Kampala Mathematics Club

░ 10░
Calculus : Integration
Integration or anti-differentiation

You have probably wondered if it is possible to find a function given its derivative.
dy
For example, if = x2 + 2x – 3, is it possible to find y?
dx
We can think of this as a process of anti-differentiation, the inverse operation to
differentiation, though it is actually called integration, and the result an integral.
The principle is easily found for single terms. We remember that if we differentiate xn we
1
get nxn-1. So if we differentiate xn +1 we get (n + 1)xn. and if we differentiate x n +1 we
n +1
get xn.
dy x n +1 x n +1
Hence if = xn , y = i.e., the integral of xn (with respect to x) is . (n ≠ - 1).
dx n +1 n +1
dy x6
For example, if = x5 , y= ;

If

If
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
= 3x2,

= 6,
C y=
6
3x 3

y = 6x;
3
= x3 ;
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dy 1 x −1 1
If = 2 = x-2, y= = − .
dx x −1 x
Check each of these results by differentiating y with respect to x,
However, there is one important point to notice before proceeding further. If we
differentiate x3 – x + 5, x3 – x – 5, x3 – x with respect to x we obtain 3x2 – 1 in each case.
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On integrating 3x2 – 1 the constant term cannot be recovered, without further information.
To show that there is a constant tem’ in the integral, we add an arbitrary constant c (which
may be zero).

dy
Hence if = axn
dx
ax n +1
y = + c. (n ≠ - 1),
n +1
This is known as the indefinite integral of axn, and the constant c should always be added.
We shall discuss this matter further below.

Our working rule is: increase the index of the term by 1 and divide by the new index,
leaving coefficients as they are, and add an arbitrary constant. The result can always be
tested by differentiation.

Example 1

Integrate with respect to x

3
1
(a) 5; (b) x 2 ; (c) 4 x (d) .
x

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dy
(a) If = 5
dx
Then y = 5x + c. (In using the rule, 5 can be thought of as 5xo).
dy 3
(b) If = x2,
dx
5
x2
Then y = 5
2
2 52
= x + c.
5
dy 1
(c) If = 4 x = 4x 2 ,
dx
3
4x 2
then y = 3
2
8 32
= x + c.
3
dy 1 − 12
(d) If = = x ,
dx x
1
x2
Then y =

If
dy
dx
=
1
2
1
2x 2 + c
C or 2 x + c.
is given as a polynomial, integrate term by term. In this way it is possible to integrate
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x4 + x − 3 1 3 x4 + x − 3
as x + - but not ; (2x + 3)2 can be integrated if expanded first.
x 3
x 2
x 3 x +1

Example 2
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dy 1
If = 3x3 – 4x2 + 5x – 1 + 2 , find y.
dx x

3x 4 4x 3 5x 2 x −1
y = - + -x+ +c
4 3 2 −1
3x 4 4x 3 5x 2 1
= - + -x- + c.
4 3 2 x
dy 1
Note: There is one important exception. If = = x-1 what is y?
dx x
x0 1
If we use the rule, then y = which is not defined. Hence cannot be integrated by this
0 x
method. There is an integral, a surprising one. The integral is a logarithm function but the
work is too advanced for subsidiary level!

dy
Summarizing, If = axn,
dx
ax n +1
y = +c Provided n ≠ - 1.
n +1

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Exercise 10.1
Integrate with respect to x, simplifying your results where appropriate. Check the first ten
by differentiation.
1. x2 2. x3 3. 2x4 4. 3x
1
5. 4x5 6. 8 7. x7 8.
x3
1 2
−1
9. 2 x 10 4x 2 11. x3 12. x 2
3 x6 1
13. 1 14. x4 15. 16. 3
2 x
3 2 4
17. x +x +x+1 18. 3x – x + 2 19. x- x
x +x+2
4 3x + x − 2
3
20. 21. 22. (x + 3)2 23. (x – 1)2
x 3
2x 3
1 ( x + 3) 2
24. (x - )2 25. (1 + x2)2 26. (x – 1)3 27. .
x 2x 4

Exercise 10. 1
1. x3/3 2. x4/4 3. 2x5/5 4. 3x2/2
5. 2x6/3 6. 8x 7. x8/8 8. − 12 x −2
9.
17.
18.
4x 2 /3
4
3

3
15.
2
x /4 + x /3 + x /2 + x
3x5/5 - x2/2 + 2x
x2/2 – 1/x – 1/x2
x7/14 C
19.
16.

x2/2 – 2x 2 /3
3

3x/2 – 1/2x + 1/x2

3
3x 2 /2
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20. 21.
22. x2/3 + 3x2 + 9x 23. x3/3 – x2 + x
24. x3/3 – 2x – 1/x 25. x5/5 + 2x3/3 + x
26. x4/4 – x3 + 3x2/2 – x 27. -3/2x3 – 3/2x2 – 1/2x
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The arbitrary constant

dy
If we differentiate y = 3x2 + 2x+ 5 we obtain = 6x + 2.
dx
dy
On integrating we must write y = 3x2 + 2x + c.
dx
Without further information the actual solution could be for example,
y = 3x2 + 2x + 5
or y = 3x2 + 2x
or y = 3x2 + 2x – 3 (fig 10.1).
dy
Each of the curves shown is the graph of a solution of the differential equation = 6x +
dx
2. They are identical in position, which depends on the shape (all parabolas) and differ
dy
only value of the constant term. For any particular value of x, is the same for all the
dx
curves, so the tangents at 5 corresponding points are parallel, i.e. curves are parallel.

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y
y = 3x2 + 2x + 5

y = 3x2 + 2x

x
0
y = 3x2 + 2x – 3

-3

Fig 10.1
dy
Summarizing, if = 6x + 2, the indefinite integral or general solution is
dx
y = 3x2 + 2x + c
which represents a family of parallel curves. c is an arbitrary constant. To find the actual
value of c, thus identifying a particular member of the family, a pair of values of x and y
(i.e., one point on the curve) must be given. See Example 4 below.

Notation for integration

If
dy
dx C
= 6x + 2, then we write y = ∫ (6 x + 2) dx (read ‘integral (6x + 2)dx’).
∫ is the sign of integration or the integral sign and ∫ and dx must both be written. The
function to be integrated, called the integrand, is placed between them. dx is written to
show that the integrand is to be integrated with respect to x.
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dy
So if = f(x),
dx
y = ∫ f(x)dx + c where c is any constant.

Example 3
x3 3x 2
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∫ (x2 + 3x + 4)dx = + + 4x + c;
3 2
s3
∫ (s2 + 4s)ds = + 2s2 + c;
3

t 3 + 3t 2 − 1 1
∫ 2
dt = ∫ (t + 3 - ) dt
t t2
t2 1
= + 3t + + c.
2 t
Example 4
dy
If = 6x + 2, find y given that y = 3 when x = 1.
dx
y = ∫ (6x + 2)dx
= 3x2 + 2x + c.
Substitute the given information.
Then 3 = 3+2c
Giving c = -2.

Hence y = 3x2 + 2x – 2.

Example 5

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A particle moves in a straight line such that its acceleration after time t s is a ms-2 where a
= 2t2 + t. if its initial velocity was 3 ms-1 find an expression for s, the distance (in m)
traveled from the start in t s.
dv
a =
dt
= 2t2 + t.

Hence v = ∫ (2t2 + t) dt
2t 3 t2
= + + c.
3 2
When t = 0, v = 3 which gives c = 3.
2t 3 t2
Hence v = + + 3.
3 2
ds
Now v =
dt
 2t 3 t 2 
and hence s = ∫  3 + 3 + 3dt
2t 4 t3
= + + 3t + c.
12 6
(A different arbitrary constant, through the same letter is used).
When t = 0,

Hence s
s = 0 which gives c = 0.

=
t4
6
+
t3
6

Integration of trigonometrical functions

C
+ 3t which is the expression required.
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dy
If y = sin x, = cos x.
dx
Hence ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c (x is in radians).

dy
If y = cos x, = - sin x.
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dx
Hence ∫ sin x dx = - cos x + c (x is in radians).

dy
If y = tan x, = sec2 x.
dx
Hence ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + c (x is in radians).

dy
Further, if y = sin ax, = a cos ax, where a is a constant.
dx
1
Hence ∫ cos ax dx = sin ax + c.
a

1
Similarly ∫ sin ax dx = − cos ax + c.
a
1
And ∫ sec2 ax dx = tan ax + c.
a
Example 6
1
∫ sin 3x dx = − cos 3x + c;
3
x 1 x
∫ (cos 2x – sin )dx = sin 2x + 2 cos + c;
2 2 2

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1
∫ sec2 4 θ d θ = tan 4 θ + c.
4

Exercise 10.2

Find
1. ∫ x dx 2. ∫ 3 dx 3. ∫ (x2 + 1)dx

4. ∫ sin 2x dx 5. ∫ (x + 3)2 dx
dx 1
6. ∫ 2 (abbreviated form of ∫ 2 dx ) 7. ∫ cos 5x dx
x x
1 x
8. ∫ x dx 9. ∫ (x - )2 dx 10. ∫ sec2 dx
x 2
1 x +1
2
11. ∫( x - )dx 12. ∫ dx
x x2
x3 − x2 +1
13. ∫ (cos 2x – sin 4x) dx 14. ∫ dx 15. ∫ x(x – 3) dx
x2
x
16. ∫ (x + 1) (x – 2)dx 17. ∫ (3t + 4t2) dt 18. ∫ (x + cos )dx
3
19.

22.
∫ (t3 – t) dt 20.

∫ (cos x + cos 2x + cos 3x) dx

C
∫ sec2 (
2θ
3
)dθ

dy
21.

23. ∫
2( x + 3)
x3
1
∫ ( x - )2 dx
x
dx.
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24. A curve is given by the differential equation = x + 2, and it passes through the
dx
point (2, 0). Find its equation and sketch the curve.
dy
25. If a curve is given by = 2x + 1 and passes through the point (1, 2), find its
dx
equation and sketch the curve.
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dA 4
26. The rate of change of a quantity A is given by = t2 – 1. If A = when t = 1 find
dt 3
A in terms of t.

