A

PROJECT REPORT
ON

MILLETS: ESSETINAL NUTRIENTS FOR OPTIMAL HEALTH

Subject-Practice School Paper code: BP706PS

Submitted By:
Name: Pallavi Verma
Roll No.: 2220781004
[Link]. 7thsemester
Under Supervision of: Submitted To:
Mrs. Jainju Yadav Prof. (Dr.) Rajiv Gupta
Asst. Professor Principal & Dean,
School of Pharmacy School of Pharmacy

School of Pharmacy
Babu Banarasi Das University, Lucknow
Academic Session: 2024-25
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my profound gratitude to my supervisor Mrs. JAINJU YADAV Assist. Prof. who give me the
golden Opportunity to do this wonderful project on topic “MILLETS: ESSENTIAL NUTRITIENTS FOR
OPTIMAL HEALTH” which helped me in doing a lot of research and I came to know so many new things.

I am very thankful to Lord Almighty from the bottom of my heart for the countless blessings showered on
me while doing the project.

I am extremely grateful to my parents & my friends who gave me valuable suggestions & time for
completion of my project ,there cooperation and healthy criticism came handy & useful with them.

At last,I end up by thanking all who helped me in finalizing the project within the limited time frame.

Pallavi Verma

B. Pharma VIIth Semester

Date:

Place:Lucknow
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that PALLAVI VERMA having Roll No. 2220781004 D/o/ Mr. VIJAY KUMAR
VERMA is a bonafide student of [Link]. VIITH Semester /4th Year, in School Of Pharmacy
(Academic Session 2023-2024) and has successfully completed his/her Pharmacy Practice (BP706PS)
entitled MILLETS: ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS FOR OPTIMAL HEALTH submitted as part of partial
requirement for the award of [Link]. degree. Under my supervision/ guidance.

Date- Name & Designation of Supervisor

Mrs. Jainju Yadav

Asst. Professor,

School of Pharmacy

Place-Lucknow Signature-…………………
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project entitled “MILLETS: ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS FOR OPTIMAL
HEALTH” submitted to School of Pharmacy, Babu Banarasi Das University, Lucknow in partial
fulfillment of requirement of [Link] during session 2024-2025 is carried out by me under the supervision
and able guidance of Mrs. JAINJU YADAV Assistant Professor, SCHOOL OF PHARMACY .

Signature: Pallavi Verma

Date:
Place: Lucknow
 INDEX

[Link]. DESCRIPTION PAGE

NO.
1 INTRODUCTION 1-2

2 TYPES OF MILLETS 2

2.1 Major Millets 3

i. Sorghum Millets 3

ii. Finger Millets 4-5

iii. Pearl Millets 5-6

2.2 Minor Millets 7

i. Kodo Millets 7-8

ii. Browntop Millets 8-9

iii. Foxtail Millets 10-11

iv. Proso Millets 11-12

v. Little Millets 13-14

vi. Barnyard Millets 15-16

3 NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF MILLETS 17

Macronutrient content
3.1 17-19

Micronutrient content
3.2 19-20
3.3 Dietary Fiber content 20-21

3.4 Antioxidants and Phytochemicals 21

4 HEALTH BENEFITS OF MILLETS 22

Effects of Millets on Cardiovascular Disease

4.1 22-23

Effects of Millets on Diabetes Mellitus

4.2 23-24

4.3 Effects of Millets on Gastrointestinal Disorder 25-26

4.4 Effects of Millets on Cancer 26-27

4.5 Effects of Millets on thyroid gland and Obesity 27

4.6 Effects of Millets on Colon Health 27-28

COMPARISON OF MILLETS WITH OTHER

5 GRAINS 28-29

5.1 Overview of Millets as gluten-free grains 29

Benefits for individual with celiac disease and gluten

5.2 30
intolerance

6 INCORPORATION OF MILLETS INTO DIET 30

6.1 Effect of processing techniques on millet nutrient composition 30-31

6.2 Benefits of millets for infants, children, and pregnant women 32

6.3 Traditional Indian Foods from Millets 33

 MILLETS: ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS FOR OPTIMAL HEALTH

1. INTRODUCTION

Millets are type of cereal in the grass family Poaceae belonging to sub- family Panicoideae. Millets
are one of the earliest cultivated crops, a common term that includes a few grains of seeds. The
word “millet’’ originates from French word “mill,’’ meaning “thousand,’’ as a single handful of
millet can contain up to a thousand grains. [1]

The majority of millets are three to five times more nutritious than most cereals (rice, Oryza sativa;
wheat, Triticum aestivum; maize, Zea mays) in terms of vitamins, fiber, proteins, and minerals
(calcium and iron) and are gluten-free; hence, they are known as “superfoods”. [2] The nutri-rich
millets are the viable solution to reduce the rising incidences of malnutrition and metabolic
disorders and can enhance the nutrition and food security of the country. Millets are a highly
nutritious crop and contain considerable amounts of vitamins and minerals. Millets are a good
source of energy, dietary fiber, slowly digestible starch, and resistant starch, and thus provide
sustained release of glucose and thereby satiety. [3] Compared to cereals, millets are a good source
of protein- and sulphur-containing amino acids (methionine and cysteine) and have a better fatty
acid profile . However, millets contain a limited amount of lysine and tryptophan, which varies with
the cultivar. Millets are rich in vitamin E and vitamin B and in minerals such as calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, potassium, and iron [4].

Reference:
1) Susmitha, P., Kapoor, M., Sanjay, M., Sundharan, M., Keerthana, D., Naimuddin, S. K.,
... & Dhanalakshmi, T. (2024). Unlocking Nutritional Potential: Multi-OMICS Strategies
for Enhancing Millet Nutritional Traits. Journal of Advances in Biology &
Biotechnology, 27(6), 131-149
2) Ashoka, P., Gangaiah, B., & Sunitha, N. (2020). Millets-foods of twenty first
century. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci, 9, 2404-2410.
3) Guiné, R. P., Barroca, M. J., Coldea, T. E., Bartkiene, E., & Anjos, O. (2021). Apple
fermented products: An overview of technology, properties and health
effects. Processes, 9(2), 223.
4) Birania, S., Rohilla, P., Kumar, R., & Kumar, N. (2020). Post harvest processing of
millets: A review on value added products. International Journal of Chemical
Studies, 8(1), 1824-1829.
1
The abundant nutrients of millets provide multiple benefits such as reducing the incidence of cancer
obesity and diabetes , cardiovascular diseases , gastrointestinal problems , migraine, and asthma. [5]

Millet foods and products for health, prevention and therapy are known from ancient times, yet are
to be expanded worldwide. In this review, we enumerate the different medicinal and therapeutic
properties of millets in preventing and curing the lifestyle disorders, specific diseases and ailments
along with the history of millets in traditional medicine.

Consumption of millets helps manage hyperglycemia due to their lente carbohydrate and high
dietary fiber content, thus making millets a perfect food for the diabetic populace. [6] Therefore,
millets play an important role in the modern diet as a potential source of essential nutrients,
especially in underdeveloped and developing countries . [7]

2. TYPES OF MILLETS

2.1 Major Millets

i. Sorghum millets
ii. Finger millets
iii. Pearl millets
2.2 Minor Millets
i. Kodo millets
ii. Browntop millets
iii. Foxtail millets
iv. Proso millets
v. Little millets
vi. Barnyard millets

Reference:
5) Yang, R., Shan, S., Zhang, C., Shi, J., Li, H., & Li, Z. (2020). Inhibitory effects of bound
polyphenol from foxtail millet bran on colitis-associated carcinogenesis by the restoration of
gut microbiota in a mice model. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 68(11), 3506-
3517.
6) Gowda, N. N., Taj, F., Subramanya, S., & Ranganna, B. (2020). Development a table top
centrifugal dehuller for small millets. AMA Agric. Mech. Asia Africa Latin Am, 51, 72-78.
7) Anbukkani, P., Balaji, S. J., & Nithyashree, M. L. (2017). Production and consumption of
minor millets in India-A structural break analysis. Annals of Agricultural Research, 38(4).

2
2.1 Major Millets
i. Sorghum Millets

Figure 1: Sorghum Millet ( Jowar) [8]

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) grain holds a significant historical significance as one of the oldest cereal
crops. It is also called as Great millet, Sorghum has comparative nutritional value to other cereals in
terms of composition protein, fat, carbohydrates, and non-starch polysaccharides, as well as bioactive
components like vitamin B and fat-soluble vitamins (D, E, and K), micronutrients, macronutrients,
and non-nutrients like carotenoids and polyphenols. Whole grains, including sorghum, are valuable
sources of magnesium, iron, zinc, and copper. [9] Grain sorghum is an excellent rich source of a
diverse array of phytochemicals that have been shown to possess multiple health benefits, including
protection against cellular oxidation, inflammation, cancer, atherosclerosis, and type 2 diabetes. [10]

Reference:

8) Kaur, H., Oberoi, H. K., Ganapathy, K. N., & Bhardwaj, R. (2023). Effect of popping and
malting processing techniques on physiochemical, antinutrients and antioxidant properties of
millets flour. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 60(9), 2370-2384.
9) Eduru, A., Kamboj, A., Reddy, P. M., & Pal, B. (2021). Nutritional and health benefits of
millets, present status and future prospects: A review. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 10(5),
859-868.
10) Althwab, S., Carr, T. P., Weller, C. L., Dweikat, I. M., & Schlegel, V. (2015). Advances in
grain sor ghum and its co-products as a human health promoting dietary system. Food
Research International, 77, 349-359.

3
ii. Finger Millet

Figure 2: Finger Millet (Ragi) [11]

Finger millet (Eleusinecoracana) is widely referred to as “nutritious millet” since grains are
nutritionally better than many cereal,The millet seed is a component that may be eaten and is
particularly high in calcium as well as phytochemicals, dietary fibers, and polyphenols. finger millet
has a total of 72 to 79.5 percent carbohydrates. Among the carbs, starch makes up about 59.4 to 70.2
percent of the total. [12] It contains a five-layer seed coat that is rich in nutritional fiber and
antioxidants. Finger millet is a good source of carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fiber, and minerals,
making it an essential staple food for people from low socioeconomic groups and those with
metabolic disorders such as diabetes and obesity. It is significant due to its superior capacity for
storage and nutritional value. Due to their high fiber content, millets have a hypoglycemic effect.
Reduced postprandial glucose is caused by delayed digestion and absorption of complex carbs and
fiber. [13]

Reference.
11) Yadav, S., Mishra, S., & Pradhan, R. C. (2021). Ultrasound-assisted hydration of finger
millet (Eleusine Coracana) and its effects on starch isolates and
antinutrients. Ultrasonics sonochemistry, 73, 105542.
12) Yousaf, L., Hou, D., Liaqat, H., & Shen, Q. (2021). Millet: A review of its nutritional
. and functional changes during processing. Food Research International, 142, 110197.
13) Thagunna, B., Rimal, A., Kaur, J., Dhakal, Y., & Paudel, B. (2022). Finger millet: a
powerhouse of nutrients its amino acid, micronutrient profile, bioactive compounds,
health benefits, and value-added products. J Res Agri Animal Sci, 9, 36-44.

