mirza refused, fearing a defeat, and dismissed him in October 1957.
Changes of Government 1951-58:
Pakistan lacked a competent team of skilled politicians, as evidenced by the absence of a
strong political foundation following the deaths of Jinnah in 1948 and Liaqat Ali Khan in
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1951. The murder of Liaqat Ali Khan exacerbated the political turmoil, leaving the newly
formed state in the hands of inexperienced and self-serving leaders like Malik Ghulam
Muhammad and Iskander Mirza. Their flawed policies resulted in political instability and
uncertainty from 1951 to 1958, marked by the dismissal of several prime ministers and the
dissolution of the first Constituent Assembly by Malik Ghulam Muhammad in September
1954.
The Indian government's actions further exacerbated Pakistan's challenges. By delaying the
release of Pakistan's share of assets and asserting control over Kashmir, India escalated
tensions, culminating in the 1948 war that diverted Pakistan's attention to defense rather
than building a solid political foundation. India's failure to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir as
promised in the 1950s strained relations between the two nations. Additionally, India's
closure of headworks in the Indian Punjab, which supplied water to Pakistan, added to
Pakistan's difficulties throughout the 1950s.
The creation of East Pakistan introduced additional challenges, including discontent over the
capital being located in West Pakistan and the refusal to recognize Bengali as the primary
language. Food shortages resulting from droughts in 1951-53 and severe floods in East
Pakistan in 1955 led to economic downturns and riots, prompting cabinet changes. East
Pakistan's resistance to the One Unit Policy further strained Iskander Mirza's government, as
it sought representation proportional to its 10% larger population compared to West
Pakistan. Consequently, the geographical distance between East and West Pakistan widened
into a political gulf.
Martial Law 1958:
Political instability escalated from 1955 to 1958, exacerbated by the 1956 Constitution
granting the President the authority to appoint and dismiss the Prime Minister. President
Iskander Mirza terminated as many as four governments between 1955 and 1958 and
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dismissed several prime ministers, as a result of which he began to lose popularity and
power. PM Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy united the major political leaders of Punjab and
Bengal against him and challenged Mirza to hold a vote in the Assembly to test his
popularity. Fearing defeat, Mirza declared martial law on October 7, 1958, appointing
General Ayub Khan as the Chief Martial Law Administrator.
Ayub Khan was subsequently appointed Prime Minister by Mirza on October 24, 1958.
Despite having previously declined an offer from Ghulam Muhammad to assume executive
leadership, now he could see the nominal powers of Mirza who was holding his post
forcefully. Therefore, Ayub decided to assume power himself as a way to stabilize the
country. He compelled Mirza to resign and took over as the executive head of state on
October 27, 1958, exiling Mirza to London.
The political divide between East and West Pakistan was widening as East Pakistan's
resistance to the One Unit Policy intensified, driven by its desire for proportionate
representation due to its population being 10% larger than that of West Pakistan. East
Pakistan's resentment towards West Pakistan's dominance in political affairs was further
fueled by its economic backwardness. Food shortages and severe floods in East Pakistan in
1955 exacerbated economic hardships, leading to riots. Martial law was imposed to manage
the aftermath of the floods and famine in East Pakistan.
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