27. The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line at time t s is given by v = 2t2 –
3t. Find an expression for the distance (s m) traveled, if s = 0 when t = 0.
28. A particle starts from rest at a point O and moves in a straight line in such a way
that its velocity, v ms-1, after time t s, is given by v = 12t – 3t2, until it comes to rest
again at A after 4 s. Calculate
(a) the distance OA;
(b) the greatest velocity of the particle.

dy 1 1 π
29. If = 2 + cos 2 θ, find y if y = 0 when θ = .
dθ θ 2 2
30. A particle is moving in a straight line and at time t s its acceleration is (6 – kt) ms-2
where k is a constant. When t = 9, the acceleration of the particle is zero and its
velocity is 30 ms-1. Find the numerical value of the velocity when t = 0 and the
distance between its’ positions when t = 0 and t = 9.
31. (i) A curve passes through the point (0, 1) and is such that at every point of the
dy
curve = x2. Sketch the curve.
dx

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(ii) A particle is given an initial velocity of 12 ms-1 and travels in a straight line so
that its retardation after t s is equal to 6t ms-2 until it comes to rest. If the particle
then remains stationary, calcu1ate the distance traveled.
d2y dy dy
32. If 2
= 6x – 4 find given that = 3 when x = 0. If also y = 0 when x = 0
dx dx dx
find y.
33. Integrate with respect to x:
(a) sin2 x (Use the double angle formula cos 2x = 1 – 2 sin2 x in the from sin2 x
1 − 2 cos 2 x
= and now integrate).
2
(b) cos2 2x (Use the double angle formula for cos 4x).

Exercise 10. 2
1. x2/2 2. 3x 3. x3/3 + x
4. − 12 cos 2x 5. 3 2
x /3 + 3x + 9x 6. -1/x
3
7. sin 5x/5 8. 2x 2 /3 9. x3/3 – 2x – 1/x
3 1
10. 2 tan x/2 11. 2x 2 /3 - 2x 2 12. x – 1/x
1 1 2
13. 2 sin 2x + 4 cos 4x 14. x /2 – x - 1/x
3 2 3 3
15. x /3 – 3x /2 16. x /3 – x /2 – 2x 17. 3t2/2 + 4t3/3
2 4 2
18.
21.
23.
25.
x /2 + 3 sin x/3

-2/x – 3/x2
y = x2 + x
3
x2/2 - 4x 2 - 1/x
19.
22.
24.
26.
t /4 – t /2
C 20. 3
2 tan 2θ/3

sin x + 12 sin 2x + 13 sin 3x

y = x2/2 + 2x – 6
A = t3/3 – t + 2
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3 2
27. s = 2t /3 – 3t /2 28. (a) 32 m (b) 12 ms-1
29. y = -1/θ + 14 sin 2 θ + 2π 30. 3; 189 m
3 2
31. (ii) 16 m 32. y = x – 2x + 3x
33. (a) x/2 – (sin 2x)/4 (b) x/2 + (sin 4x)/ 8
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Application of integration (1): Areas

Suppose y = f(x) is the equation of a curve. We assume for the moment that the portion of
the curve between the ordinates x = a and x = b (b > a) lies entirely above the x-axis, i.e. y
> 0 (fig 10.2). We also assume that the curve is ‘continuous’, i.e. that there
are no breaks or gaps in it.

We now find a method of calculating the area enclosed by the curve, the x-axis and Fig
10.2 the ordinates at A and B, i.e. the area ABCD. You will appreciate that up to now only
areas which could be dissected into triangles or trapezium could be found by calculation,
other shapes being found by approximate methods. Our new method is therefore very
important, as it will apply to areas such as ABCD, bounded partly by a curve.
y
C y = f(x)

x
0 a A B
b
Fig 10.2

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Let P be a variable point on the x-axis A and B where OP = x (fig 10.3). Draw the ordinate
PQ (length y) and let the shaded area APQD = A. A is thus a function of x and when x = a,
A = 0. Now take an increment δx in x and the area A is increased by an amount δA, i.e.
the portion PRSQ. RS is y + δy.
y
C
Q S y = f(x)
D
A
x
0 A PR B
x δx
Fig 10.3
Now from fig 10.4 it is seen that area PRTQ < ΔA < area PRSU where QT, US are
parallel to the x-axis.
fig 10.4
U S

Q T

y + δy
y δA

∴
P

y x δx < ΔA< (y + δy) x δx

δx
Fig 10.4
R
Cx
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δA
or y< < (y + δy).
δx
If now δx → 0, δy → 0
δA dA dA
and → and hence = y, as the right hand term of the above inequality
δx dx dx
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tends to y.
Therefore A = ∫ y dx + c
= ∫ f(x) dx + c.

The value of c can be found from the fact that when x = 0, A = 0. We then have A
expressed as a function of x and obtain the area ABCD of fig 10.2.

Note: If the curve has a negative gradient in the range considered (fig 10.5) the above
must be modified as follows.

y
Q
T
}δy
U S

δA

x
0 P δx R
Fig 10.5
The inequality will now be area PRTQ > ΔA > area PRSU
Or y δx > ΔA > (y + δy) δx
δA
i.e. y> > y + δy and in the limit the same result is obtained.
δx

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If the curve contains a turning point in the range, further modification could easily be
devised.
The origin of the sign ∫ may be of interest and will give some idea of an alternative
approach to the question of area calculation. P is a point (x, y) on the curve y = f(x) and
PQRS is a rectangle whose side SR is δx (fig 10.6). The area under the curve will contain
a series of such rectangles, of area y.δx.
y y = f(x)

P Q

x
(fig 10.6) 0 S δx R

Then the area under the curve will be approximately the sum of the areas of these
rectangles, i.e. sum (yδx) for the range considered.
As δx → 0, the hunt of this sum (assuming it exists and can be found) will be the actua1
area under the curve. The initials S of sum is then written in the form ∫ and δx is written as
dx, to show that the limit has been taken.

Example 7
Find the area bounded by the curve y = x2 + 3, the x-axis and the coordinates x = 1, x = 3.
(fig 10.7).
y

C
y = x3 + 3
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x
0 1 x 3
Fig 10.7
By the above, A = ∫ y dx
= ∫ (x2 + 3) dx
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x3
= +3x + c.
3
When x = 1, A = 0.
1
Hence 0 = + 3 + c,
3
1
giving c = −3 .
3
3
x 10
Therefore A 1x = + 3x − , A 1x meaning the area from 1 to x.
3 3
Now put x = 3.
Then A13 = the required area
27 10
= +9 −
3 3
44
= square units.
3

The definite integral

We can now generalize the above process, introducing a very important technique.
Consider the curve y = f(x), y > 0 in the range of x = a to x = b (fig 10.8). Then the area A
between the curve and the x-axis is given by

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y

y = f(x)

x
0 a b
Fig 10.8

A = ∫ f(x)dx +c
= g(x) + c say.
When x = a, the area = 0.
Thus 0 = g(a) + c
or c = - g(a)
Then A ax = g(x) – g(a)
= (value of integral when x = b) – (value of integral when x = a)
b
Which is written ∫a f(x) dx. This is called the definite integral of f(x) with respect to x
between the limits a (the lower limit) and b (the upper limit). It is a function of a and b. the
arbitrary constant c disappears in the subtraction.
Hence if y = f(x) is the equation of a curve, the area between the curve, the x-axis and the
b b
coordinates x = a, x = b (b > a) is given by
C ∫a y dx = ∫a f(x) dx. In the next section we
examine some complications which may arise in finding areas.
The actual technique in evaluating definite integrals is shown in the following examples.

Example 8
M
3
Evaluate ∫1 (x2 – 1) dx.
3
3 x3 
∫1 −
2
(x – 1) dx =  x 
 3  1
Square brackets round the indefinite integrals but omit the arbitrary constant.
K

27 1
= ( - 3) – ( - 1)
3 3
2
= 6+
3
2
= 6
3
Example 9
1
Find the value of ∫−2 (3t – 2) dt.
1
1  3x 2 
∫−2
(3t – 2) dt = 
 2
− 2t 
 − 2
 3 × (1) 2   3 × (−2) 2 
=  − 2 -  − 2(−2) 
 2   2 
   
1
= − - 10
2
1
= - 10 .
2
Example 10

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π/4
Find ∫0 (cos 4x + sin 2x) dx.
π/4
 sin 4 x cos 2 x 
Integral =  4 − 2 
 0
 4π 2π 
 sin cos 
=  4 − 4  -  sin 0 − cos 0 
 4 2   4 2 
 
 
1
= (0 – 0) – (0 - )
2
1
= .
2

Exercise 10.3
Evaluate
1 3 2
∫0 dx ∫0 xdx ∫0 x
3
1. 2. 3. dx
2 π π/2
4. ∫1 (2x − 1)dx 5. ∫0 cos x dx 6. ∫0 sin 2 x dx
1 3 1 2
∫−12x ∫2 x 2 dx ∫0 (x + 1)
3 2
7. dx 8. 9. dx

10.

12.
−1
∫−2 (x
0
2

∫−1 x (x − 1)dx
+ x − 1)dx 11.

13.
Cπ/4
∫0
t
∫0 (x
sec 2 x dx

2
− 3)dx
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1 π
∫0 (s + 3x − 2)ds ∫0 (sin 2θ − cos θ)dθ .
2
14. 15.