4
 Benefits of Finger millets has lowered the risk of heart disease, diabetes, improves the digestive
system, lowers the risk of cancer, detoxifies the body, boosts immunity in the respiratory system,
increases energy, and strengthens the neural and muscular systems. It prevents anti-ageing, maintains
blood pressure levels, protects from disease, improves in hemoglobin status in children etc. It also
protects against a number of degenerative diseases, including metabolic syndrome and Parkinson's
disease. [14]

iii. Pearl Millet

Figure 3: Pearl Millet (Bajra) [15]

Reference:

14) Dhanushkodi, V., Hemavathy, A. T., Shenbagavalli, S., Sangeetha, S., Anitha, R., &
UmaMaheshwari, T. (2023). A review on nutritional properties and health benefits of finger
millet. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science, 35(18), 753-761.
15) Pei, J., Umapathy, V. R., Vengadassalapathy, S., Hussain, S. F. J., Rajagopal, P., Jayaraman,
S., ... & Gopinath, K. (2022). A review of the potential consequences of pearl millet
(Pennisetum glaucum) for diabetes mellitus and other biomedical
applications. Nutrients, 14(14), 2932.

5
 Pearl millet (Pennisstum glaucum) is multipurpose cereal crop belongs to the Poaceae family. It is
commonly called Bajra.

Pearl millet is a good source of energy, protein, vitamins, dietary fibers and minerals. It is high in fat
and better fat digestibility than other cereals. This is also high in unsaturated fatty acids with higher
content of nutritionally important n-3 fatty acid. [16]

Among all the millets, pearl millet has highest content of macronutrients and significantly rich
in resistant starch, soluble and insoluble dietary fibers. Pearl millet has a deep root system so it
extracts soil nutrients and holds higher nutritional value than the other cereal crops such as wheat,
rice, maize and sorghum. [17]

Pearl millet have therapeutic effects in some health problems like anaemia, constipation, diarrhoea,
diabetes, CVD, celiac diseases, cancer and it is referred to as anti-inflammatory and it also acts as a
probiotic food. Several studies revealed that fortification of diet with food components rich in
phenolic acids has been shown to impart antimutagenic, antiglycemic and antioxidative properties.
[18]

Pearl millet is high in omega-3 fatty acids and also important nutritional fatty acids such as alpha-
linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid. It also contains other micronutrients
such as Fe, Zn, copper (Cu), K, Mg, P, manganese (Mn), and B-vitamins. [19]

Reference:

16) Zou, Q., Qu, K., Luo, Y., Yin, D., Ju, Y., & Tang, H. (2018). Predicting diabetes mellitus with
machine learning techniques. Frontiers in genetics, 9, 515.
17) Satankar, M., Kumar, U., Patil, A. K., & Kautkar, S. (2020). Pearl millet: A fundamental
review on underutilized source of nutrition. Multilogic Sci, 10, 1081-1084.
18) Radhai Sri, S., & Sindhu, S. (2020). Antioxidant Properties of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum
glaucum). International Journal of Multidisciplinary, 3(6), 136-139.
19) Zhang, L., Liu, R., & Niu, W. (2014). Phytochemical and antiproliferative activity of proso
millet. PloS one, 9(8), e104058.

6
2.2 Minor Millets
i. Kodo Millet

Figure 4: Kodo Millet (Kodra) [20]

Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) are unique among the cereals because of their richness in
calcium, dietary fibre, polyphenols and protein . Millets are good sources of magnesium and
phosphorus. Kodo millet is rich in vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals containing sulfur, so it
is called "nutria-cereals It is also rich in essential amino acids, like lysine, threonine, valine,
sulphur containing amino acids. [21]

Kodo millets are rich in vitamin B3, vitamin B6 and folic acid as well as minerals such as calcium
potassium, magnesium and zinc. Millets grains are good sources of polyphenols. The presence of
dietary fiber in seed coat of millet grains are beneficial tohuman health which affects several
metabolic and digestive processes, such as effects on glucose absorption and cholesterol
levels . [22]

Reference:

20) Deepika, C., Hariprasanna, K., Das, I. K., Jacob, J., Ronanki, S., Ratnavathi, C. V., ... &
Tonapi, V. A. (2022). ‘Kodo poisoning’: cause, science and management. Journal of food
science and technology, 1-10.
21) Hariprasanna, K. (2017). Millets and Sorghum: Biology and Genetic Improvement. First
published, 6, 112-149.
22) Bunkar, D. S., Goyal, S. K., Meena, K. K., & Kamalvanshi, V. (2021). Nutritional, functional
role of kodo millet and its processing: a review. International Journal of Current
Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 10(01), 1972-1985.
7
 It is rich in phytochemicals and antioxidants which helps in preventing different lifestyle related
diseases. Kodo millet also helps in reducing the joints and knee pain and helps in regularizing the
menstruation in woman. [23]

ii. Browntop Millet

Figure 5: Browntop Millet (Hari kangni ) [24]

Browntop Millet ( Brachiaria ramosa ) are regarded as nutri-cereals, known to be packed with
Proteins, Fatty acids, Calcium, Potassium, Zinc, Magnesium and Vitamin B complexes. The fibre
content of the Brown top millet surpasses the fibre composition of all other millets available. They
too contain flavonoids like tannins, flavonoids and quinones. The external processes like germination,
fermentation and roasting these millets increase the nutritional content and impose positive health
benefits. [25]
Reference:

23) Ambati, K., & Sucharitha, K. V. (2019). Millets-review on nutritional profiles and health
benefits. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research, 10(7), 33943-33948.
24) Sujata, B., Prabhu, C. G., Nandini, C., & Prabhakar, T. V. (2018). Browntop millet-a
review. Agric Res Technol, 14(5), 555937.
25) Sravani, M., Kuna, A., Devi, S.S., Rao, K.S. and Gayatri, B., 2020. Effect of processing on
the Physico-chemical properties of Browntop millet (Brachiaria ramosa). Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 9(5), pp.1480-1483.

8
 The seeds of the plant contain essential micronutrients like calcium, iron,zinc, phosphorus,
magnesium, manganese and copper. Browntop millet (BTM) is a natural ingredient which is rich in
resistant starch. [26]

The flavonoids present in BTM have an active role in quenching the free radical formation to prevent
or inhibit the cellular damage. This millet is known to reduce the oxidative damage caused by free
radicals which prevents the DNA, protein and lipid membrane damage. [27]

Browntop millet is also rich in fiber, fiber helps to detoxify the body by removing the waste from the
intestine. BTM can help in the prevention and management of several non-communicable or lifestyle
related diseases such as constipation, diverticulosis, dyslipidemia, metabolic syndrome. [28]

BTM is gluten free and an excellent choice for people suffering from celiac disease. They are natural
antioxidant that protect the phospholipid membrane around heart, nerves, muscles, and red blood
cells from the attack of free radicals and thus prevent carcinogenesis, and aging. [29]

Reference:
26) Hemamalini, C., Sam, S., & Patro, T. S. S. K. (2021). Awareness and consumption of small
millets. Pharma Innov J, 10, 34-37.
27) Shubhangi Srivastav, Dr. Ekta Singh Chauhan (2024). Browntop Millet (Brachiaria ramosa):
An Overview of the Underutilized Miraculous Multifunctional Millet. International journal of
Health Science And Research,ijhsr.2249-9571.
28) Roopa, O. M., Jamuna, K. V., Brunda, S. M., & Darshan, G. B. (2016). Development and
sensory evaluation of ready-To-Cook idli mix from browntop millet (Panicum
ramosa). International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology, 5(2), 816-821.
29) Singh, S., Suri, S., & Singh, R. (2022). Potential and unrealized future possibilities of browntop
millet in the food sector. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 974126.

9
iii. Foxtail Millet

Figure 6: Foxtail Millet ( Kangni) [30]

Foxtail millet, scientifically known as Setariaitalica, has garnered significant recognition as a
prominent millet globally, The main nutritional components of foxtail millet contain starch, protein,
and fat . Foxtail millet contains significant levels of protein, fiber, mineral, and phytochemicals. Anti-
nutrients such as phytic acid and tannin present in this millet can be reduced to negligible levels by
using suitable processing methods. The millet is also reported to possess hypolipidemic, low-
glycemic index, and antioxidant characteristics. [31] Foxtail millet is a highly nutritious, gluten-free,
and non-acid-forming food which is easy to digest. Foxtail millet contains crude fiber, which aids
digestion and helps to promote bowel movement. foxtail millet has several health advantages, such
as cancer and cardiovascular disease prevention, reducing heart attack risk, helping in weight loss,
and reducing the level of lipids in the blood . [32]

Reference:

30) Nagaraju, M., Ramachandra, M., Nagarathna, S. B., Kalpana, B., Palanimuthu, V., &
Darshan, M. B. (2020). Physical properties of an underutilized crop: Browntop millet
(Urochloa ramose). International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(6), 192-197.
31) Sharma, N., & Niranjan, K. (2018). Foxtail millet: Properties, processing, health benefits,
and uses. Food reviews international, 34(4), 329-363.
32) Abedin, M. J., Abdullah, A. T. M., Satter, M. A., & Farzana, T. (2022). Physical, functional,
nutritional and antioxidant properties of foxtail millet in Bangladesh. Heliyon, 8(10).

10
 Bioactive chemicals (phenolic compounds, carotenoids, tocopherols) found in foxtail millet's seed
coat. They function as antioxidants, anticarcinogens, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive and
antihyperglycemic agents against life threatening disorders such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases,
diabetes, and high blood pressure. [33]

iv. Proso Millet

Figure 7: Proso Millet ( Barri) [34]

Reference:

33) Kalsi, R., & Bhasin, J. K. (2023). Nutritional exploration of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) in
addressing food security and its utilization trends in food system. eFood, 4(5), e111.
33) Das, S., Khound, R., Santra, M., & Santra, D. K. (2019). Beyond bird feed: Proso millet for
human health and environment. Agriculture, 9(3), 64.

