AISSCE

Physics PROJECT FILE

SUBMITTED BY: SATYANSH RAJ
Class: xii
ROLL NO: 24
Project Title: To
investigate the relation
between the ratio of
(i) output and input
voltage and
(ii) number of turns in
secondary coil of a self-
designed transformer.
SESSION: 2025-2026
Contents:
[Link] TOPIC PAGE

1. ALL ABOUT A TRANSFORMER. 2

2. EXPERIMENT (THEORY) 3

3. STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS. 3

4. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS. 4

5. APPLICATIONS OF 5
TRANSFORMERS.

6. EFFICIENCY OF A 6
TRANSFORMER(μ).

7. ENERGY LOSSES IN A 7
TRANSFORMER.

8. APPARATUS REQUIRED. 8
9. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM. 9

10. PROCEDURE FOR THE 10

EXPERIMENT.

11. OBSERVATIONS 11-12

12. CONCLUSIONS 13-14

13. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN & 15

SOURCES OF ERROR.

14. REFFERENCES 16
All ABOUT A
TRANSFORMER :
A transformer is a static electrical device that
transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic
induction. It is most commonly used to
increase (step-up) or decrease (step-down)
alternating current (AC) voltages.
Transformers are crucial components in
modern power grids, enabling efficient
transmission of electricity over long distances
and adapting voltages for various
applications.
The fundamental principle behind a
transformer’s operation is mutual induction. It
consists of two coils, the primary coil and the
secondary coil, wound around a common soft
iron core. When an alternating voltage is
applied to the primary coil, it creates a
fluctuating magnetic flux within the core. This
changing magnetic flux links with the
secondary coil, inducing an electromotive
force (EMF) in it according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
Theory:
A transformer operates on the principle of mutual
induction. When an alternating current (Ip) flows through
the primary coil (p1 & p2), it generates a continuously
changing magnetic flux (Φ) within the core. This changing
flux links with both the primary and secondary coils.
According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction,
this change in magnetic flux induces an electromotive force
(e.m.f.) in both the primary (Ep) and secondary (Es)
windings. The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux and the number of turns in
the coil.

dΦ/dt = rate of change of flux in each,

turnoff the coil at this instant.
We have,
Ep = -Np dΦ/dt ……..(1)
And,
Es = -Np dΦ/dt ……..(2)
Dividing (2) by (1),we get,
Es /Ep = -Ns/Np ………(3)
As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f induced in the primary coil
p1, so the instananeous current in primary coil is due to the difference (E –
Ep) in the instantaneous values of the applied and back e.m.f. further if R p
is the resistance of, p1p2 coil,
then the instantaneous current Ip in the primary coil is given by.
Ip = E- Ep/Rp
E- Ep = Ip x Rp
When the resistance of the primary is small, Rp Ip can be neglected so
therefore,
E- Ep = 0 or Ep = E
Thus back e.m.f = input e.m.f

Hence equation 3 can be written as:

Es /Ep = Es /E = output e.m.f /
input e.m.f
Ns / Np = K, where K is constant, called turn or
transformation ratio.
Applications of Transformers:
Transformers are essential devices that enable the efficient and
safe use of electricity across numerous sectors. Their primary
function is to step up or step down AC voltages, making them
indispensable in almost every electrical system.

Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution:

• Generation: Step-up transformers at power plants increase

voltage for efficient long-distance transmission, minimizing
energy loss.
• Transmission: High-voltage lines carry power across regions;
step-down transformers reduce voltage for regional
distribution.
• Distribution: Local distribution transformers further step
down voltage (e.g., 230V/120V) for homes and industries.

Electronic Devices and Appliances:

• Power Supplies: Used in AC-to-DC adapters (e.g., phone

chargers) to reduce mains voltage for safe device operation.
• Audio Systems: Employed for impedance matching in audio
circuits (e.g., amplifiers, speakers).

Industrial Applications:

• High-Current Uses: Provide high current at low voltage for

arc furnaces and welding.
• Machinery Power: Ensure correct voltage supply for various
heavy industrial machinery.

Other Key Areas:

• Railway Electrification: Step down voltage from overhead

lines to power electric trains.
• Renewable Energy Integration: Connect solar and wind farms
to the main grid by stepping up generated voltage for
transmission.
Step-down Transformers:
In a step-up transformer,
Es < E so K < 1, hence Ns < Np
If, Ip = value of primary current at the
instant.