Exercise 10. 3
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1. 1 2. 2 3. 4 4. 2
1
5. 0 6. 1 7. 0 8. 6

9. 8 23 10. − 16 11. 1 12. 2

6

13. t3/3 – 3t 14. − 16 15. 0

Further notes on areas

y

x
0 a c b
Fig 10.9
c b b
1. From fig 18.9 it is clear that c ∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ f ( x )dx = ∫ f ( x )dx.
a c a

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2. If y is negative in the range a to b, then the value obtained from the integral
b
∫a f (x )dx will also be negative (fig 10.10) as dx is essentially positive. Thus the
b
numerical value of the shown shaded will be − ∫ f ( x )dx .
a
y

a b
x
0
y

Fig 10.10
3. If the range includes both positive and negative values of y (fig 10.11) the total area
must be found in two parts and will be.
y

c b x
0 a

Fig 10.11

Important note:
b
∫a f (x )dx
C
is the value of the definite integral between the limits of a and b
but it is NOT necessary the correct value for the area under the curve y = f(x) from a to b.
it is the algebraic sum of the areas above and below the x-axis. It is wise to sketch a graph
M
before integrating when finding an area.
4. The area between a curve and the y-axis and the lines y = a, y = b (fig 10.12) will
b
be ∫a xdy . This can be proved in a manner as before.
y
K

x
0
Fig 10.12

5. The area between any two curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) is easily found if the points
of intersection or the limits are known (fig 10.13).
b
The area below y = g(x) is ∫a g(x )dx .
y

y = f(x)

y = g(x)
x
0 a b

Fig 10.13

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Hence the enclosed area (shown shaded) is the difference between two areas above,
i.e.
b b b
∫a f (x )dx - ∫a g(x )dx = ∫a [f (x ) − g(x )]dx assuming f(x) > g(x).
A sketch should always be made to show the relative positions o f the curves.

Example 11

Find the area between the curve y = x2, the x-axis and the coordinates x = 0 and x = 2.
y

Area = + 56

x
0 1 2
Area = − 14
Fig 10.14
The curve crosses the x-axis where x = 0 and x = 1 (fig 10.14). Hence the total area
numerically
1 2
= − ∫ ydx + ∫ ydx
0 1

= −
 3
1
− ∫ ( x 2 − x )dx + ∫ ( x − x )dx
0

 x3 x
−  + 
2  
 3
−
2 1
x3 x2 

2 
C 2
1
2

2
M
0 1
= [ ] [
− ( 13 − 12 ) − 0 + − ( 83 − 42 ) − ( 13 − 12 ) ]
= + 16 + 2
3
+ 1
6
= 1square unit.
Example 12

Find the areas between the curve y = 2x2 and

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(i) the x-axis,

(ii) the y-axis cut off but lines parallel to the axes through the points on the curve where x
= 1 and x = 3 (fig 10.15).
y

18 y = 2x2

Ay

2 Ax
0 x
1 3
Fig 10.15

3
(i) A x is required area = ∫1 y dx
3
= ∫1 2 x 2 dx

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3
 2x 3 
=  
 3  1
= 17 13 .
18
(ii) Ay = ∫2 x dy
18 y
= ∫2 2
dy

1 18
=
2
∫2 y dy
18
1  2 32 
=  y 
2 3 2
1  2 2
 2 3 

=  3 × 18  −  3 × 2 
3 2

2    
1 2 2 
=  3 × 27 × 2 2 − 3 × 2 2 
2  
3
As 18 2 = ( 18 )3
= ( 3 2 )3

Ay
=

=
=
27 x 2 2

36 -
34 23 .
4
3
C
M
Note: In this part the limits must be the limit s which y takes to cover the required range,
y
and the equation of the curve must be written in the form x = + .
2

Example 13
K

Find the area enclosed between the curve y = x2 + 2 and the line y = 4x – 1.

The intersections are given by

x2 + 2 = 4x – 1
2
or x – 4x + 3 = 0
Which gives x = 1 or 3.
y

x
0 1 3
Fig 18.16

The graphs are sketched in fig 10.16. Between x = 1 and x = 3 the line is above the curve.
3 3
∫1 (4x − 1)dx − ∫1 (x + 2)dx
2
Area enclosed =
3
∫1 (4x − 1 − x − 2)dx
2
=
3
∫1 (4x − x − 3)dx
2
=

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
3
 2 x3 
= 2x − − 3x 
 3  1
= (18 – 9 – 9) – (2 - 1 - 3)
3
= 1 13 .

Exercise 10.4

Find the areas between the following curves and the x-axis between the ordinates at the
values given. In each case sketch the curve.

1. y = x 2; x = 0, x = 3 2. y = 3x – 2; x = 3, x = 4

3. y = x2 – 3x; x = 0, x = 3 y = x2 – 5x + 6;
4. x = 2, x = 4
1
5. y = x 3; x = 1, x = 3 6. y= 2; x = 1, x = 3
x
7. y = (x – 1) (x – 3); x = 1, x = 3 8. y = (1 – x) (x – 2): x = 0, x = 3
9. Sketch the curve y = 3x – x2 and calculate the area between the curve and the x-
axis.

10. Find the area between the curve y = sin x and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = π.
11.

12.

13.
C x
1
Find the area between the curve y = 2 , the y-axis and the lines y = 4, y = 9.

Find the area enclosed between the curves y = 2x2 and y2 = 4x.

Find the area between the x-axis and the part of the curve y = (x – 3)(2 – x) which
M
is above the x-axis.

14. Make a rough sketch of the curve y = x(x + l)(x + 3) from x = -4 to x = +1. What
are the slopes of the graph at the points where it closes the x-axis?
Calculate the area enclosed by the x-axis and the curve between x = -3 and x = -l.
K

15. Draw a rough sketch of the curve y = x(x – 1)(x – 2). If this curve crosses the axis
of x at O, A and B (in that order), show that the area included between the arc OA
and the x-axis is equal to the area, included between the arc AB and the x-axis.

16. The curve y = ax2+ bx + c passes through the points (1, 0) and (2, 0) and its
gradient at the point (2, 0) is 2. Find the numerical value of the area included
between the curve and the axis of x.

17. Draw a rough sketch of the curve y2 = 16x. Calculate the area enclosed by the curve
and the line x = 4.

18. The curve y = ax2 + b passes through the points (0, k) and (h, 2k). Express a and b
in terms of h and k. Show that the area bounded by the curve, the x-axis, the y-axis
and the line x = h is 34 hk .

19. Calculate the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line x – y – 1 = 0 and
the curve y = 5x – x2 – 4. In the same diagram sketch the line and the curve for
values of x from 0 to +5. Calculate the area contained between the line and. the
curve.

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
20. Sketch the curve whose equation is y = (x – 1)3. Find the equation of the tangent to
this curve at the point where x = 3. Calculate the area enclosed by the curve, the
tangent at the point where x = 3 and the x-axis.

Exercise 10. 4
1. 9 2. 8 12 3. 4 12 4. 1
2
5. 20 6. 3 7. 1 13 8. 11
6

9. 4 12 10. 2 11. 2 12. 2

3
1 8 1
13. 6 14. 3, -2, 6; 3 15. 16. 3

17. 128
3 18. k,k/h2 19. (1, 0), (3, 2), 4
3
4
20. y = 12x – 28; 3

Applications of integration (2): Volumes of revolution

A solid which has a central axis of symmetry is a solid of revolution for example, a cone, a
cylinder, a flower, etc. Imagine the area under a portion AB of the curve y = f(x) revolved
about the x-axis through four right angles or 360o, the x-axis acting as a kind of hinge (fig
10.17). Each point of the curve describes a circle centered on the x-axis. A solid of

x-axis at x = a and x = b.
y
C
revolution can be thought of as created this way, with two circular plane ends, cutting the
M
x
0

Fig 10.17
K

Let V be the volume of the solid from x = a up to an arbitrary value of x between a and b
(fig 10.18). Given an increment δx in x, y takes an increment δy and V an increment δV.

Fig 18.19 shows a section through x-axis and from this it is seen that the slice δV of
thickness δx is enclosed between two cylinders of outer y + δy, and inner radius y.

y y

y y + δy
0 x a δV x

δV
δx
Fig 10.18 x
Fig 10.19

Then πy2 δx < Δv < π (y + δy)2 δx, with appropriate modification if the curve is falling at
this point.
δV
Then πy2 < < π (y + δy)2.
δx
δV dV
Now let δx → 0 and δy → 0 and → .
δx dx

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
dV
Hence from the above inequality, = πy2
dx
b
∫a πy
2
or V = dx
where y = f(x) and V is the volume e of solid generated when the curve y = f(x) between
limits x = a and x = b is rotated completely around the x-axis.

Example 14
The portion of the curve y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 2 is rotated completely round the x-
axis. Find the volume of the solid created.
y

x
0 2

Fig 10.20
2
∫0 πy
2
V = dx
2
∫0 πx
4
= dx
2
 x5 
π 
=

=
32π
5
 5  0

(≈ 20.1) units of volume.

C
Similarly if a portion of the curve y = f(x) between the limits y = a and y = b is rotated
M
completely round the y-axis, the volume of the solid generated will be given by
b
∫a πx
2
V = dy which can be proved in the same way.

Example 15
The part of the curve y = x3 from x = 1 to x = 2 is rotated completely round the y-axis.
K

Find the volume of the solid generated (fig 10.21).

y

y = x3

x
0 1 2
8 Fig 10.21
∫1 πx
2
V = dy .
Note the limits: these are the limits of y corresponding to x = 1, x = 2. We must also
express the integrand in terms of y, as we are integrating with respect to y.
8 2

∫1 πx
23
Then V = dy
8
3 5 
= π  y3 
 5 1
3  3 
= π  × 32  - π  ×1
5  5 

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93π
= .
5
Exercise 10.5

Leave your answers in terms of π, as in Example 15.

1. Find the volume generated by rotating the curve y = x + 1 from x = 1 to x = 2
completely round the x-axis.
2. The portion of the curve y = 12 x2 from x = 0 to x = 2 is rotated about the x-axis
through four right angles. Find the volume generated.
3. Sketch the curve y = x2 – x. The part below the x-axis is rotated about the x-axis to
form a solid of revolution. Find its volume.
4. If the part of the curve y = x2 from x = 1 to x = 2 is rotated completely about the y-
axis, find the volume of the solid so formed.
5. The part of the line y = mx from x = 0 to x = h is rotated about the x-axis through
four right angles. Find the volume generated and hence show that the volume of a
right circular cone of base radius r and height h is 13 πr2h.
6. If the area enclosed between the curves y = x2 and the line y = 2x is rotated around
the x-axis through four right angles, find the volume of the solid generated.
7. Calculate
(a) the area bounded by the x-axis and the curve y = x – 3 x ;
(b) the volume generated by revolving this area through four right angles about the
x-axis. Leave this result in terms of π.