11
Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) are a major source of energy and protein and have high
nutritive value, comparable to major cereals such as wheat, rice, and maize. Proso Millets are
unique among the cereals because of their high calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, phosphorous,
zinc, dietary fiber, polyphenols, and protein content. [35]

The dietary protein of proso millet plays an important role in cholesterol metabolism because the
protein increases high density lipoprotein , cholesterol levels. [36]

Millets are unique among the cereals because of their high calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium,
phosphorous, zinc, dietary fiber, polyphenols, and protein content. They contain a high amount of
lecithin, which provides excellent support for nervous system health by helping to restore nerve cell
function, regenerate myelin fiber, and intensify brain cell metabolism. Millets are also rich in
micronutrients such as niacin, B-complex vitamins, Vitamin B6, and folic acid. [37]

It prevent the risk of liver injury also it elevates the HDL 2 fractions. Fibre and resistant starch that
is present in the proso acts as a probiotic and beneficial in many ways and can bring about an effective
reduction in the levels of glucose and insulin with up-regulated expression of adiponectin and
downregulating effect of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and abetting type 2 diabetes, obesity, and
cardiovascular diseas . [38]

Reference:

35) Xiang, J., Yuan, Y., Du, L., Zhang, Y., Li, C., & Beta, T. (2023). Modification on phenolic
profiles and enhancement of antioxidant activity of proso millets during germination. Food
Chemistry: X, 18, 100628.
36) Habiyaremye, C., Matanguihan, J. B., D’Alpoim Guedes, J., Ganjyal, G. M., Whiteman, M.
R., Kidwell, K. K., & Murphy, K. M. (2017). Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and its
potential for cultivation in the Pacific Northwest, US: a review. Frontiers in plant science, 7,
1961.
37) Singh, A., Kumar, M., & Shamim, M. (2020). Importance of minor millets (Nutri Cereals)
for nutrition purpose in present scenario. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(1),
3109-3113.
38) Bora, P., Das, P., Mohan, P., & Barthakur, A. (2018). Evaluation of hypolipidemic property
of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) in high fat diet induced hyperlipidemia in rats. J
Entomol Zool Stud, 6(3), 691-695.

12
v. Little Millets

Figure 8: Little Millet (Kutki) [39]

Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) holds significant importance as a minor cereal in tropical regions,
Little millet is comparable with other cereals, such as rice and wheat as a source of protein, fat,
carbohydrates and crude fibre, apart from minerals and vitamins. It also contains phytochemicals,
such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins and phytate. [40]

Reference:

39) Desai, H., Hamid, R., Ghorbanzadeh, Z., Bhut, N., Padhiyar, S. M., Kheni, J., & Tomar, R. S.
(2021). Genic microsatellite marker characterization and development in little millet (Panicum
sumatrense) using transcriptome sequencing. Scientific reports, 11(1), 20620.
40) Sharma, P., et al., "Nutritional Composition and Health Benefits of Little Millet (Panicum
sumatrense)," Journal of Cereal Science, Vol. 39, No. 2, 2021, pp. 100-105.

13
Phenolic acids are known to act as antioxidants by donating hydrogen or electrons. In addition, their
stable radical intermediates prevent the oxidation of various food ingredients, particularly fatty acids
and oils. Polyphenols are well known to be important nutraceuticals having antioxidant
properties.[41]

The antioxidant activity of native and processed little millet polyphenols was determined in terms of
the DPPH reduction capacity as well as the reducing power of ferrous to ferric iron state. [42]

The present study showed that roasting significantly improved the nutraceutical properties of little
millet by increasing its content in phenolic compounds and also its antioxidant activities. Fortification
of diet with food components rich in phenolic acids has been shown to impart antimutagenic,
antiglycemic and antioxidative properties. [43]

Little millet is used for patients with diabetic and cardiovascular disorders to control or reduced the
blood glucose response. In millet-based foods, the additive and synergistic effects of these bioactive
nutraceuticals can give many health benefits. [44]

Reference:

41) Kumar, A., Tomer, V., Kaur, A., Kumar, V., & Gupta, K. (2018). Millets: a solution to agrarian
and nutritional challenges. Agriculture & food security, 7(1), 1-15.
42) Babele, P. K., Kudapa, H., Singh, Y., Varshney, R. K., & Kumar, A. (2022). Mainstreaming
orphan millets for advancing climate smart agriculture to secure nutrition and health. Frontiers
in Plant Science, 13, 902536.
43) Pudake, R. N., Solanke, A. U., Sevanthi, A. M., & Rajendrakumar, P. (Eds.). (2022). Omics of
Climate Resilient Small Millets. Springer Nature Singapore.
44) Pratiksha A. Dhokane1, Ram S. Gawande, Gaurav S. Tangade, Pranali S. Sakhalkar, Kamlesh
A. Kadam, [Link]. (2024) Nutritional & Health Benefits of Millets International
Journal of Creative research thoughts (IJCRT) ISSN : 2320-2882.

14
 vi. Barnyard Millet

Figure 9: Barnyard Millet (Sanwa) [45]

Barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) is the oldest domesticated small millet. Nutritionally, it
is a decent source of protein, which is profoundly absorbable and is an amazing source of dietary
fibre. Carbohydrate present in barnyard millet is low and slowly digestible.[46]

Barnyard millet is nutritionally rich, offering a range of essential nutrients including carbohydrates,
proteins, dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals. It is also gluten-free, making it suitable for individuals
with gluten intolerance. [47]

Reference:

45) Renganathan, V. G., Vanniarajan, C., Karthikeyan, A., & Ramalingam, J. (2020). Barnyard millet
for food and nutritional security: Current status and future research direction. Frontiers in
genetics, 11, 500.
46) Kaur, H., & Sharma, S. (2020). An overview of Barnyard millet (Echinochloa
frumentacea). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 9(4), 819-822.
47) Rao, V. and Gupta, M., "Nutritional Composition and Functional Properties of Barnyard Millet,"
International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2020, pp. 88-90.

15
 Barnyard millet is primarily composed of carbohydrates, making it a good source of energy. It
contains complex carbohydrates, including starch, which provide sustained energy release and
contribute to satiety. Barnyard millet is a good source of dietary fiber, which includes both soluble
and insoluble fiber. Barnyard millet contains various phytochemicals, including phenolic compounds,
flavonoids, and tannins, which possess antioxidant properties. [48]

Barnyard millet contains a range of vitamins, including B-complex vitamins such as thiamine (B1),
riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), and folate (B9). Barnyard millet is a good source of minerals such as
iron, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and zinc. [49]

Consumption of barnyard millet can possess various health benefits against diabetes, cardiovascular
diseases, obesity, skin problems, cancer and celiac disease. The flour of barnyard millet is gluten-free
and can be incorporated into the diet of celiac and diabetic patients. [50]

Similarly, alkaloids, steroids, carbohydrates, glycosides, tannins, phenols, and flavonoids present in
barnyard millet have various ethno-medical properties like being antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-
inflammatory, antimicrobial, having a wound healing capacity, biliousness, and alleviating
constipation-associated diseases. [51]

Reference:

48) Singh, R. B., Khan, S., Chauhan, A. K., Singh, M., Jaglan, P., Yadav, P., ... & Juneja, L. R. (2019).
Millets as functional food, a gift from Asia to Western World. In The role of functional food
security in global health (pp. 457-468). Academic Press.
49) Chandrkar, L., Sahu, T., & Shahi, S. (2024 ) A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF BARNYARD
MILLET. African journal of biological sciences, Kalinga University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh,
India, 492101 ISSN:2663-2187
50) Bhatt, D., Rasane, P., Singh, J., Kaur, S., Fairos, M., Kaur, J., ... & Sharma, N. (2023). Nutritional
advantages of barnyard millet and opportunities for its processing as value-added foods. Journal
of Food Science and Technology, 60(11), 2748-2760.
51) Sayani, R., & Chatterjee, A. (2017). Nutritional and biological importance of the weed
Echinochloa colona: a review. Int. J. of Food Sci. Biotechnol, 2, 31-37.

16
 3. NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF MILLETS

3.1 Macronutrient content:

Millets exhibit variations in their macronutrient composition. It consists of carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats. Here is a detailed description of the macronutrient profile of millets in Table 1 . The
carbohydrate content in millets varies among different varieties but typically ranges between 60%
and 75% of their dry weight. Millets are predominantly rich in complex carbohydrates, including
starches and dietary fiber. [52]

Starch is the primary carbohydrate component in millets. It provides a slow-release source of energy
and contributes to the satiety factor. The starch content in millets can vary from approximately 60%
to 7% of the carbohydrate content. Millets are an excellent source of dietary fiber, which plays a vital
role in digestive health, blood sugar regulation, and weight management. [53]

The fiber content in millets ranges from about 2% to 14% of their dry weight, depending on the
specific variety. Millets contain both soluble and insoluble fiber, contributing to the overall health
benefits associated with their consumption. Millets are notable for their relatively high protein content
compared to other cereal grains. [54]

Reference:

52) Mondal, D., Awana, M., Aggarwal, S., Das, D., Thomas, B., Singh, S. P., ... & Krishnan, V. (2022).
Microstructure, matrix interactions, and molecular structure are the key determinants of inherent
glycemic potential in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). Food Hydrocolloids, 127, 107481.
53) Shankaramurthy, K. N., & Somannavar, M. S. (2019). Moisture, carbohydrate, protein, fat,
calcium, and zinc content in finger, foxtail, pearl, and proso millets. Indian Journal of Health
Sciences and Biomedical Research kleu, 12(3), 228-232.
54) Aruna, C., Visarada, K. B. R. S., Bhat, B. V., & Tonapi, V. A. (Eds.). (2018). Breeding sorghum
for diverse end uses. Woodhead Publishing.