And, Is = value of secondary current at this

instant,

Then, Input power at the instant = Ep x Ip

And, Output power at the same instant = Es

x Is

If there are no losses of power in the

transformer.
Then, Input power = Output power
Or, Ep x Ip = Es x Is
Or, Es/Ep = Ip/Is = K
Step-Up transformers:
As,
Es > Ep so K > 1,
Hence, Ns > Np
As, K> 1, so lp > Is or Is < lp
i.e. current in secondary is weaker when secondary voltage is
higher Hence, whatever we gain in voltages we lose in current in
the same ratio.
similarly it can be shown, that in a step down transformer,
whatever we lose in voltage, we gain in current in the same ratio
thus a step up transformer in reality steps down the current & a
step down transformer steps up the current.
Efficiency of a
transformer(μ):
Efficiency in a transformer measures how effectively it
converts electrical energy, defined as the ratio of the
usable power exiting the transformer to the total power
entering it. While a perfect transformer would have no
energy wastage, achieving 100% efficiency, actual
transformers always exhibit some degree of power loss,
leading to efficiencies below the ideal.
Energy losses in a
transformer:
The major sources of energy loss in a transformer include:

• Copper Loss (I²R Loss): This loss occurs in the copper windings of
the transformer due to the electrical resistance of the wire. As
current flows through the windings, energy is converted into heat.
This loss is variable and directly proportional to the square of the
current flowing through the windings.
• Iron Loss (Core Loss): These losses occur in the iron core of the
transformer. Iron losses are primarily constant, regardless of the
load on the transformer, and are further categorized into:
• Eddy Current Loss: When the alternating magnetic flux in the core
induces circulating currents (eddy currents) within the core
material itself. These eddy currents cause energy dissipation as
heat. This can be minimized by using laminated (thin, insulated
sheets) iron cores.
• Hysteresis Loss: This loss is due to the repeated magnetization
and demagnetization of the iron core as the alternating current
flows. The continuous realignment of magnetic domains within
the core material consumes energy, which is released as heat.
Using materials with low hysteresis loss (like soft iron) can
minimize this.
• Leakage of Magnetic Flux: Not all magnetic flux produced by the
primary winding links with the secondary winding. Some flux
“leaks” into the surrounding air, which reduces the efficiency of
energy transfer.
• Magneto striation: This refers to the slight change in the
dimensions of the transformer’s core material when it is
magnetized. This phenomenon contributes to the humming noise
often associated with transformers and also results in a small
energy loss.
Copper loss or i²r loss
Copper loss, also known as I²R loss or ohmic loss, is a fundamental type of energy
dissipation in transformers, directly attributed to the electrical resistance of the
winding conductors. Both the primary and secondary windings of a transformer are
typically made of copper, a material chosen for its excellent electrical conductivity.
However, even copper possesses some inherent resistance. When current flows
through these windings, a portion of the electrical energy is converted into heat due to
this resistance, in accordance with Joule’s law (P = I^2R).

The magnitude of copper loss is directly proportional to the square of the current (I)
flowing through the windings and the resistance of the windings. Since a
transformer’s load current varies, copper losses are highly dependent on the load
connected to the transformer. As the load increases, the current drawn by the
secondary winding (and consequently, the primary winding) increases, leading to a
significant rise in copper losses. This makes copper loss a variable loss in transformers.

Methods to minimize copper losses from a transformer :

• Using Conductors with Large Cross-Sectional Area: Thicker wires have lower
resistance for a given length. By increasing the cross-sectional area of the copper
conductors in the windings, the overall resistance is reduced, thereby lowering the
I^2R losses. (Figure)
• Employing High-Purity Copper: High-purity copper exhibits lower resistivity
compared to less pure forms, further contributing to reduced resistance.
Eddy Current Loss:
Eddy current loss is another significant form of energy dissipation that occurs within
the magnetic core of a transformer. When an alternating magnetic flux passes through
a conductor (in this case, the transformer core, which is also a conductor), it induces
electromotive forces (EMFs) within the core material itself, according to Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction. These induced EMFs, in turn, cause circulating currents
to flow within the core, known as eddy currents. These eddy currents form closed
loops and, like any current flowing through a resistive material, they generate heat.
Larger and thicker core sections lead to larger eddy current loops and thus greater
losses.

Ways to effectively reduce eddy current loss:

• Lamination of the Core: Transformer cores are constructed from thin sheets or
laminations of magnetic material, typically silicon steel. By laminating the core,
the path for the eddy currents is significantly restricted. The insulation between
the laminations breaks the continuous current paths, forcing the eddy currents to
flow in much smaller loops within each individual lamination.
• Increasing Resistivity of Core Material: Higher resistivity inherently limits the
flow of eddy currents for a given induced EMF, further contributing to loss
reduction. (Figure)
Hysteresis loss: Flux LEAKAGE:
Hysteresis loss is an energy loss mechanism that Flux loss is a phenomenon where a portion of the
occurs within the magnetic core of a transformer when magnetic flux produced by the primary winding does
it is subjected to a continuously alternating magnetic not link with the secondary winding, and a part of the
field. When a magnetic material is magnetized, its flux produced by the secondary winding does not link
magnetic align with the applied magnetic field. When with the primary winding. In an ideal transformer, all
the field reverses, these must reorient themselves. This the magnetic flux generated by the primary current
reorientation process requires energy to overcome the would pass through the core and perfectly link with
internal friction and resistance to change within the every turn of the secondary winding, and vice versa.
magnetic material. This energy is dissipated as heat. However, the unlinked flux, known as leakage flux,
The term “hysteresis” refers to the lagging of the passes through the air surrounding the windings
magnetic induction behind the magnetizing force in a instead of entirely through the high-permeability core
magnetic material. material. It effectively creates a small inductance in
series with both the primary and secondary windings,
To minimize hysteresis losses, specific core materials
known as leakage inductance.
are chosen for transformer construction:
Ways to minimize the leakage of flux:
• Soft Magnetic Materials: Transformer cores
are typically made of soft magnetic materials, • Interleaving Windings: Sections of the primary
such as silicon steel or special iron alloys. and secondary windings are wound on top of each
These materials are characterized by a narrow other or interleaved within the same core window.
and slender hysteresis loop, indicating that This ensures that a larger proportion of the
less energy is required to magnetize and magnetic flux produced by one winding also passes
demagnetize them. through the other, significantly reducing the
• Amorphous Metals: In more advanced leakage path. (Figure below)
transformers, amorphous metals are used. • Core Material Design: Using a core material with
These materials have a non-crystalline very high magnetic permeability helps to confine
structure, which virtually eliminates the grain the magnetic flux more effectively within the core,
boundaries, resulting in extremely low thereby reducing the tendency for flux to escape
hysteresis losses. into the surrounding air.
Apparatus Required:

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. [Link] a soft iron rod of length 15 cm and diameter 1.3 cm. Wrap a thick
sheet of paper on it.
2.
3. 2. Wind 200 turns of a coil P of enamelled copper wire of 20 or 22 SWG.
4.
5. 3. Wind 50 turns of another coil S of enamelled copper wire of 16 or 18
SWG.
6.
7. 4. Both coils are wound over same length of the rod, so that almost the
entire flux produced by the current in coil P is linked to the coil S.
8.
9. 5. Connect a step-down transformer (having tappings of 3, 6, 9 and 12 ac
volts) and an ac voltmeter (0-10 V) across the ends of the coil P, as shown
in Fig. 4.
10.
11. [Link] an ac voltmeter (0-10 V) across the ends of the coil S.
12.
13. 7. Connect the step-down transformer to the ac mains of 220 V. From it,
supply 3 V to the coil P. Note the readings in the two ac voltmeters.
14.
15. 8. Using output tapping of 6 V and 9 V of the step-down transformer,
supply 6 V and 9 V to the coil P, in turn, and note down the readings of
the two ac voltmeters in each case. Record
16.
17. The observations in a tabular form. Switch off the ac mains.
Precautions:
1. Make sure that the connections are neat, visible
and tight.
2. Care should be taken while working with ac
current.
3. After each observation, the circuit should be
switched off for a short time.
4. Number of turns in the two coils should be
counted carefully.
5. The wires should not be touched with naked
hands.

Sources of error:
1. The number of turns in the two coils might not
have counted accurately.

2. The setting up of eddy currents in the core of

the self-designed transformer may affect the
result.
Conclusions:
• Within the bounds of experimental results, the
ratio of primary to secondary voltage (Vp/Vs) is
equivalent to the turns ratio of the primary to
secondary coils (Np/Ns). This also represents the
relationship between the output and input voltages
of the transformer. Conversely, (Np/Ns) signifies
the transformer’s turns ratio.

• By carefully selecting the turns ratio (Np/Ns), one

can achieve a step-up or step-down
transformation.

• The coils are positioned in close proximity to each

other, facilitating their mutual induction. Power
transfer primarily occurs from the primary to the
secondary winding via this mutual induction.

• A constant DC voltage cannot be amplified or

reduced by a transformer. This is because a steady
DC current does not generate a varying magnetic
flux, which is necessary to induce voltage.
OBSERVATIONS:
Number of turns in the primary coil, Np=100 turns

Number of turns in the secondary coil, Ns=10 turns

Ratio = Np/Ns= 100/10 = 10

[Link] Input ac Output ac Ratio =

voltage voltage Vs/Vp
Vs (volts) Vp (volts)

1. 3V 0.15 20.00

2. 6V 0.30 20.00

3. 9V 0.45 20.00
References:
•
Certificate:
This is to certify that Satyansh Raj of class XII ‘
SCIENCE’ of Narayana School Asansol roll number
24 has successfully completed his Physics
Investigatory Project File. All the works related to
the project was done by candidate. The approach
towards the subject has been sincere and scientific.

I certify that this project (project/file) is up to my

expectation and as per the guidelines issued by the
CBSE.

____________________ __________________
External Examiner Internal Examiner

____________________
Principal
Acknowledgement:

I would like to thank my Physics teacher Mrs Poonam Rao for

guiding me throughout this project work.

A special acknowledgement goes to our principal Mrs Aparna

Mukherjee who gave me the golden opportunity of this
project, which also helped me doing a lot of research and I
came to know about so many new things.

____________________ ____________________
External Examiner Internal Examiner

____________________
Principal