8.
C
Find the area included between the curves y2 = x3 and y3 = x2. Find also the volume
obtained by rotating this area through four right angles about the axis of x.
M
3
9. An area is bounded by the curve y = x + , the x-axis and the ordinates at x = 1
x
and x = 3. Calculate the volume of the solid obtained by rotating this area through
four right angles about the x-axis.
10. The equation x2 + y2 = r2 represents a circle radius r, centre the origin. The quarter
circle in the first quadrant is rotated completely round the x-axis to form a
K

hemisphere. Find its volume and deduce a formula for the volume of a sphere of
radius r.

11. The area contained between the curve y2 = x – 2, the x-axis, the x-axis, the y-axis
and the line y = 1 is rotated about the y-axis through four right angles. Find the
volume of the solid generated.

12. Sketch the curve y2 = x – 1. The area contained by this curve, the y-axis and the
lines y = ±2 is completely rotated about the y-axis. Find the volume of the solid so
formed.

Exercise 10. 5
1. 19π/3 2. 8π/5 3. π/30 4. 15π/2
5. πm2h2/3 6. 64π/15 7. (a) 13.5; 24.3π
5 ; 5π/28 80π/3 2π3/3 83π/15
1
8. 9. 10. 11.
12. 412π/15

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░11░
Compound and Multiple Angles:
Trigonometry 2
Trigonometrical Identities

If A and B are two angles, it is useful to have expressions for sin (A + B), cos (A + B), etc
in terms of the ratios for A and B separately. A first, suggestion might be that sin (A + B)
= sinA + sinB.
Test this by taking A = 60 , B = 30°. Then sin(A + B) = sin 90o = 1 but sin A + sin B = sin
o

3 1
60o + sin 30o = + which ≠ 1.
2 2
So sin(A + B) is NOT equal to sin A + sin B. We now derive the correct formulae for
compound angles A + B, A – B.

Sum of two angles (A + B)

1 unit
M

P
C
B SinA

N
M
Cos A

A
O B
A
Q R B
Fig. 1
K

A triangle MNO is right-angled at N and has NOM = A (fig. l1.1). The hypotenuse, OM,
is of unit length, so MN = sin A and ON = cos A. The triangle is placed with its base, ON,
on a horizontal line, AB. The triangle is then rotated anticlockwise about point 0, through
 
an angle of B. Angle B = BOM . Now BOM = (A + B) and it is required to find sin (A + B)
and cos (A + B) in terms of sin A, cos A, sin B and cos B.
1. Drop a perpendicular MQ to AB.
2. Draw NP perpendicular to MQ, meeting it at P.
3. Drop a perpendicular NR to AB.
MQ
Now sin (A + B) = = MQ (since OM is 1 unit long).
OM
 
In triangle MPN, PMN = B (B = PNO = 90° - MNP = PMN)

and MNP is a right angle (PN ⊥ PM)
MP
∴ cos B =
MN
i.e. MP = MN cos B = sin A cos B.

In triangle ONR, NRO is a right angle (NR ⊥ AB)
NR
∴ = sin B
ON

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
i.e. NR = ON sin B = cos A sin B but PNRQ is a rectangle (PQ and NR ⊥ QR;
NP ⊥ MQ)
∴ NR = PQ
i.e. PQ = cos A sin B.
Now sin (A + B) = MQ = MP + PQ
= sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
OQ
cos (A + B) = = OQ
OM
= OR – RQ = OR – PN
= ON cosB – MN sin B
= cos A cos B – sin A sin B.

Difference of two angles (A – B)

Start with the triangle MNO again, but this time rotate it clockwise about point 0, through
an angle B, as in fig 11.2.

Now BOM = (A – B) and it is required to find sin (A – B) and cos (A – B).

1 unit Bo
sin A

Ao - Bo R
A
Bo Q

1.
cos A

Fig 11.2
Draw MQ perpendicular to AB.
N
C P
M
2. Produce MQ to P and draw NP perpendicular to MP.
3. Draw NR perpendicular to AB.
MQ
Now sin (A – B) = = MQ (OM is 1 unit long).
OM

In triangle MNP, NMP = B.
K

Hence MP = MN cos B = sin A cos B

and NP = MN sin B = sin A sin B.

In triangle ONR, ORN is a right angle.
Hence RN = ON sin B = cos A sin B
And OR = ON cos B = cos A cos B.
Now sin (A – B) = MQ = MP – QP
= MP – RN (RN = QP: opp. sides of rectangle)
= sin A cos B – cos A sin B.
OQ
cos(A – B) = = OQ
OM
= OR + PQ = OR + NP (RQ = NP: opp.
= cos A cos B + sin A sin B sides of rectangle).
These results are very important and must be remembered; they are summarized below:
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin(A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B
cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.

These formulae are identities, as they are true for any value of angles A and B. Although a
proof has only been given for acute angles, the identities can be proved true for angles in
any quadrant, and of any magnitude.

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The formulae can be used as an alternative way of determining the ratios of angles of any
magnitude. For example:
sin 330o = sin (360o – 30o)
= sin 360° cos 30° - cos 360° sin 30o
= 0 x cos 30o = − 12 .
cos 240o = cos (180o + 60o)
= cos 180ocos 60o – sin 180osin60o
= (-1) x cos60o – 0 x sin60o
= - cos 60o = − 12
They can also be used to find the value of negative angles. For example:
sin (-A) = sin (0o – A)
= sin 0o cosA – cos0o sinA
= 0 x cosA – (1) x sinA
= - sinA.
The formulae can also be used to find the ratios of compound angles in a simple way. Care
must be taken over the signs of the ratios involved.

Example 1

If sin A = 4 and cosB = 12

find the values of
5 13
sin (A + B) and cos(A + B) without using tables,
(i) if A and B are both acute angles, (ii) if A is obtuse and B is acute.
If sin A = 4
5
then cosA =

=
C1 − sin 2 A

1−
16
25
=±
3
5
(+ if A is acute and – if A is obtuse)
M
12
If cos B = , then sin B = 1 − cos 2 B
13
144 5
= 1− = (+ if B is acute).
169 13
(i) sin (A + B) = sinA cos B + cosA sinB
K

4 12 3 5 63
= x + x = .
5 13 5 13 65
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B
3 12 4 5 16
= x - x =
5 13 5 13 65
4 12 3 5 33
(ii) sin (A + B) = x + (− ) x =
5 13 5 15 65
3 12 4 5 56
cos (A + B) = (− ) x - x = − .
5 13 5 15 65
If special angles are used, the answer can usually be expressed in surd form.

Example 2

Find the value of sin 15°, leaving the answer in surd form.
sin 15o = sin (45o – 30o) = sin 45° cos 30° - cos 45° sin 30o
1 3 1 1
= x - x
2 2 2 2
3 −1 6− 2
= = .
2 2 4

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The formulae can also be used to reduce certain trigonometrical expressions to a single
ratio.

Example 3

Express as a single ratio: (a) cos 32o cos 48° - sin 32° sin 48o;
1
(b)
sin 46 cos 44 + cos 46 0 sin 44 0
0 0

(a) cos(A + B) = cosA cos B - sin A sin B

Put A = 32°; B = 48°
cos 32°cos 48° - sin32° sin 48 = cos(32° + 48°) = cos80o
(b) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
Put A = 46°; B = 44°
1 1
=
sin 46 cos 44 + cos 46 sin 44
0 0 0 0
sin( 46 + 44 0 )
0

1
= = 1.
sin 90 0
Example 4

Given that sin x cos y = 13 and cos x sin y = 16 , find the values of sin (x + y) and sin
(x – y). Hence find the values of x and y lf (x + y) is an acute angle.
sin (x + y) =
= +
3 6
= .
2
sin(x – y) sin x cos y – cos x sin y
C
sin x cos y + cos x sin y
1 1 1
M
1 1 1
= - = .
3 6 6
1
If sin (x + y) = then (x + y) = 30o
2
1
If sin (x – y) = = 0.1667, then (x – y) = 9o 36′.
K

6
x+y = 30o
x–y = 9o 36′
2x = 39o 36′
∴ x = 19o 48′
y = 30o - 19o 48′ = 10o 12′.

Exercise 11.1

1. If cos A = 54 and cosB = 12

13
, both angles being acute, find the value of sin (A + B)
without using tables.
2. Given cos A = 0.8 and cosB = 0.6, find, without using tables, the value of (a) sin (A
– B); (b) cos (A – B); (c) the value of (A + B) in degrees.
5
3. sin A = 13 and A is obtuse; cos B = 54 and B is acute. Find without using tables the
value of (a) in (A + B); (b) cos (A + B); (c) cos(A – B).
4. Express as single trigonometrical ratios:
(a) sin 36o cos 29o + cos36 sin 29o;
(b) cos63o cos 27o + sin 63o sin 27o
(c) sin 120o cos54° - cos120° sin 54o;
(d) cos23o cos58o - sin 23o sin 58o.
5. Find the value of cos75° in surd form, using the ratios of special angles.
6. Find the value of cos15° in surd form.

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7. Using the identity cos90o = cos (45° + 45o), prove that cos90° = 0.
3 1 1
(a) 1
2
cosθ + sinθ; (b) cosθ - sinθ.
2 2 2
9. By using the formulae for compound angles, prove that:
(a) sin (180° + θ) = sinθ; (b) cos (270° + θ) = sin θ.
10. Final in surd form, the value of the following ratios:
(a) cos 10°; (b) sin 165o; (c) sin 345°.
3 1
11. Given that sinx cosy = 4 and cosx siny = 4 , find the values of sin (x + y) and sin (x
– y). Hence, or otherwise, find the values of x and y if (x + y) ≤ 90o.
12. Given that cosx cosy = 23 and sin x siny = 16 , find the values of cos(x + y) and
cos(x – y). Hence find the values of x and y if (x + y) ≤ 90o.
13. cos x cos y = 34 and sin x sin y = 14 . Find he values of cos (x + y) and cos (x – y)
and hence deduce the values of x and y if (x + y) ≤ 90o.
14. Solve for 0o ≤ x ≤ 360o, the equations:
(a) sin 40o cos x + cos 40o sin x = 1;
(b) 2(cos 50o cos x + cos 40o sin x) = 3.