17
 The protein content of millets ranges from approximately 8% to 20% of their dry weight, depending
on the variety. The protein in millets is considered good quality, containing a balanced amino acid
profile. Millets are particularly rich in essential amino acids like lysine and tryptophan, which may
be limited in some other cereal grains.[55]

Millets generally have a low-fat content compared to other grains, making them a favorable option
for individuals aiming to reduce their fat intake. The fat content in millets typically ranges from 1%
to 5% of their dry weight. Millets contain predominantly unsaturated fats, including monounsaturated
and polyunsaturated fats, which are considered healthier fats beneficial for heart health. [56]

It is important to note that the specific macronutrient composition of millets can vary depending on
factors such as the particular millet variety, growing conditions, and processing methods. [57]

Different types of millets, such as pearl millet, finger millet, foxtail millet, and others, may have
slightly different macronutrient profiles given in Table 1 Overall, millets provide an excellent source
of carbohydrates for energy, offer a moderate amount of high-quality protein, and contain relatively
low amounts of fats. Their well-balanced macronutrient profile and other nutritional components
contribute to their reputation as a nutritious and healthy food source. [58]

Reference:

55) Goudar, G., Manne, M., Sathisha, G. J., Sharma, P., Mokalla, T. R., Kumar, S. B., &
Ziouzenkova, O. (2023). Phenolic, nutritional and molecular interaction study among different
millet varieties. Food Chemistry Advances, 2, 100150.
56) Guo, H., Wu, H., Sajid, A., & Li, Z. (2022). Whole grain cereals: The potential roles of functional
components in human health. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62(30), 8388-
8402.
57) Samtiya, M., Soni, K., Chawla, S., Poonia, A., Sehgal, S., & Dhewa, T. (2021). Key anti-nutrients
of millet and their reduction strategies: An overview. Acta Scientific NUTRITIONAL HEALTH
(ISSN: 2582-1423), 5(12).
58) Johnson, J., & Wallace, T. C. (Eds.). (2019). Whole grains and their bioactives: Composition and
health. John Wiley & Sons.

18
 Table 1: Macronutrient Composition of Different Millet Varieties [59]

Millet Variety Carbohydrate (g) Proteins (g) Fats (g)

Pearl Millet 65 11 4

Finger Millet 72 7 1.5

Sorghum 75 10 3

Foxtail Millet 63 8 3

Proso Millet 71 11 4

3.2 Micronutrient Content:

The minerals and vitamins are considered as the micronutrients due to their small requirements for
human body. They contain various vitamins, including B vitamins such as niacin, riboflavin, and
thiamin, which play critical roles in metabolism and overall health. [60]

Minerals like iron, calcium and magnesium play important roles in human body starting from bone
formation, clotting of blood, normalizing heartbeat, enhancing immunity and helping nervous system
to work properly. [61]

Reference:

59) Chandrakar, L., & Shahi, S. (2023). Millets and their Nutritional Value: A Review. Journal of
Advanced Zoology, 44, 1690-1697.
60) Tharifkhan, S. A., Perumal, A. B., Elumalai, A., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C.
(2021). Improvement of nutrient bioavailability in millets: Emphasis on the application of
enzymes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 101(12), 4869-4878.
61) Schönfeldt, H. C., Pretorius, B., & Hall, N. (2016). Bioavailability of nutrients. Caballero, B,
P Finglas and F Toldrá, F (eds) The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 1, 401-406.

19
 Table 2: Micronutrient Content in Millets (per 100g) [62]

Pearl Finger Foxtail Proso

Micronutrient Sorghum
Millet Millet Millet Millet
Iron (mg) 4.72 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.6

Calcium (mg) 38 344 26 31 12

Magnesium(mg) 114 287 147 79 112

Zinc (mg) 2.77 2.7 1.48 2.32 1.12

Vitamin A(IU) 56 0 0 0 0
Vitamin C (mg) 0 2 0 1.7 0.6

Thiamin (mg) 0.42 0.33 0.28 0.38 0.35

Riboflavin (mg) 0.19 0.29 0.04 0.11 0.05

Niacin (mg) 1.69 1.2 0.6 1.7 1.3

3.3 Dietary Fiber content

Millets are a great source of dietary fiber, with levels ranging from 8% to 12% of their total
composition. This high fiber content contributes to their health-promoting properties, aiding in
digestion, and helping to maintain healthy cholesterol levels. [63]

Reference:

62) Yamuna, N., Kolekar, D. V., & Rakesh, N. (2024). Trend and Instability Analysis of Area,
Production, Productivity of Millets in India. Journal of Scientific Research and
Reports, 30(8), 686-699
63) Vetriventhan, M., & Upadhyaya, H. D. (2018). Diversity and trait-specific sources for
productivity and nutritional traits in the global proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)
germplasm collection. The Crop Journal, 6(5), 451-463.

20
 Table 3: Dietary Fiber Content in Various Millet Types [64]

Millet variety Dietary Fiber(g)

Pearl Millet 8.3
Finger Millet 3.6
Sorghum 6.7

Foxtail Millet 8.5

Proso Millet 8.4

3.4 Antioxidants and Phytochemicals:

Millets also contain a variety of antioxidants and phytochemicals that contribute to their health
benefits. These compounds, such as phenolic acids and flavonoids, have been shown to possess strong
antioxidant properties, helping to combat oxidative stress and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. [65]

Table 4: Antioxidant Compounds Found in Millets [66]

Antioxidant Compound Concentration (mg/100)

Phenolic acids 150

Flavonoids 25

Tannins 12

Quercetin 3.5

Catechin 2

Reference:

64) Durairaj, M., Gurumurthy, G., Nachimuthu, V., Muniappan, K., & Balasubramanian, S. (2019).
Dehulled small millets: The promising nutricereals for improving the nutrition of children. Maternal &
child nutrition, 15, e12791.
65) Gowda, N. N., Siliveru, K., Prasad, P. V., Bhatt, Y., Netravati, B. P., & Gurikar, C. (2022). Modern
processing of Indian millets: A perspective on changes in nutritional properties. Foods, 11(4), 499.
66) Tomar, A., Mishra, A. K., Singh, S. P., Khan, H. H., Patel, P., & Singh, R. P. (2023). Nutritional benefit
of small millets: Food security and sustainability in India. Pharma Innov J, 12, 3028-33.

21
4. HEALTH BENEFITS OF MILLETS
Millets have potential health benefits and epidemiological studies have showed that consumption of
millets reduces risk of heart disease, protects from diabetes, improves digestive system, lowers the
risk of cancer, detoxifies the body, increases immunity in respiratory health, increases energy levels
and improves muscular and neural systems and are protective against several degenerative diseases
such as metabolic syndrome and Parkinson’s disease. [67]

The important nutrients present in millets include resistant starch, oligosaccharides, lipids,
antioxidants such as phenolic acids, avenanthramides, flavonoids, lignans and phytosterols which are
believed to be responsible for many health benefits. [68]

4.1 Effects of Millets on Cardiovascular Disease:

Being high sources of Mg mineral, minor millets can help in lower down BP and threats of heart
attacks particularly in atherosclerosis. Also, presence of K mineral in millets that can be helped in
keep blood pressure down and help to lowering cardiovascular problem. [69]

Plant lignin in the millet which is having capability to changing into animal lignans by helping of
presence of microbiome in the digestive system and has been fight with certain types of cancer and
heart disease. [70]

Reference:

67) Krishnan, V., Awana, M., Singh, A., Goswami, S., Vinutha, T., Kumar, R. R., ... & Praveen, S. (2021).
Starch molecular configuration and starch-sugar homeostasis: Key determinants of sweet sensory
perception and starch hydrolysis in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). International Journal of
Biological Macromolecules, 183, 1087-1095.
68) Ren, X., Yin, R., Hou, D., Xue, Y., Zhang, M., Diao, X., ... & Shen, Q. (2018). The glucose-lowering
effect of foxtail millet in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance: A self-controlled clinical
trial. Nutrients, 10(10), 1509.
69) Anis, M. A., & Sreerama, Y. N. (2020). Inhibition of protein glycoxidation and advanced glycation
end-product formation by barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) phenolics. Food
Chemistry, 315, 126265.
70) Geetha, K., Yankanchi, G. M., Hulamani, S., & Hiremath, N. (2020). Glycemic index of millet based
food mix and its effect on pre diabetic subjects. Journal of food science and technology, 57, 2732-
2738.

22
Millets are high in fiber which are plays a main role in reduce cholesterol and remove out LDL (low
density lipoprotein) to the system and enhancing the good type cholesterol effects HDL (high density
lipoprotein). [71]

In relation, lignin and phytochemicals in pearl millet which is act as a strong antioxidant so that it can
be prevented heart related issue. Because of this, pearl millet is referred as good food for heart
wellbeing. The proso millets and finger millet have shown that reduction of remarkably the mass of
serum free fatty acids. [72]

According to millets do play a significant role in reduction of cardiovascular disease, serum

triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, and also exhibition of lipid peroxidation.

Reducing your blood pressure and optimizing your circulatory system is one of the best ways to
protect your cardiovascular health. [73]

4.2 Effects of millets on Diabetes Mellitus:

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia with alterations in

carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism. It is considered as the most common endocrine disorder
and results in deficient insulin production (type 1) or combined resistance to insulin action and the
insulin-secretory response (type 2). [74]

Reference:

71) Kangama, C. O. (2017). Importance of Sorghum bicolor in African’s cultures. J. Agric.

Environ. Sci, 6, 134-137.
72) Kalam Azad, M. O., Jeong, D. I., Adnan, M., Salitxay, T., Heo, J. W., Naznin, M. T., ... &
Park, C. H. (2019). Effect of different processing methods on the accumulation of the
phenolic compounds and antioxidant profile of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)
flour. Foods, 8(7), 230.
73) Kumar, S., & Kotwal, N. (2023). Millets (Shrianna) and lifestyle diseases: A healing
touch. medical journal armed forces india, 79(3), 249-252.
74) Jali, M. V., Kamatar, M. Y., Jali, S. M., Hiremath, M. B., & Naik, R. K. (2012). Efficacy of
value added foxtail millet therapeutic food in the management of diabetes and dyslipidamea
in type 2 diabetic patients. Recent Res Sci Technol, 4(7), 3-4.

23
The efficiency of insulin and glucose receptors in the body is increased by the significant levels of
magnesium content present in millets and help in preventing diabetes. Finger millet based diets have
shown lower glycemic response due to high fiber content and also alpha amylase inhibition properties
which are known to reduce starch digestibility and absorption.

Sorghum contains slow digestible starch (SDS) in good amounts, which has functional property,
prolongs digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in intestine. This SDS is favourable for dietary
management and also for metabolic disorders such as diabetes and hyperlipidemia. [75]

The fiber, magnesium, vitamin -E, phenolic compounds and tannins present in foods reduces the risk
of diabetes as they slower the sudden increase of blood glucose and insulin levels. Pearl millets are
known to increase insulin sensitivity and lower the level of triglycerides. Pearl millet is very effective
for controlling diabetes. Because of its high fiber content. [76]

Barnyard millet has been reported to be beneficial for type 2 diabetics especially the dehulled
varieties, as the glycemic index for dehulled millet (50.0) and heat treated was 41.7. the aqueous
extracts of foxtail millets have excellent anti-hyerglycemic activity . Proso millet had shown to
improve the glycemic responses and insulin in genetically obese type 2 diabetic mice under high fat
feeding conditions. [77]

Reference:

75) Shobana, S., Selvi, R. P., Kavitha, V., Gayathri, N., Geetha, G., Gayathri, R., ... & Mohan,
V. (2018). Development and evaluation of nutritional, sensory and glycemic properties of
finger millet ('Eleusine coracana'L.) based food products. Asia Pacific journal of clinical
nutrition, 27(1), 84-91.
76) Vedamanickam, R., Anandan, P., Bupesh, G., & Vasanth, S. (2020). Study of millet and non-
millet diet on diabetics and associated metabolic syndrome. Biomedicine, 40(1), 55-58.
77) Ugare, R., Chimmad, B., Naik, R., Bharati, P., & Itagi, S. (2014). Glycemic index and
significance of barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacae) in type II diabetics. Journal of
food science and technology, 51, 392-395.

24
4.3 Effects of Millets on Gastrointestinal Disorder:
Millets have been recognized for their potential contribution to gut health and digestion. Their unique
composition and properties make them beneficial in promoting a healthy gut microbiome and
supporting efficient digestion. Millets, including pearl millet (bajra), finger millet (ragi), and
sorghum, are rich in dietary fiber.[78]

Fiber plays a crucial role in maintaining optimal gut health and digestion. Millets exhibit prebiotic
properties, serving as a food source for beneficial gut bacteria. It promotes the growth and activity of
beneficial bacteria in the gut, such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli. Prebiotics help maintain a
healthy gut microbiome and support digestive [Link] millet has been found to possess
prebiotic potential, promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and inhibiting the growth of
harmful bacteria. [79]

Barnyard millet also exhibits prebiotic properties, stimulating the growth of beneficial bacteria and
contributing to a healthy gut microbiota. Millets contain natural enzymes that aid in digestion. Pearl
millet contains an enzyme called polyphenol oxidase, which improves the digestibility of millets and
increases nutrient availability. [80]

Reference:

78) Mehta, S., Huey, S. L., McDonald, D., Knight, R., & Finkelstein, J. L. (2021). Nutritional
interventions and the gut microbiome in children. Annual Review of Nutrition, 41(1), 479-
510.
79) Bhat, Z. F., Morton, J. D., Mason, S., Bekhit, A. E. D. A., & Bhat, H. F. (2019). Obesity and
neurological disorders: dietary perspective of a global menace. Critical reviews in food
science and nutrition, 59(8), 1294-1310.
80) Davani-Davari, D., Negahdaripour, M., Karimzadeh, I., Seifan, M., Mohkam, M., Masoumi, S. J., ...
& Ghasemi, Y. (2019). Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical
applications Foods, 8(3), 92.

25
 Certain millets, such as finger and pearl, are naturally gluten-free. For individuals with gluten
sensitivity or celiac disease, incorporating millets into their diet provides a nutritious alternative to
gluten containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye It reduces the risk of digestive disorders such as
diverticulitis, hemorrhoids, and irritable bowel syndrome. Fiber adds bulk to the diet, promotes
regular bowel movements, and supports overall digestive health [81]

4.4 Effects of Millets on Cancer:

Millet with anti-cancerous properties is rich in antioxidants including phenolic compounds and may
also have anticancer properties. showed that sorbet and pearl millet had a phenolic content of 43.1mg
and 51.4 / 100g DW, respectively. Phenol in pearl millet cereal was reported to be 608.1mg / 100g
and pearl millet flour was reported to be 761mg / 100g. Phenolic compounds have been specifically
flavonoids obtained to prevent tumor growth. Sorghum with anti-cancer property has been well
reported. In vitro and In vivo studies have been reported that intake of sorghum is leading positive
effect on cancer. The tannins and polyphenol have been found in sorghum containing anti-
carcinogenic and anti-mutagenic properties and this may take action against human melanoma cells
and also having positive melanoma properties. [82]

Millets grain is well known for high level of tannins, phenolic compounds and phytate. All of these
nutrients reduce the risk of breast and stomach cancer in animals . The presence of fiber and phenolic
compounds in sorghum and millet species has been reported to be more likely to cause esophageal
cancer than those who eat wheat, rice or corn. [83]

Reference:

81) Lin, H. C., Sheu, S. Y., Sheen, L. Y., Sheu, P. W., Chiang, W., & Kuo, T. F. (2020). The
gastroprotective effect of the foxtail millet and adlay processing product against stress-induced
gastric mucosal lesions in rats. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 10(4), 336-
344.
82) Oh, H., Kim, H., Lee, D. H., Lee, A., Giovannucci, E. L., Kang, S. S., & Keum, N. (2019).
Different dietary fibre sources and risks of colorectal cancer and adenoma: a dose–response meta-
analysis of prospective studies. British Journal of Nutrition, 122(6), 605-615.
83) Shan, S., Li, Z., Newton, I. P., Zhao, C., Li, Z., & Guo, M. (2014). A novel protein extracted from
foxtail millet bran displays anti-carcinogenic effects in human colon cancer cells. Toxicology
letters, 227(2), 129-138.

26
Thus it was found that the fiber in millet is currently the best and simplest for breast cancer prevention
in women. They can reduce the risk of breast cancer by more than 50% by consuming more than
thirty grams of fiber all days. The presence of ferulic and p-coumaric acids in whole pearl millet
grains has the capacity to reduce tumor cells. [84]

4.5 Effects of Millets on thyroid gland and Obesity:

Manganese is essential for thyroid hormone homeostasis and sorghum is its rich source, which helps
in proper regulation of the thyroid gland promoting weight loss through regulating fat metabolism.
Sorghum grain starch has 1.2-fold higher amylose than other fine cereals, and this resistant starch is
advantageous for obese and diabetic people. [85]

Sorghum rich in tannins was reported to reduce weight gain in animals attributed to formation of
complexes with starch, which helps to lower caloric intake. Polymeric tannins from sorghum
naturally modify starch by interacting strongly with amyl ose forming resistant starch, which cannot
be digested in the small intestine and thus reaches the large intestine, delivering the health benefits of
dietary fiber. [86]

4.6 Effect of Millets on Colon Health:

Peptic ulcer disease also known as gastric ulcers, is a common disorder of the gastrointestinal system,
causing gastric mucosal injuries due to an imbalance between the defensive and the aggressive factors
affecting the mucous. Millet is reported to be protecting the gastric mucosa against ulceration. Foxtail
millet has long been used to treat vacuity heat of the spleen and stomach, stomach reflux vomiting
and reduced food intake with abdominal distention.

Reference:

84) Żyła, E., Dziendzikowska, K., Gajewska, M., Wilczak, J., Harasym, J., & Gromadzka-
Ostrowska, J. (2019). Beneficial effects of oat beta-glucan dietary supplementation in
colitis depend on its molecular weight. Molecules, 24(19), 3591.
85) Anitha, S., Botha, R., Kane-Potaka, J., Givens, D. I., Rajendran, A., Tsusaka, T. W., &
Bhandari, R. K. (2021). Can millet consumption help manage hyperlipidemia and obesity?:
a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8, 700778.
86) Smith, C. E., & Tucker, K. L. (2011). Health benefits of cereal fibre: a review of clinical
trials. Nutrition research reviews, 24(1), 118-131.

27
Foxtail millet has antiulcer activity through suppressed levels of plasma and mucosal TBARS
(Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) and increased gastric non-protein sulfhydryl (NPSH)
digestive enzyme activities . Foxtail millet protein reduced gastric ulcers in mouse models through a
down-regulation of inflammatory cytokine expression in gastric tissue and improved oxidative status
. [87]

5. Comparison of Millets with other grains

When comparing millets with other commonly consumed grains, several factors include nutritional
composition, dietary characteristics, and potential health benefits. Compared to polished white rice,
they also tend to provide a broader range of vitamins and minerals, such as iron, calcium, and
magnesium. Millets, particularly those with high fiber content, generally have a lower glycemic index
than polished white rice. This causes a slower and gradual rise in blood sugar levels after
consumption, which can be beneficial for blood sugar control and diabetes management. Millets are
generally higher in protein, dietary fiber, and certain minerals, such as iron and phosphorus, than
refined wheat flour. However, whole wheat flour can provide similar amounts of fiber and some
nutrients. [88]

Millets are naturally gluten-free, making them a suitable alternative for individuals with celiac
disease or gluten sensitivity Though millets and corn have comparable calorie content, millets are
rich in protein and dietary fiber. Corn, however, is a good source of certain antioxidants, such as
zeaxanthin and lutein. Both millets and corn have a lower glycemic index than refined grains like
white bread or instant noodles.

Reference:

87) Zhang, Y., Liu, W., Zhang, D., Yang, Y., Wang, X., & Li, L. (2021). Fermented and
germinated processing improved the protective effects of foxtail millet whole grain against
dextran sulfate sodium-induced acute ulcerative colitis and gut microbiota dysbiosis in
C57BL/6 mice. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8, 694936.
88) Kumar, A., Kaur, A., Tomer, V., Rasane, P., & Gupta, K. (2020). Development of nutricereals
and milk‐based beverage: Process optimization and validation of improved nutritional
properties. Journal of food process engineering, 43(1), e13025.

28
Corn is commonly consumed as whole kernels, cornmeal, or corn flour, while millet is consumed as
whole grains, flakes, or flour. Millets have a wider variety of types, flavors, and textures than corn.
Millets and oats are rich in dietary fiber. However, oats are specifically known for their high content
of soluble fiber, particularly beta-glucan, which has been associated with heart health benefits.
Conversely, millets can provide a broader range of vitamins and minerals. Both millets and oats have
a lower glycemic index, which means they have a less significant impact on blood sugar levels
compared to refined grains. Oats are commonly consumed as oatmeal or incorporated into baked
goods. At the same time, millets have a broader culinary versatility. They can be used in various
dishes, including porridge, pilafs, and salads [89]

5.1 Overview of millets as gluten-free grains:

Millets are a diverse group of gluten-free grains that serve as excellent alternatives for individuals
following a gluten-free diet. They offer a range of nutritional benefits and can be used in various
culinary applications. Sorghum is one of the most widely consumed gluten-free millets. It is a
versatile grain used in different forms, including whole grains, flour, or flakes. Sorghum has a mild,
slightly sweet flavor and can be used in various dishes such as porridge, pilaf, bread, and baked goods.
Pearl millet is another popular gluten-free millet widely consumed in many parts of the world. It has
a slightly nutty flavor and is used to prepare traditional dishes like rotis (flatbreads), porridge, and
other grain-based recipes.