Exercise 11.1(Answers)
56
1.

2.
65

(a) sin (A – B) = -0.28

(c) A + B = 90 o

(a) sin (A + B) = − 16
C (b) cos (A – B) = 0.96

(b) cos (A + B) = − 65
M
63
3. 65

(c) cos (A – B) = − 33
65

4. (a) sin 65o; (b) cos 36o; (c) sin 66o (d) cos 81o
2− 2 6+ 2
K

5. 6.
4 4
7.
8. (a) cos (60o – θ); (b) sin (45o – θ) or (θ + 45o)
2− 6 6− 2 6− 2
10. (a) ; (b) (c) −
4 4 4
11. 1, 1
2 , x = 60o, y = 30o 12. 1
2 , 5
6 , x = 46o 47′, y = 13o 13′;

13. 1, 1
2 , x = y = 30o 14. (a) 50o, (b) 20o, or 80o.

Tangents of compound angles

The tangents of compound angles can be deduced from the formulae for the sines and
cosines of compound angles.
sin (A + B)
tan (A + B) =
cos (A + B)

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B
+
cos A cos B cos A cos B (divide numerator and
=
cos A cos B sin A sin B
− denominator by cosA
cos A cos B cos A cos B
cos B)
tan A + tan B
=
1 − tan A tan B
Similarly
sin ( A − B)
tan (A – B) =
cos ( A − B)
(divide numerator and
sin A cos B − cos A sin B
=
cos A cos B + sin A sin B denominator by cos A
tan A − tan B cos B)
=
1 + tan A tan B
These formulae are important and must be remembered; they are summarized below.
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
tan (A – B) =
1 + tan A tan B
C
The tangent formulae are used in the same way as those for sine and cosine.

Example 5
If tan A = 13 and tan B = 34 , both A and B being acute angles, find the value of tan (A + B)
M
without using tables.
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
1 + 3 4+9
3 4 12
K

= =
1 − 13 × 34 1 − 14
13
12 13 4 13
= 3
= x = .
4
12 3 9
Example 6
1
If tan (A – B) = 5 , and tan A = 2, find the value of tan B.
tan A − tan B 1
tan (A – B) = =
1 + tan A tan B 5
2 − tan B 1
= =
1 + 2 tan B 5
i.e. 1 + 2 tan B = 10 – 5 tan B
∴ 7 tan B = 9 i.e. tan B = 97 .

Example 7
Express the following as a single trigonometrical ratio:
3 + tan θ
.
1 − 3 tan θ
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
Hence tan A = 3
i.e. A = 60 (or 240°) and B = θ
o

3 + tan θ
∴ = tan (60° + θ) or tan (240° + θ).
1 − 3 tan θ

Exercise 11.2

1. Find the value of each of the following expressions in surd form:

(a) tan (45° + 30o); (b) tan 15o; (c) tan 105°;
(d) cot 165°.
2. If tan A = 13 and tan B = 12 , both A and B being acute, find the value of tan (A – B)
without using tables.
3. If tan A = 12 and tan B = − 14 , A being acute and B being obtuse, find the value of
tan (A + B) without using tables
4. Express the following as single ratios:
tan θ − 3 1 + tan θ
(i) ; (ii) .
r + 3 tan θ 1 − tan θ
5. Find without using tables, the value of:
tan 20 0 + tan 25 0 1 + tan 15 0
(i) ; (ii) ;
1 − tan 20 0 tan 25 0 1 − tan 15 0

6.
(iii)
tan 75 0 + 3
1 − 3 tan 75 0
.
C
Find, without using tables, the value of tan B if tan A = 14 and tan (A + B) = 2.
1
M
7. Find, without using tables, the value of cot A if cot B = 2 and cot (A – B) = 4.
1
(Hint: tan (A – B) = ).
cot(A − B)
8. If sin A = 53 and cos B = 12
13
, where A and B are both obtuse, find, without using
tables, the values of
K

(i) tan (A + B); (ii) tan (A – B).

Exercise 11.2(Answers)
1. (a) 2 + √3 (b) 2 - √3 (c) –(2 + √3)
(d) –(2 + √3)
2. − 17 3. 2
9

4. (i) tan (θ – 60o) (ii) tan (θ + 45o)

5. (i) 1, (ii) √3 (iii) -1 6. tan B = 7
6

2
7. cot A = 9

8. tan (A + B) = 56
33 ; tan (A – B) = − 16
33

Multiple angles

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The formulae for compound angles can be used to find va1uesq$ multiple angles. In the
first instance, angle B Is made equal to angle A.
Hence sin 2A = sin (A + A) = sinAcosA + cosAsinA
= 2 sinA cosA
Cos2A = cos(A + A) = cosAcos A – sinAsinA
= cos2 A – sin2 A.
2 2
But cos A + sin A = 1
∴ sin2 A = 1 – cos2 A
∴ cos 2A = cos2 A – (1 – cos2 A)
= 2 cos2 A – 1
2
Also cos A = 1 – sin2 A
cos2A = (1 – sin2 A) – sin2 A
= 1 – 2 sin2 A
tan A + tan A
tan2 A = tan(A + A) =
1 − tan A tan A
2 tan A
=
1 − tan 2 A
The formulae for multiple angles are important, and should be memorized; they are
summarized next page.
sin2A = 2sin A cos A
cos2A = cos2 A – sin2A
= 2cos2 A – 1

tan2A
=
=
C 1 – 2sin2A
2 tan A
1 − tan 2 A
Higher multiple angles can be found by building up on the results already found, e.g. sin
3A = sin (2A + A); the right band expression is expanded, using the compound angle
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formula, then sin 2A is substituted from the results above.
Similarly, cos 4A = cos (2A + 2A). In this way ratios of multiples of A can be found in
terms of ratios of single angles.

Half Angles
Half angles can be substituted in the compound angle formulae:
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A A A A
sin A = sin ( + ) = 2 sin cos .
2 2 2 2
A A
Similarly, cos A = cos2 - sin2
2 2
A
= 2 cos2 - 1.
2
A
= 1 – 2sin2
2
A
2 tan 2
And tan A =
1 − tan 2 A2
A useful substitution in later trigonometrical work can be leaved by expressing the
trigonometrical ratios In terms of the tangent of the half angle.
A A A A
Sin A = 2 sin cos (As sin2 + cos2 = 1 the
2 2 2 2
A A original expression is unaltered)
2 sin cos
= 2 2
A A
sin 2 cos 2
2 2

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
2 sin A / 2 cos A / 2
= cos 2 A / 2 (dividing numerator and
2 2
sin A / 2 cos A / 2
+ A
cos 2 A / 2 cos 2 A / 2 denominator by cos2 )
2
A
2 tan
2 A
= now put tan = t.
A 2
tan 2
+1
2
2t
We have sinA =
1+ t2
A A
cosA = cos2 - sin2
2 2
A A
cos 2 − sin 2
= 2 2
2 A 2 A
cos + sin
2 2
1− t 2
= (after dividing numerator and
1+ t2
A A
2 tan denominator by cos2 ).
2
tanA =

=
1 − tan 2

2t
1− t2
.
2
AC
2
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To summarize the results:
2t
sinA =
1+ t2
1− t2
cosA = These are called the t formulae,
1+ t2
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2t A
tanA = where t = tan
1− t 2 2

Example 8
Express sin 3A in terms of sin A.
sin3A = sin(2A + A)
= sin2A cosA + cos 2A sin A
= (2sin A cos A) cosA + (1 – 2 sin2A)sinA
= 2sinA cos2 A + (1 – 2 sin2 A) sin A
= 2 sin A(1- sin2A) + (1 – 2sin2 A)sin A
= 2 sinA – 2sin3 A + sinA – 2sin3A
= 3 sinA – 4sin3 A.

Example 9
Express simply 1 – 2 sin2 42o.
Now cos2A = 1 – 2 sin2 A; put A = 42o.
2 o
1 – 2sin 42 = cos84o.

Example 10
2 tan 30 0
Evaluate, without using tables, .
1 − tan 2 30 0

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
2 tan A
Now tan2A = ; put A = 300.
1 − tan A 2
0
2 tan 30
= tan60o = 3.
1 − tan 302 0

Example 11
If tan θ = 43 , find (i) sin2θ; (ii) tan2θ without using tables.
Now sin θ + cos θ = 1
2 2

i.e. tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ (dividing throughout by cos2 θ)

1
cos2 θ =
1 + tan 2 θ
1 1
cos θ = =
1 + tan 2 θ ± 1 + 16
9

± 16 4
= = ± .
25 5
4 4
Note: If θ is in the 1st quadrant, cos θ = ± ; if θ is in the 3rd quadrant, cos θ = −
5 5
sinθ = ± 1 − cos 2 θ
=

=
± 1−

±
9
25
C
16
25
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3
= ± .
5
3 3
(sin θ, similarly, can be ± in the 1st quadrant, and − in the 3rd
5 5
sin2θ = 2 sin θ cosθ = 2x 53 x 54
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= 24 .
25
(Only a positive result as, if θ is in the 1st quadrant, both sin θ and cos θ are positive; if θ is
in the 3rd quadrant, both ratios are negative).

2 tan θ 2 × 34 6
sin2θ = = = 4
1 − tan 2 θ 1 − 16
9 7
16
= 24
7 (+ as tan θ is given as + 4
5 ).

Example 12
θ is an obtuse angle and tan 2 θ = 125 . Without using tables, find the value of
(a) tan θ; (b) cos2θ (c) cos4θ.
2 tan θ
tan2θ = Let tan θ = t.
1 − tan 2 θ
2t 5
Then tan2θ = =
1− t 2
12
i.e. 24t = 5 – 5t2 which is 5t2 + 24t – 5 = 0
i.e. (5t – 1)(t + 5) = 0 when t = 15 or – 5.
Since θ is obtuse, tan θ = - 5.
If θ is obtuse, and tan 2 θ is positive, 2 θ must lie in the 3rd quadrant.