Finger millet is a highly nutritious gluten-free millet. Finger millet is often used to make porridge,
rotis, dosas (crepes), and baked goods. Foxtail millet is a small-grained gluten-free millet with a mild
flavor. It can be used as a rice substitute in pilafs, upma, or pulao. Foxtail millet is also used to prepare
breakfast cereals and soups and as a gluten-free alternative for couscous. It has a mild, nutty flavor
and is used in preparing porridge, pilafs, and upma. [90]

Reference:

89) Jocelyne, R. E., Béhiblo, K., & Ernest, A. K. (2020). Comparative study of nutritional value
of wheat, maize, sorghum, millet, and fonio: some cereals commonly consumed in Côte
d’Ivoire. European Scientific Journal ESJ, 16(21), 118-131.
90) Bergamo, P., Maurano, F., Mazzarella, G., Iaquinto, G., Vocca, I., Rivelli, A. R., ... & Rossi,
M. (2011). Immunological evaluation of the alcohol‐soluble protein fraction from gluten‐free
grains in relation to celiac disease. Molecular nutrition & food research, 55(8), 1266-1270.

29
5.2 Benefits for individuals with celiac disease and gluten intolerance:
Millets offer numerous benefits as gluten-free and celiac-friendly alternatives. Millets, such as
sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, foxtail millet, and others, are naturally gluten-free grains. They
do not contain the protein gluten, which triggers adverse reactions in individuals with celiac disease
or gluten intolerance. Millets offer various nutritional benefits, making them valuable for individuals
with celiac disease or gluten intolerance who need a balanced and nutrient-rich diet. Millets are rich
in dietary fiber, essential minerals (such as iron, magnesium, and phosphorus), and B vitamins. They
also provide antioxidants and phytochemicals that contribute to overall health and well-being. [91]

6. Incorporation of Millet into Diet

6.1 Effect of processing techniques on millet nutrient composition:
The processing techniques on millet nutrient composition are dehulling and milling, fermentation,
boiling and steaming, roasting, and dry heat cooking. These processes can affect the nutrient
composition of millets. Pearl millet (bajra) is commonly dehulled and milled to produce flour for
various culinary uses. This process increases the availability of nutrients and enhances the
bioavailability of minerals like calcium, iron, and zinc. Roasting and dry heat cooking methods, such
as baking or toasting, can impact the nutrient composition of millet. Sorghum is roasted to prepare
traditional dishes like popped sorghum or sorghum flour-based snacks. [92]

Reference:

91) Tamilselvan, T., Sharma, S., Thomas, P. E., Goyal, K., & Prabhasankar, P. (2022). Role of
hydrocolloids in improving the rheology, quality characteristics, and microstructure of
gluten‐free proso millet bread. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 57(11),
7156-7166.
92) Sharma, R., Sharma, S., Dar, B. N., & Singh, B. (2021). Millets as potential nutri‐cereals: a
review of nutrient composition, phytochemical profile and techno‐
functionality. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 56(8), 3703-3718.

30
 whole millets can be cooked and used in various dishes, such as pilaf, porridge, salads, or side dishes.
Soaking or sprouting millets can enhance their nutritional value by reducing anti-nutrients and
increasing nutrient availability. Steaming, boiling, or pressure cooking millets with minimal water
can help preserve their nutrient content. These methods are effective for cooking millet like foxtail,
barnyard, or kodo millet. [93]

Pair with nutrient dense ingredients. Enhance the nutritional profile of millets by combining them
with other nutrient-dense ingredients, such as vegetables, legumes, nuts, and seeds. Prepare a millet-
based salad with cooked millet, mixed greens, colorful vegetables like bell peppers, cherry tomatoes,
and protein-rich ingredients like chickpeas or roasted tofu. It ensures a well-rounded and nutrient
dense meal. [94]

Incorporate fermented millet products like idli, dosa, or sourdough bread made with millet flour into
the diet. Minimize processing and refining: Avoid excessive processing, refining, and polishing of
millets, as these processes can lead to nutrient loss. Instead of refined millet products like white rice
or polished millet grains, choose whole millets or minimally processed millet products like whole
grain millet flour. Individual dietary needs, preferences, and cultural practices may influence millet
preparation by incorporating these recommendations into the millet preparation. [95]

Reference:

93) Maurya, R., Boini, T., Misro, L., Radhakrishnan, T., Sreedharan, A. P., & Gaidhani, D. (2023).
Comprehensive review on millets: Nutritional values, effect of food processing and dietary
aspects. Journal of Drug Research in Ayurvedic Sciences, 8(Suppl 1), S82-S9
94) Chethan Kumar, P., Amutha, S., Oberoi, H. S., Kanchana, S., Azeez, S., & Rupa 8., T. R. (2022).
Germination induced changes in bioactive compounds and nutritional components of
millets. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(11), 4244-4252.
95) Fang, F., He, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, Y., Chen, C., He, H., ... & Hu, J. (2023). Effects of boiling
and steaming process on dietary fiber components and in vitro fermentation characteristics of 9
kinds of whole grains. Food Research International, 164, 112328.

31
6.2 Benefits of millets for infants, children, and pregnant women:
Millets offer numerous nutritional and health benefits for infants, children, and pregnant women.
Their nutrient rich profile makes them an excellent addition to the diet of these specific groups.
Millets can provide essential nutrients for the healthy growth and development of infants. Millets can
contribute to the overall nutritional needs of infants during their critical growth stages. [96]

Millet is easily digestible and can be introduced to infants as they transition to solid foods. Finger
millet (ragi) is popular due to its smooth texture and high nutritional content. It is a good source of
calcium, iron, and essential amino acids. Iron is crucial for infants’ growth and brain development.
Millets such as pearl millet (bajra) and finger millet (ragi) are excellent sources of iron, aiding in the
prevention of iron-deficiency anemia in infants. Millets are a rich energy source of carbohydrates,
proteins, and dietary fiber. [97]

They provide sustained energy levels for active children and support their nutritional requirements
for growth and development. Millets like finger millet (ragi) are known for their high calcium content.
Calcium is vital for children’s bone development, ensuring strong and healthy bones. Different millet
varieties offer a range of nutrients beneficial for children’s health. Millets can be a valuable addition
to the diet of pregnant women, providing essential nutrients for both the mother and the developing
baby. Folate is crucial during pregnancy for developing the baby’s neural tube. Millets, such as pearl
millet (bajra) and sorghum, are good sources of folate, supporting healthy fetal development.
Pregnancy increases the demand for iron and calcium. [98]

Reference:

96) Sharat, D. D., & Gokhale, D. (2022). Nutritional impact of millet-based foods on pregnant
and nursing women from anganwadi centers in Mahabubnagar. International Journal of
Nutrition, Pharmacology, Neurological Diseases, 12(2), 66-71.
97) Mahajan, P., Bera, M. B., Panesar, P. S., & Chauhan, A. (2021). Millet starch: A
review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 180, 61-79.
98) Jagati, P., Mahapatra, I., & Dash, D. (2021). Finger millet (Ragi) as an essential dietary
supplement with key health benefits: A review. International Journal of Home
Science, 7(2), 94-100.

32
6.3 Traditional Indian Foods from Millets:
By using either whole millets or processed millets in the form of flour/ extruded products, various
recipes are being prepared. Since millets are healthy, nutritious and tasty, the millet recipes are chosen
for breakfast, snacks, dinner and only few preferred for lunch. Tasty, nutritious and most frequently
consuming millet recipes are mentioned below. [99]

Figure 10: Recipes [100]

Reference:

99) Chakraborty, S., & Kotwaliwale, N. (2016, January). Development of leavened bread from
minor millet flours. In 50th ISAE convention at Bhubaneswar, January 19 (Vol. 21, p. 2016).
100)Kaur, P., Purewal, S. S., Sandhu, K. S., Kaur, M., & Salar, R. K. (2019). Millets: A cereal
grain with potent antioxidants and health benefits. Journal of Food Measurement and
Characterization, 13, 793-806.

33
REFERNCE

1) Susmitha, P., Kapoor, M., Sanjay, M., Sundharan, M., Keerthana, D., Naimuddin, S. K., ... &
Dhanalakshmi, T. (2024). Unlocking Nutritional Potential: Multi-OMICS Strategies for
Enhancing Millet Nutritional Traits. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology, 27(6),
131-149
2) Ashoka, P., Gangaiah, B., & Sunitha, N. (2020). Millets-foods of twenty first century. Int. J.
Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci, 9, 2404-2410.
3) Guiné, R. P., Barroca, M. J., Coldea, T. E., Bartkiene, E., & Anjos, O. (2021). Apple fermented
products: An overview of technology, properties and health effects. Processes, 9(2), 223.
4) Birania, S., Rohilla, P., Kumar, R., & Kumar, N. (2020). Post harvest processing of millets: A
review on value added products. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(1), 1824-1829.
5) Yang, R., Shan, S., Zhang, C., Shi, J., Li, H., & Li, Z. (2020). Inhibitory effects of bound
polyphenol from foxtail millet bran on colitis-associated carcinogenesis by the restoration of gut
microbiota in a mice model. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 68(11), 3506-3517.
6) Gowda, N. N., Taj, F., Subramanya, S., & Ranganna, B. (2020). Development a table top
centrifugal dehuller for small millets. AMA Agric. Mech. Asia Africa Latin Am, 51, 72-78.
7) Anbukkani, P., Balaji, S. J., & Nithyashree, M. L. (2017). Production and consumption of minor
millets in India-A structural break analysis. Annals of Agricultural Research, 38(4).
8) Kaur, H., Oberoi, H. K., Ganapathy, K. N., & Bhardwaj, R. (2023). Effect of popping and malting
processing techniques on physiochemical, antinutrients and antioxidant properties of millets
flour. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 60(9), 2370-2384.
9) Eduru, A., Kamboj, A., Reddy, P. M., & Pal, B. (2021). Nutritional and health benefits of millets,
present status and future prospects: A review. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 10(5), 859-868.
10) Althwab, S., Carr, T. P., Weller, C. L., Dweikat, I. M., & Schlegel, V. (2015). Advances in grain
sor ghum and its co-products as a human health promoting dietary system. Food Research
International, 77, 349-359.
11) Yadav, S., Mishra, S., & Pradhan, R. C. (2021). Ultrasound-assisted hydration of finger millet
(Eleusine Coracana) and its effects on starch isolates and antinutrients. Ultrasonics
sonochemistry, 73, 105542.