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1 1
cos2 θ = =
− 1 + tan 2θ 2 − 1 + 144
25

144 12
= − = − `
169 13
cos4θ = 2 cos2 2θ – 1
2
 − 12 
= 2 x  -1
 13 
144 119
= 2x -1 = .
169 169

Exercise 11.3
1. Express more simply as a single ratio:
(a) 2 sin40o cos40o; (b) 2 cos232o – 1;
2 tan 55 0
(c) 1 – 2 sin265o; (d) ;
1 − tan 2 30 0
(e) 2 cos22 θ – 1.
2. Evaluate, without using trigonometrical tables:
2 tan 30 0
(a) sin 75o cos 75o; (b) ;
1 − tan 2 30 0

3.
(c)
(e)

(a)
1 – 2sin215°;
2
2 cos 30° - 1.

sin θ = 12
13
;
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(d) cos230o – sin230o;

Find, without using tables, the value of sin 2 θ when

(b) sin θ =
2
3
.
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4. If cos2θ = 119 , find the value of (a) sin θ; (b) cos θ without using tables.
169
5. If tan2θ = 119 , find, without using tables, the value of (a) tan θ; (b) cos θ; (c) sin
120 θ;
6. If tan θ = 12 , find the va1ues of (a) tan 2 θ; (b) tan 4 θ; (c) tan (4 θ + 45o).
7. Given tan 2A = − 15 8 , find, without using tables, the following ratios, given that
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angle A is acute: (a) tan A; (b) sin A; (c) cos2A.

8. If tan A and tan B are the roots of the equation x2 + bx + c = 0, find in terms of b
and c the value of (a) tan(A + B); (b) cos (A + B).
9. θ is an acute angle and cos2θ = − 53 . Without using trigonometrical tables, find (a)
tan θ; (b) tan4θ.
10. Express cos 3A in terms of cos A.

Exercise 11.3(Answers)
1. (a) sin 80o (b) cos 64o (c) cos 130o (d) tan 110o (e) cos 4θ
2. (a) 1
4 (b) √3 (c) √3/2 (d) 1
2 (e) 1
2

3. (a) ± 120
169
(b) ±√3/2

4. (a) sin θ = 5
13
(b) cos θ = 12
13

5. (a) tan θ = 5
12 (b) cos θ = 12
13 (c) sin θ = 5
13

6. (a) 4
3 (b) − 247 (c) − 17
31

7. (a) tan A = 4 (b) sin A = 4/√17 (c) cos 2A = 15

17

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 Kampala Mathematics Club

−b ± (1 − c)
8. (a) (b)
1− c 1 − 2c + c 2 − b 2
9. (a) tan θ = 2 (b) tan 4θ = 24
7

10. cos 3A = 4 cos3 A – 3 cos A.

The factor formulae

Using the compound angle formulae, the sum of two sines can be written as:
sin (A + B) + sin (A – B)
= sin A cosB + cos A sin B + sin A cos B – cosA sin B
= 2 sin A cosB.
Now let A+B= X and A – B = Y
X+Y
then X+Y= 2A ∴ A =
2
X−Y
and X–Y= 2B ∴ B =
2

sin X + sin Y = 2 sin

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Substituting the values of X and Y for A and B, we have:
X+Y
2
cos
X−Y
2
The formulae for the sum of two cosines can be written as:
cos (A + B) + cos(A – B)
.
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= cosAcos B – sin A sin B + cosAcos B + sin A sin B
= 2 cos A cos B.
Substituting the values of x and y for A and B, we have:
X+Y X−Y
cos X + cos Y = 2 cos cos .
2 2
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Example 13
Express in factor: sin 5 θ + sin θ.
The factors are obtained from the formula for the sum of two sines.
X+Y X−Y
sinX + sinY = 2 sin cos (here X = 5 θ and Y = θ)
2 2
5θ + θ 5θ − θ
∴ sin5θ sinθ = 2 sin cos
2 2
= 2 sin 3 θ cos 2 θ.
The difference of two sines can be written as:
sin (A + B) – sin (A – B)
= sin A cos B + cos A sin B - (sinAcos B – cosA sinB)
= 2 cos A sin B.
Substituting the values of X and Y for A and B, we have:
X+Y X−Y
cosX – cosY = - 2 sin cos .
2 2
Note: Remember the negative sign in this formula.

Example 14
Express in factors: cos 5 θ – cot 3 θ.
X+Y X−Y
cosX – cosY = - 2 sin cos
2 2

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
5θ + 3θ 5θ − 3θ
cos 5 θ – cos 3 θ = - 2 sin cos
2 2
= 2 sin 4 θ sin θ.
The factor formulae are important and should be summarized below:
X+Y X−Y
sin X + sin Y = 2 sin cos
2 2
X+Y X−Y
sinX – sinY = 2 cos sin
2 2
X+Y X−Y
cosX + cosY = 2 cos cos
2 2
X+Y X−Y
cos X – cos Y = - 2 sin sin .
2 2
These formulae can also be remembered verbally, as under:
sine + sine = 2 sin ( 12 sum) cos ( 12 difference)
sine – sine = 2 cos ( “ ) sin ( “ )
cos + cos = 2 cos ( “ ) cos ( “ )
cos – cos = - 2 sin ( “ ) sin ( “ ).

Example 15
Express 2 sin 2 θ cos 5 θ as a difference between two trigonometrical ratios.
X+Y X−Y

i.e.

and
sin X – sin Y =

X+Y
2
X−Y
=

=
5θ

2θ
2 cos

∴
C2
X+Y

X–Y
sin
2
=

=
.

10 θ ………… (1)

4 θ ………….. (2)
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2
Adding (1) and (2), 2X = 14 θ ∴ X = 7 θ.
Subtracting (2) from (1), 2Y = 6θ ∴ Y=3θ
∴ 2 sin2θ cos 5θ = 2 cos 5 θ sin 2 θ
= sin 7 θ – sin 3 θ.
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Equations with multiple angles

The original equation is converted to an equation in the unit angle, using trigonometrical
identities.

Example 16
Solve the equation 5 cos 2x + 9 sin x = 7 for values of x between 0o and 360°.
5 cos 2x + 9 sin x – 7 = 0 Change to an equation in sin x.
i.e. 5 (l – 2 sin2 x) +9 sin x – 7 = 0,
i.e. 10 sin2 x – 9 sin x + 2 = 0,
factorizing (2 sin x – 1 (5 sin x – 2) = 0,
i.e. sin x = 12 ∴ x = 30o or 150o
or sin x = 0.4 ∴ x = 23o 35′ or 156o 25′

Example 17
Solve the equation 4 tan 2x + tan x = 0 for values of x between 0o and 360o inclusive.
4 × 2 tan x
Substitution + tan x = 0,
1 − tan 2 x
i.e. 8 tan x + tan x – tan 3 x = 0,
or tan3 x – 9 tan x = 0*
i.e. tan x (tan2 x – 9) = 0,
either tan x = 0 i.e. x = 0o, 180o, 360o
or tan2 x = 9,

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
i.e. tan x = ± 3 so x = 71o 34′; 108o 26′; 251o 34′; 288o 26′.
Solutions are 0o, 71o 34′, 108o 26′, 180o, 251o 34′, 288o 26′, 360o.

Do not divide throughout by tan x otherwise the solutions of tan x = 0 will be lost. Never
divide by a factor which may give solutions.

Equations of the type acos θ + bsin θ = c

There are various methods of solving this common type of equation. The following
examples show two methods, of which the first is more useful.

Example 18
Solve the equation 3 cos x + 4 sin x = 2, for values of x between 0o and 360o.
The L.H.S. is converted to the form R cos (x – ø) where ø (the auxiliary angle) is acute.
Then 3 cos x + 4 sin x
= R (cos x cos ø + sin x sin ø)
= R (cos x cos ø + R sin x sin ø).
As this is an identity, then R cos ø = 3
R sin ø = 4.
Squaring and adding:

R2 (cos2 ø + sin2 ø) = R2 (9 + 16) = 25 ∴ R=5

(R is always positive).
R sin φ 4
∴ ø = 53o 7′
Dividing

i.e.
R cos φ
=
Ctan ø =

3 cos x + 4 sin x
cos (x – 53o 7′) =
2
=
3
(smallest value taken for the auxiliary angle).
Hence 5 cos (x – ø) = 2
= 0.4.
M
5
Hence x – 53o 7′ = 66o 25′ or 293o 35′.
The solutions are x = 119 32′ and 346o 42′.
o

Example 19
Find the values of θ, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, which satisfy the equation 3 cosθ – sinθ = 1.
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We convert the L.H.S., 3 cos θ – sin θ to the form R cos(θ + ø).

We choose cos (θ + ø) as there is a negative sign between cos θ and sin θ.
As In Example 18, R > 0 and ø (the auxiliary angle) is acute.
Now R cos(θ + ø) = (R cosø)cos θ — (Rsin ø)sin θ.
Compare this with 3 cosθ – 1sin θ.
Then Rcos ø = 3 and R sin ø = 1.
Squaring and adding: R2 cos2 ø + R2 sin2 ø = R2 = ( 3 )2 + (1)2 = 4 and R = 2.
R sin φ 1 π
Dividing = tan ø = so ø = .
R cos φ 3 6
π
Hence 3 cos θ – sin θ = 2cos (θ + ) = 1.
6
π 1 π π 5π π 3π
∴ cos (θ + ) = which gives θ + = or and θ = or .
6 2 6 3 3 6 2

Example 20
An alternative method of solving the equation given in Example 18 uses the t formulae as
shown below.
x
Take t = tan and substitute for sin x and cos x.
2

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
3 cos x + 4 sin x = 2,
3(1 − t )
2
4 × 2t
so + = 2
1+ t 2
1+ t2
which reduces to the quadratic equation
5t2 – 8t – 1 = 0; this is solved by the formula.
8 ± 84
∴ t= = 1.717 or – 0.1165.
10
x x
Hence tan = 1.717 or tan = -0.1165,
2 2
x x
i.e. = 59o 47′ or tan = 173o 24′
2 2
so x = 119o 34′ and 346o 42′
which are the solutions found in Example 18. (There is a slight difference due to
limitations of the tables). This is a satisfactory method to use for solving an equation of
the type a cos θ + b sin θ = c, but maximum and minimum values of a cos θ + b sin θ
cannot be found by this method.

Example 21
Find the maximum and minimum values of 3 cos x + 4 sin x at and the values of x where
they occur.
From Example 18
3cos x + 4sin x = 5cos (x – 53o 7′)

= 5 x (-1) =
C
Now the maximum value of 5cos (x – 53o 7′) 5 x 1.
When (x – 53° 7′) = 0° i.e. x = 53° 7′.
The minimum value of 5 cos (x – 53° 7′)
-5 when (x – 53° 7′) = 180o
233o 7′.
M
i.e. x =

Exercise 11.4

1. Express the following in factors:

(a) sin5θ + sin3θ; (b) cos5θ + cos3θ;
sin2θ – sinθ; cos5θ – cos3θ;
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(c) (d)
(e) sin3θ – sin7 θ; (f) cos2θ – cos8θ;
2. Express the following as the sum or difference of two ratios:
(a) 2 sin3θ cosθ; (b) 2 cos3A sinA;
(c) 2 cos5x cos3x; (d) -2 sin5θ cos3θ;
(e) -2 cos5AsinA; (f) 2 sin7θ sinθ.
3. Express in factors:
(a) cos2θ + cos60o; (b) sin4θ – sin120°;
(c) cos2θ – cos60o.
4. Express the following as the sum or difference of two ratios:
(a) 2 sin(2 θ + 3 θ°) cos (20 – 30°)
(b) 2 cos(θ + 40°)sin(θ – 40°)
(c) -2 sin(A + 62°)sin(A – 62°)
5. Express as factors:
(a) sin (θ + 20°) + sin θ; (b) cos(θ + 60°) — cosθ;
(c) cos 2θ + cos(90° - 3 θ); (d) cos(2 θ + 10o ) + sin(100o – 2θ).
(Hint: cos θ = sin (90o – θ).
6. Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360o.
(a) sin2x = tan x (b) sin2x = cosx
(c) cos2θ – cosθ = 0 (d) 3cos2x – 5 cosx + 4 = 0
(e) 4 cos2x + 2 sinx – 5 = 0 (f) 3tan 2x + 4 tan x = 0
(g) 12 tan2θ tanθ = 1 (h) tan2ytany + 3 = 0.
7. Express in the form pf R cos (θ ± ø) stating the values of R and ø:

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
(a) 2cosθ + 3sinθ; (b) 4cosθ – 3 sinθ;
(c) 5cosθ – 12sinθ; (d) 2 2 sin θ + cosθ.
8. State the maximum and minimum values of the functions in 7(a) - (d) giving the
values of θ (0o < θ < 360o) where they occur.
9. Use the results of 7(a) - (d) to solve the following equation for 0o < θ < 360o:
13
(a) 2 cos θ + 3 sin θ = ; (b) 4 cos θ – 3 sin θ = 1;
2
(c) 5 cos θ – 13 sin θ = -6.5; (d) 2 2 sin θ + cos θ = 3.
10. Find the values of x, (0 ≤ x ≤ 2π) which satisfy the following equations:
(a) sin x + cos x = 1. (b) 3 cos x – sin x = 3 .
11. Using the t formulae, solve the following equations for values of x between 0° and
360°:
(a) 4 cos θ – 3 sin θ = l; (b) 5 cos θ + 12 sin θ = 13.
12. (a) Find the maximum and minimum values of
cos θ – 2 2 sin θ
starting the values of θ (0 < θ < 360o) where they occur.
(b) Solve the equation cos θ – 2 2 sin θ = 2 for 0 < θ < 360°.
13. Using the substitution t = tan θ, solve the equation cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1 for 0 ≤ θ ≤
2π

Exercise 11.4(Answers)

1. (a) 2 sin 4θ cos θ;

C
(b) 2 cos 4θ cos θ (c) 2 cos 3θ / 2 sin θ/2
M
(d) -2 sin 4θ sin θ; (e) -2 cos 5θ sin 2θ (f) 2 sin 5θ sin 3θ
2. (a) sin 4θ + sin 2θ; (b) sin 4A = sin 2A
(c) cos 8x + cos 2x; (d) –(sin 8θ + sin 2θ)
(e) sin 4A – sin 6A; (f) cos 6θ - cos 8θ
3. (a) 2cos (θ + 30°) cos(θ - 30°);
(b) 2 cos (2θ ÷ 60°) sin (2θ - 60°);
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(c) -2 sin (θ + 30°) sin (θ - 30°)

4. (a) sin 4θ + sin 60°; (b) sin 2θ – sin 80°;
(c) cos 2A - cos 124°
θ 5θ
5. (a) 2 sin (θ + 10°) cos 10°; (b) 2 sin (45° - ) sin ( - 45°);
2 2
(c) -2 sin (θ + 30°) sin 30°; (d) 2 cos 2θ cos 10o
6. (a) 0o ; 45° ; 135° ; 180° ; 225° ; 315° ; 360°
(b) 30°; 90°; 150°; 270°
(c) 0°; 120°; 240°; 360°
(d) 60°; 70° 32’; 289° 28’; 300°
(e) 30°; 150°; 194° 29’; 345° 31’
(f) 0°; 57° 41′, 122° 19′; 180° ; 237°41′; 302° 19′; 360°
(g) 11° 19′; 168’ 41′; 191° 19′; 348°41′
(h) 60°; 120°; 240°; 300°
7. (a) √13 cos (θ - 56° 18′) (b) 5 cos (θ + 36° 52′)
(c) 13 cos (θ + 67° 22′) (d) 3 cos (θ - 70° 32′)
8. Maximum Minimum
(a) √13; 56 18′
o
-√13; 236o 18′
(b) 5; 323o 8′ -5; 143o 8′
(c) 13; 292 38′
o
-13; 112o 38′

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
(d) 3; 70o 32′ -3; 250o 32′
9. (a) 11o 18′; 356o 18′ (b) 41o 36′; 244o 40′
(c) 52o 38′; 172o 38′ (d) 70o 32′
π 5π
10. (a) 0; ; 2π (b) 0; ; 2π
2 3
11. (a) 41o 36′; 244o 40′ (b) 67o 23′
12. (a) Max 3, 289 28′, min -3, 109 23′
o o

(b) 241o 17′; 337o 39′

π 5π
13. 0; ; π; ; 2π
4 4

Simple identities

A trigonometrical identity is an expression that is valid for all values of the angles
contained in the expression,
e.g. sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 is true for all values of θ.
The three basic identities, already found, are:
sin2θ + cos2θ =1
1 + tan2θ = sec2θ
1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ

C
These three basic identities, together with the identities for compound and multiple angles
and the identities of the factor formulae, can be used to manipulate trigonometrical
expressions into different forms.
M
Exercises on trigonometrical identities give two e4ressions which have to be proved equal;
the proof depends on substituting the trigonometrical formulae (themselves identities)
given so far. There is no general method of attacking such problems, but the following
suggestions may be useful.
1. Multiplication, or division, by (sin2 θ + cos2 θ) can always be carried out, as the
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expression is equal to unity, and hence does not alter the value of the original
expression. Any of the alternative identities from Pythagoras’ theorem can also be
used.
2. Always look for (sin2 θ + cos2 θ), or its alternative forms, when simplifying an
expression, and replace it by unity.
3. Expressions involving tan 0 and cot 0 are often simplified by replacing tan θ by
sin θ cos θ
and cot θ by .
cos θ sin θ
4. Do not be worried by the size of a trigonometrical expression; the larger
expressions usually are simplified more easily.
5. You can either prove that the left hand side (LHS) of an expression is equal to the
right hand side (RHS) or RHS = LHS. Start with the more complicated expression
and simplify it. Sometimes it is easier to rearrange the identity first and then prove
the rearrangement (see Example 23 below).
6. Try to get the simplest or most elegant proof. The following examples will illustrate
the methods.

Example 22
Prove that cot2θ + tanθ = cosecθ secθ.
cos θ sin θ cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ
LHS = + =
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
1
= (sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1)
sin θ cos θ
1 1
= cosecθ secθ (cosecθ = , secθ = ).
sin θ cos θ

Example 23
Prove that tan2θ + sin2θ = sec2θ – cos2θ.
LHS sec θ – 1 + 1 – cos θ = sec θ — cos2θ.
2 2 2

Alternatively, if the original identity is rearranged as

cos2 + sin2 θ = sec2 θ – tan2 θ.
This is seen to be true, as both sides equal 1.
Hence the original identity must be true.

Identities involving compound angles

Example 24
1 + cot A cot B
Prove that cot (A – B) = .
cot b − cot A
cos(A − B) cos A cos B + sin A sin B
LHS = =
sin( A − B sin A cos B − cos A sin B
As the RHS begins with the figure 1, dividing by sin A sin B, numerator and denominator,
should produce an expression of the correct form.

LHS =
cos A cos B sin A sin B
+
sin A sin B sin A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B
−
C
M
sin A sin B sin A sin B
cot A cot B + 1
=
cot B − cot A
= RHS.

Example 25
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Prove that 2 sin A cos A cos B

= sin B + sin A cos(A + B) + cos A sin(A – B).
Start with the RNS, which is more complicated.
RHS = sinB + sinA (cosA cosB – sinAsinB)
+ cosA (sinA cosB – cosA sinB)
= sinB + sinA cosA cosB – sin2Asin B
+ cos A sin A cos B – cos2A sin B
= sinB (1 - sin2 A – cos2 A) + 2 sin A cos A cos B
but sin A + cos2 A = 1
2
∴ (1 - sin2 A – cos2 A) = 0.
∴ RHS = 2 sinAcosAcosB = LHS.