12) Yousaf, L., Hou, D., Liaqat, H., & Shen, Q. (2021). Millet: A review of its nutritional and
functional changes during processing. Food Research International, 142, 110197.

34
13) Thagunna, B., Rimal, A., Kaur, J., Dhakal, Y., & Paudel, B. (2022). Finger millet: a powerhouse
of nutrients its amino acid, micronutrient profile, bioactive compounds, health benefits, and
value-added products. J Res Agri Animal Sci, 9, 36-44.
14) Dhanushkodi, V., Hemavathy, A. T., Shenbagavalli, S., Sangeetha, S., Anitha, R., &
UmaMaheshwari, T. (2023). A review on nutritional properties and health benefits of finger
millet. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science, 35(18), 753-761.
15) Pei, J., Umapathy, V. R., Vengadassalapathy, S., Hussain, S. F. J., Rajagopal, P., Jayaraman,

S., ... & Gopinath, K. (2022). A review of the potential consequences of pearl millet
(Pennisetum glaucum) for diabetes mellitus and other biomedical
applications. Nutrients, 14(14), 2932.

16) Zou, Q., Qu, K., Luo, Y., Yin, D., Ju, Y., & Tang, H. (2018). Predicting diabetes mellitus with
machine learning techniques. Frontiers in genetics, 9, 515.
17) Satankar, M., Kumar, U., Patil, A. K., & Kautkar, S. (2020). Pearl millet: A fundamental review
on underutilized source of nutrition. Multilogic Sci, 10, 1081-1084.
18) Radhai Sri, S., & Sindhu, S. (2020). Antioxidant Properties of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum
glaucum). International Journal of Multidisciplinary, 3(6), 136-139.
19) Zhang, L., Liu, R., & Niu, W. (2014). Phytochemical and antiproliferative activity of proso
millet. PloS one, 9(8), e104058.
20) Deepika, C., Hariprasanna, K., Das, I. K., Jacob, J., Ronanki, S., Ratnavathi, C. V., ... & Tonapi,

V. A. (2022). ‘Kodo poisoning’: cause, science and management. Journal of food science and
technology, 1-10.
21) Hariprasanna, K. (2017). Millets and Sorghum: Biology and Genetic Improvement. First
published, 6, 112-149.
22) Bunkar, D. S., Goyal, S. K., Meena, K. K., & Kamalvanshi, V. (2021). Nutritional, functional role
of kodo millet and its processing: a review. International Journal of Current Microbiology and
Applied Sciences, 10(01), 1972-1985.
23) Ambati, K., & Sucharitha, K. V. (2019). Millets-review on nutritional profiles and health
benefits. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research, 10(7), 33943-33948.
24) Sujata, B., Prabhu, C. G., Nandini, C., & Prabhakar, T. V. (2018). Browntop millet-a review. Agric
Res Technol, 14(5), 555937.

35
25) Sravani, M., Kuna, A., Devi, S.S., Rao, K.S. and Gayatri, B., 2020. Effect of processing on the
Physico-chemical properties of Browntop millet (Brachiaria ramosa). Journal of Pharmacognosy
and Phytochemistry, 9(5), pp.1480-1483.
26) Hemamalini, C., Sam, S., & Patro, T. S. S. K. (2021). Awareness and consumption of small
millets. Pharma Innov J, 10, 34-37.
27) Shubhangi Srivastav, Dr. Ekta Singh Chauhan (2024). Browntop Millet (Brachiaria ramosa): An
Overview of the Underutilized Miraculous Multifunctional Millet. International journal of Health
Science And Research,ijhsr.2249-9571.
28) Roopa, O. M., Jamuna, K. V., Brunda, S. M., & Darshan, G. B. (2016). Development and sensory
evaluation of ready-To-Cook idli mix from browntop millet (Panicum ramosa). International
Journal of Science, Environment and Technology, 5(2), 816-821.
29) Singh, S., Suri, S., & Singh, R. (2022). Potential and unrealized future possibilities of browntop
millet in the food sector. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 974126.
30) Nagaraju, M., Ramachandra, M., Nagarathna, S. B., Kalpana, B., Palanimuthu, V., & Darshan,

M. B. (2020). Physical properties of an underutilized crop: Browntop millet (Urochloa

ramose). International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(6), 192-197.
31) Sharma, N., & Niranjan, K. (2018). Foxtail millet: Properties, processing, health benefits, and
uses. Food reviews international, 34(4), 329-363.
32) Abedin, M. J., Abdullah, A. T. M., Satter, M. A., & Farzana, T. (2022). Physical, functional,
nutritional and antioxidant properties of foxtail millet in Bangladesh. Heliyon, 8(10).
33) Kalsi, R., & Bhasin, J. K. (2023). Nutritional exploration of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) in
addressing food security and its utilization trends in food system. eFood, 4(5), e111.
34) Das, S., Khound, R., Santra, M., & Santra, D. K. (2019). Beyond bird feed: Proso millet
for human health and environment. Agriculture, 9(3), 64.
35) Xiang, J., Yuan, Y., Du, L., Zhang, Y., Li, C., & Beta, T. (2023). Modification on phenolic profiles
and enhancement of antioxidant activity of proso millets during germination. Food Chemistry:
X, 18, 100628.
36) ) Habiyaremye, C., Matanguihan, J. B., D’Alpoim Guedes, J., Ganjyal, G. M., Whiteman, M. R.,
Kidwell, K. K., & Murphy, K. M. (2017). Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and its potential
for cultivation in the Pacific Northwest, US: a review. Frontiers in plant science, 7, 1961.
37) Singh, A., Kumar, M., & Shamim, M. (2020). Importance of minor millets (Nutri Cereals) for
nutrition purpose in present scenario. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(1), 3109-3113.

36
38) Bora, P., Das, P., Mohan, P., & Barthakur, A. (2018). Evaluation of hypolipidemic property of
proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) in high fat diet induced hyperlipidemia in rats. J Entomol
Zool Stud, 6(3), 691-695.
39) Desai, H., Hamid, R., Ghorbanzadeh, Z., Bhut, N., Padhiyar, S. M., Kheni, J., & Tomar, R. S.
(2021). Genic microsatellite marker characterization and development in little millet (Panicum
sumatrense) using transcriptome sequencing. Scientific reports, 11(1), 20620.
40) Sharma, P., et al., "Nutritional Composition and Health Benefits of Little Millet (Panicum
sumatrense)," Journal of Cereal Science, Vol. 39, No. 2, 2021, pp. 100-105.
41) ) Kumar, A., Tomer, V., Kaur, A., Kumar, V., & Gupta, K. (2018). Millets: a solution to agrarian
and nutritional challenges. Agriculture & food security, 7(1), 1-15.
42) Babele, P. K., Kudapa, H., Singh, Y., Varshney, R. K., & Kumar, A. (2022). Mainstreaming orphan
millets for advancing climate smart agriculture to secure nutrition and health. Frontiers in Plant
Science, 13, 902536.
43) Pudake, R. N., Solanke, A. U., Sevanthi, A. M., & Rajendrakumar, P. (Eds.). (2022). Omics of
Climate Resilient Small Millets. Springer Nature Singapore.
44) ) Pratiksha A. Dhokane1, Ram S. Gawande, Gaurav S. Tangade, Pranali S. Sakhalkar, Kamlesh

A. Kadam, [Link]. (2024) Nutritional & Health Benefits of Millets International

Journal of Creative research thoughts (IJCRT) ISSN : 2320-2882.
45) Renganathan, V. G., Vanniarajan, C., Karthikeyan, A., & Ramalingam, J. (2020). Barnyard millet
for food and nutritional security: Current status and future research direction. Frontiers in
genetics, 11, 500.
46) Kaur, H., & Sharma, S. (2020). An overview of Barnyard millet (Echinochloa
frumentacea). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 9(4), 819-822.
47) Rao, V. and Gupta, M., "Nutritional Composition and Functional Properties of Barnyard Millet,"
International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2020, pp. 88-90.
48) Singh, R. B., Khan, S., Chauhan, A. K., Singh, M., Jaglan, P., Yadav, P., ... & Juneja, L. R. (2019).
Millets as functional food, a gift from Asia to Western World. In The role of functional food
security in global health (pp. 457-468). Academic Press.
49) Chandrkar, L., Sahu, T., & Shahi, S. (2024 ) A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF BARNYARD

MILLET. African journal of biological sciences, Kalinga University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India,
492101 ISSN:2663-2187

37
50) Bhatt, D., Rasane, P., Singh, J., Kaur, S., Fairos, M., Kaur, J., ... & Sharma, N. (2023). Nutritional
advantages of barnyard millet and opportunities for its processing as value-added foods. Journal
of Food Science and Technology, 60(11), 2748-2760.
51) Sayani, R., & Chatterjee, A. (2017). Nutritional and biological importance of the weed
Echinochloa colona: a review. Int. J. of Food Sci. Biotechnol, 2, 31-37.
52) Mondal, D., Awana, M., Aggarwal, S., Das, D., Thomas, B., Singh, S. P., ... & Krishnan, V. (2022).
Microstructure, matrix interactions, and molecular structure are the key determinants of inherent
glycemic potential in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). Food Hydrocolloids, 127, 107481.
53) Shankaramurthy, K. N., & Somannavar, M. S. (2019). Moisture, carbohydrate, protein, fat,
calcium, and zinc content in finger, foxtail, pearl, and proso millets. Indian Journal of Health
Sciences and Biomedical Research kleu, 12(3), 228-232.
54) Aruna, C., Visarada, K. B. R. S., Bhat, B. V., & Tonapi, V. A. (Eds.). (2018). Breeding sorghum
for diverse end uses. Woodhead Publishing.
55) Goudar, G., Manne, M., Sathisha, G. J., Sharma, P., Mokalla, T. R., Kumar, S. B., & Ziouzenkova,

O. (2023). Phenolic, nutritional and molecular interaction study among different millet
varieties. Food Chemistry Advances, 2, 100150.
56) Guo, H., Wu, H., Sajid, A., & Li, Z. (2022). Whole grain cereals: The potential roles of functional
components in human health. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62(30), 8388-
8402.
57) Samtiya, M., Soni, K., Chawla, S., Poonia, A., Sehgal, S., & Dhewa, T. (2021). Key anti-nutrients
of millet and their reduction strategies: An overview. Acta Scientific NUTRITIONAL HEALTH
(ISSN: 2582-1423), 5(12).
58) Johnson, J., & Wallace, T. C. (Eds.). (2019). Whole grains and their bioactives: Composition and
health. John Wiley & Sons.
59) Chandrakar, L., & Shahi, S. (2023). Millets and their Nutritional Value: A Review. Journal of
Advanced Zoology, 44, 1690-1697.
60) Tharifkhan, S. A., Perumal, A. B., Elumalai, A., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C.
(2021). Improvement of nutrient bioavailability in millets: Emphasis on the application of
enzymes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 101(12), 4869-4878.
61) Schönfeldt, H. C., Pretorius, B., & Hall, N. (2016). Bioavailability of nutrients. Caballero, B, P
Finglas and F Toldrá, F (eds) The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 1, 401-406.

38
62) Yamuna, N., Kolekar, D. V., & Rakesh, N. (2024). Trend and Instability Analysis of Area,
Production, Productivity of Millets in India. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, 30(8),
686-699
63) Vetriventhan, M., & Upadhyaya, H. D. (2018). Diversity and trait-specific sources for
productivity and nutritional traits in the global proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) germplasm
collection. The Crop Journal, 6(5), 451-463.
64) Durairaj, M., Gurumurthy, G., Nachimuthu, V., Muniappan, K., & Balasubramanian, S. (2019).
Dehulled small millets: The promising nutricereals for improving the nutrition of
children. Maternal & child nutrition, 15, e12791.
65) ) Gowda, N. N., Siliveru, K., Prasad, P. V., Bhatt, Y., Netravati, B. P., & Gurikar, C. (2022).
Modern processing of Indian millets: A perspective on changes in nutritional
properties. Foods, 11(4), 499.
66) Tomar, A., Mishra, A. K., Singh, S. P., Khan, H. H., Patel, P., & Singh, R. P. (2023). Nutritional
benefit of small millets: Food security and sustainability in India. Pharma Innov J, 12, 3028-33.
67) Krishnan, V., Awana, M., Singh, A., Goswami, S., Vinutha, T., Kumar, R. R., ... & Praveen, S.
(2021). Starch molecular configuration and starch-sugar homeostasis: Key determinants of sweet
sensory perception and starch hydrolysis in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). International
Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 183, 1087-1095.
68) Ren, X., Yin, R., Hou, D., Xue, Y., Zhang, M., Diao, X., ... & Shen, Q. (2018). The glucose-
lowering effect of foxtail millet in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance: A self-controlled
clinical trial. Nutrients, 10(10), 1509.
69) Anis, M. A., & Sreerama, Y. N. (2020). Inhibition of protein glycoxidation and advanced
glycation end-product formation by barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) phenolics. Food
Chemistry, 315, 126265.
70) Geetha, K., Yankanchi, G. M., Hulamani, S., & Hiremath, N. (2020). Glycemic index of millet
based food mix and its effect on pre diabetic subjects. Journal of food science and technology, 57,
2732-2738.
71) Kangama, C. O. (2017). Importance of Sorghum bicolor in African’s cultures. J. Agric. Environ.
Sci, 6, 134-137.
72) Kalam Azad, M. O., Jeong, D. I., Adnan, M., Salitxay, T., Heo, J. W., Naznin, M. T., ... & Park,

C. H. (2019). Effect of different processing methods on the accumulation of the phenolic

compounds and antioxidant profile of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)
flour. Foods, 8(7), 230.
39
73) Kumar, S., & Kotwal, N. (2023). Millets (Shrianna) and lifestyle diseases: A healing
touch. medical journal armed forces india, 79(3), 249-252.
74) Jali, M. V., Kamatar, M. Y., Jali, S. M., Hiremath, M. B., & Naik, R. K. (2012). Efficacy of value
added foxtail millet therapeutic food in the management of diabetes and dyslipidamea in type 2
diabetic patients. Recent Res Sci Technol, 4(7), 3-4.
75) Shobana, S., Selvi, R. P., Kavitha, V., Gayathri, N., Geetha, G., Gayathri, R., ... & Mohan, V.
(2018). Development and evaluation of nutritional, sensory and glycemic properties of finger
millet ('Eleusine coracana'L.) based food products. Asia Pacific journal of clinical
nutrition, 27(1), 84-91.
76) Vedamanickam, R., Anandan, P., Bupesh, G., & Vasanth, S. (2020). Study of millet and non-millet
diet on diabetics and associated metabolic syndrome. Biomedicine, 40(1), 55-58.
77) Ugare, R., Chimmad, B., Naik, R., Bharati, P., & Itagi, S. (2014). Glycemic index and significance
of barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacae) in type II diabetics. Journal of food science and
technology, 51, 392-395.
78) Mehta, S., Huey, S. L., McDonald, D., Knight, R., & Finkelstein, J. L. (2021). Nutritional
interventions and the gut microbiome in children. Annual Review of Nutrition, 41(1), 479-510.
79) Bhat, Z. F., Morton, J. D., Mason, S., Bekhit, A. E. D. A., & Bhat, H. F. (2019). Obesity and
neurological disorders: dietary perspective of a global menace. Critical reviews in food science
and nutrition, 59(8), 1294-1310.
80) Davani-Davari, D., Negahdaripour, M., Karimzadeh, I., Seifan, M., Mohkam, M., Masoumi, S.
J., ... & Ghasemi, Y. (2019). Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical
applications Foods, 8(3), 92.
81) Lin, H. C., Sheu, S. Y., Sheen, L. Y., Sheu, P. W., Chiang, W., & Kuo, T. F. (2020). The
gastroprotective effect of the foxtail millet and adlay processing product against stress-induced
gastric mucosal lesions in rats. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 10(4), 336-
344.
82) Oh, H., Kim, H., Lee, D. H., Lee, A., Giovannucci, E. L., Kang, S. S., & Keum, N. (2019).
Different dietary fibre sources and risks of colorectal cancer and adenoma: a dose–response meta-
analysis of prospective studies. British Journal of Nutrition, 122(6), 605-615.
83) Shan, S., Li, Z., Newton, I. P., Zhao, C., Li, Z., & Guo, M. (2014). A novel protein extracted from
foxtail millet bran displays anti-carcinogenic effects in human colon cancer cells. Toxicology
letters, 227(2), 129-138.

40
84) Żyła, E., Dziendzikowska, K., Gajewska, M., Wilczak, J., Harasym, J., & Gromadzka-Ostrowska,
J. (2019). Beneficial effects of oat beta-glucan dietary supplementation in colitis depend on its
molecular weight. Molecules, 24(19), 3591.
85) Anitha, S., Botha, R., Kane-Potaka, J., Givens, D. I., Rajendran, A., Tsusaka, T. W., & Bhandari,
R. K. (2021). Can millet consumption help manage hyperlipidemia and obesity?: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8, 700778.
86) ) Smith, C. E., & Tucker, K. L. (2011). Health benefits of cereal fibre: a review of clinical
trials. Nutrition research reviews, 24(1), 118-131.
87) ) Zhang, Y., Liu, W., Zhang, D., Yang, Y., Wang, X., & Li, L. (2021). Fermented and germinated
processing improved the protective effects of foxtail millet whole grain against dextran sulfate
sodium-induced acute ulcerative colitis and gut microbiota dysbiosis in C57BL/6 mice. Frontiers
in Nutrition, 8, 694936.
88) Kumar, A., Kaur, A., Tomer, V., Rasane, P., & Gupta, K. (2020). Development of nutricereals and
milk‐based beverage: Process optimization and validation of improved nutritional
properties. Journal of food process engineering, 43(1), e13025.
89) Jocelyne, R. E., Béhiblo, K., & Ernest, A. K. (2020). Comparative study of nutritional value of
wheat, maize, sorghum, millet, and fonio: some cereals commonly consumed in Côte
d’Ivoire. European Scientific Journal ESJ, 16(21), 118-131.
90) Bergamo, P., Maurano, F., Mazzarella, G., Iaquinto, G., Vocca, I., Rivelli, A. R., ... & Rossi, M.
(2011). Immunological evaluation of the alcohol‐soluble protein fraction from gluten‐free grains
in relation to celiac disease. Molecular nutrition & food research, 55(8), 1266-1270.
91) Tamilselvan, T., Sharma, S., Thomas, P. E., Goyal, K., & Prabhasankar, P. (2022). Role of
hydrocolloids in improving the rheology, quality characteristics, and microstructure of gluten‐
free proso millet bread. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 57(11), 7156-7166.
92) Sharma, R., Sharma, S., Dar, B. N., & Singh, B. (2021). Millets as potential nutri‐cereals: a review
of nutrient composition, phytochemical profile and techno‐functionality. International Journal of
Food Science & Technology, 56(8), 3703-3718.
93) Maurya, R., Boini, T., Misro, L., Radhakrishnan, T., Sreedharan, A. P., & Gaidhani, D. (2023).
Comprehensive review on millets: Nutritional values, effect of food processing and dietary
aspects. Journal of Drug Research in Ayurvedic Sciences, 8(Suppl 1), S82-S9
94) Chethan Kumar, P., Amutha, S., Oberoi, H. S., Kanchana, S., Azeez, S., & Rupa 8., T. R. (2022).
Germination induced changes in bioactive compounds and nutritional components of
millets. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(11), 4244-4252.
41
95) Fang, F., He, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, Y., Chen, C., He, H., ... & Hu, J. (2023). Effects of boiling and
steaming process on dietary fiber components and in vitro fermentation characteristics of 9
kinds of whole grains. Food Research International, 164, 112328.
96) Sharat, D. D., & Gokhale, D. (2022). Nutritional impact of millet-based foods on pregnant and
nursing women from anganwadi centers in Mahabubnagar. International Journal of Nutrition,
Pharmacology, Neurological Diseases, 12(2), 66-71.
97) Mahajan, P., Bera, M. B., Panesar, P. S., & Chauhan, A. (2021). Millet starch: A
review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 180, 61-79.
98) Jagati, P., Mahapatra, I., & Dash, D. (2021). Finger millet (Ragi) as an essential dietary
supplement with key health benefits: A review. International Journal of Home Science, 7(2), 94-
100.
99) Chakraborty, S., & Kotwaliwale, N. (2016, January). Development of leavened bread from minor
millet flours. In 50th ISAE convention at Bhubaneswar, January 19 (Vol. 21, p. 2016).
100) Kaur, P., Purewal, S. S., Sandhu, K. S., Kaur, M., & Salar, R. K. (2019). Millets: A
cereal grain with potent antioxidants and health benefits. Journal of Food Measurement and
Characterization, 13, 793-806.

42