Identities involving multiple angles

Example 26
1 1
Prove that tan 2 θ cosec θ = + .
cos θ + sin θ cos θ + sin θ
1. Simplify RHS, which is more complicated.
2. Look for sin 2 θ and cos 2 θ to give tan 2 θ.
(cos θ − sin θ) + (cos θ + sin θ)
RHS =
(cos θ + sin θ)(cos θ − sin θ

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2 cos θ
=
cos θ − sin 2 θ
2

2 cos θ
= (2 cos θ has to be changed to sin 2 θ)
cos 2θ
2 cos θ sin θ
= x
cos 2θ sin θ
2 sin θ cos θ
=
cos 2θ sin θ
sin 2θ
=
cos 2θ sin θ
= tan 2 θ cosec θ = LHS.

Example 27
Prove that 2cos θ sin3 θ = sin 2θ (2 cos2 θ + 1)
RHS = 2 sin 2 θ cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ.
= sin 4 θ + sin 2 θ
= 2 sin 3θ cos θ (using formula for the sum o f two sines).

Identities involving the factor formulae

Example 28
sin θ − sin 2θ + sin 3θ
Prove that = tan 2 θ
1.
2.
cos θ − cos 2θ + cos 3θ
C
Simplify LHS which is more complicated.
There are no half angles in RHS, so the ratios must be paired to avoid half angles.
LHS =
(sin 3θ + sin θ) − sin 2θ
(cos 3θ + cos θ) − cos 2θ
M
sin 2θ(2 cos θ − 1)
=
(cos 2θ(2 cos θ − 1)
= tan 2 θ = RHS.

Example 29
K

cos 2(X + Y) + cos 2X + cos 2Y + 1

Prove = - cot X cot Y.
cos 2(X + Y) − cos 2X − cos 2Y + 1
1. Simplify LHS, which is more complicated.
2. Simplify double compound angles and double angles.
3. Expand compound angles.
[2 cos 2 (X + Y) − 1] + 2 cos(X + Y) cos(X − Y) + 1
LHS =
[2 cos 2 (X + Y) − 1] − 2 cos(X + Y) − cos(X − Y + 1
2 cos(X + Y)[cos(X + Y) + cos(X − Y)]
=
2 cos(X + Y)[cos(X + Y) − cos(X − Y)]
cos(X + Y) + cos(Y − Y)  sum of two cos ines 
=  
cos(X + Y) − cos(X − Y)  difference of two cos ines 
2 cos X cos Y
=
− 2 sin X sin Y
= - cotX cotY = RHS.

Exercise 11.5
Prove the following identities:
1. sin4 θ – cos4 θ = sin2 θ – cos2 θ.
2. (cosec A + cot A) (cosec A – cot A) = 1.

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cos ecθ + sec θ cot θ − tan θ
3. = .
cot θ + tan θ cos ecθ − sec θ
1 − tan 2 x
4. = 2 cos2 x – 1.
1 + tan 2 x
1 + sin θ
5. (tan θ + sec θ)2 = .
1 − sin θ
1− cos A 1 1 + cos A
6. If m = , then =
sin A m sin A
sin(A − B)
7. tan A – tan B = .
cos A cos B
8. sin A sin (A – B) = cos B – cos A cos (A – B).
cos ec A cos ec B − sec A sec B
9. cos (A + B) = .
sec A sec B cos ec A cos ecB
10. sin 2 θ (tan θ + cot θ) = 2.
sin( X + Y) + sin( X − Y)
11. = cot Y.
cos(X − Y) − cos(X + Y)
2 sin θ
12. = tan 3 θ – tan θ.
cos 3θ
2
13. tan 2A =
cot A − tan A
14.
15.
16.
sin 3θ + sin θ
cot 3θ + cos θ
= tan 2 θ.
C
cos 3 θ + sin 3 θ = (1 + 2 sin 2 θ)(cos θ – sin θ).

cos B + sin 2B – cos 3B = sin 2B (2 sin B + 1).

M
sin 2(A + B) − sin 2A − sin 2B
17. = - tan A tan B.
sin 2(A + B) + sin 2A + sin 2B
cos 2(C + D) + cos 2C − cos 2D − 1
18. = cot D.
sin 2(C + D) − sin 2C − sin 2D
……………………………………………………………………………………………
K

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………
Ξ
……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

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░ 12░
The Solution of Triangles
A triangle possesses six elements – the three sides and the three angles. If any three
elements (other than three angles) are given, the remaining three elements can be found.
This is called solving the triangle. If three angles are given, an infinite number of similar
triangles can be formed, so there is no definite solution of the triangle.
In solving triangles, two geometrical facts are useful. They are:
1. In any triangle, the sum of the angles is 1800.
2. In any triangle, the longest side is opposite the greatest angle, and the shortest side
is opposite the smallest angle.
Relationships between the sides and the angles must now be established.

The sine rule

In fig [Link], a triangle ABC has a circumcircle around it. Consider angle A. O is the centre
of the circumcircle, and BP is a diameter of the circle. PC is joined. Angle BCP is a right
angle as it is the angle in a semicircle. Let the radius of the circumcircle be R.
A

2R
O
P
C
M
B C

Fig 12.1a
∧ ∧ ∧
Now BAC = BPC (angles in same segment) BAC
∧
K

∴ Sin A = sin BPC

∧ BC
but sin BPC = (from triangle BPC, right angled at C)
BP
a
= where a is the side opposite angle A
2R
a
∴ sin A =
2R
a
i.e. 2R = .
sin A
If A is an obtuse angle
[Link] shows BAC as obtuse. The construction is identical with that for an acute angle
in fig [Link].

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
A
C

B
2
O
P

Fig
∧ ∧
Now BAC + BPC = 1800 (opp. angles of cyclic quad.)
∧ ∧
BAC = 1800 - BPC
∧ ∧
Sin BAC = sin (1800 - BPC )
∧
= sin BPC
∧ BC
Sin BPC = (from triangle BPC, right-angled at C)
BP
a
=
2R
a a
∴ sin A = i.e. 2R = .

sin B
=
∧
2R

2R and
∧
Similarly, by considering B or C , it can be proved that
a
C a
sin C
sin A

= 2R,
M
where b = AC, the side opposite angle B, and c = AB, the side opposite angle C.
a a a
Hence = = = 2R.
sin A sin B sin C
This is the sine rule and should be memorized.
sin A sin B sin C
K

Note: this rule can also be written in the form: = = .

a b c

The cosine rule

Fig 12.2 shows a triangle ABC. Consider angle A which is acute in fig 7 .2a and obtuse in
fig 12.2b. An altitude, CN, is drawn, of length h.
C
C

b a
h h b a

A B c
x N c–x N x A B
Fig 12.2a Fig 12.2b
When A acute
a2 = h2 + (c – x)2 (from triangle CNB)
= h2 + c2 – 2cx + x2
b2 = h2 + x2 (from triangle CNA)
∴ a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cx.

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x
Also cos A =
b
∴ x = b cos A
∴ a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A.
When A is obtuse
a2 = h2 + (c + x)2 (from triangle CBN)
= h2 + c2 + 2cx + x2
b2 = h2 + x2 (from triangle CAN)
∴ a2 = b2 + c2 + 2cx
∧ x
Also cos CAN =
b
∧
∴ x = b cos CAN = b cos (1800 – A) = -b cos A
∴ a 2
= 2 2
b + c – 2bc cos A.
Hence in their triangle a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A.
This is the cosine rule for angle A. By taking angles B and C, two similar formulae can be
derived; the three formulae are:
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
2
b = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
2
c = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C.
These formulae should be memorized

The solution of triangles

Case I C
Two sides and the included angle
Fig 12.3 shows a triangle ABC in which two sides (b and c) and the included A angle (A)
are given. This triangle is solved by first applying the cosine rule; in this triangle
a2 = b2 +c2 – 2bc cos A from which side a is calculated. Angle B is then calculated from
M
sin B sin A
= ,
b a
b sin A
giving sin B = .
a
A
K

c
b

B a C
Fig 12.3

The third angle (C) can now be found by subtracting the sum of the angles A and B from
1800.

Case II Two sides and the included angle

b2 + c2 − a 2
The triangle is solved by first applying the cosine rule in the form cosA =
2bc
from which angle A is calculated. Angle B (or C) can be found using the sine rule. Note
that the remaining angles could be calculated by the cosine rule, but the sine rule is (a)
easier to use, with less calculation and (b) more convenient when using logarithms.

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In any example, always sketch the triangle and mark in the given information; next, use
the appropriate formula to solve the triangle, or obtain a particular piece of information.

Example 1
In a triangle XYZ, YZ = 6.7 cm,
∧ ∧
XY = 2.3 cm, XYZ = 460 32. Calculate XZY

First draw the triangle, marking in the information, as shown in fig 12.4. This is an
example of two sides and the included angle being given. Now XZ must first be found,
using the cosine rule, and then Z found from the sine rule.
X

2.3 cm
46o 32' ?
Y Z
6.7cm
Fig 12.4
∧
XZ2 = YZ2 + XY2 – [Link] cos XYZ
= 6.72 + 2.32 – 2 x 6.7 x 2.3 cos 46° 32’
= 44.89 + 5.29 – 4.6 x 6.7 cos 460 32’

Sin XYZ
∧
XZ
=
=
=

=
28.98
5.383

XY sin XYZ
C
50.18 – 21.20
M
XZ
2.3 sin 46 0 32'
=
5.383
∧
∴ XYZ = 180 04’ or 1610 56’
∧
K

As XY is the smallest side of the triangle, XYZ must be the smallest angle.
∧
Hence XYZ = 180 04’.
(Note: lg cos and lg sin have been used in the working).

Example 2
In the triangle PQR, QR = 4 cm, PR = 5 cm, PQ = 7 cm. calculate the size of the largest
angle in the triangle.
First draw the triangle, marking in the information, as shown in fig 12.5. The required
∧
angle is QPR , opposite the side of 7 cm (the longest side)
P

7 cm
5 cm

Q R
4 cm
Fig 12.5

∧ QR 2 + PR 2 − PQ 2
cos QPR = from the cosine rule
[Link]

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42 + 52 − 7 2
=
2 ×4 × 5
16 + 25 − 49
=
40
−8
= = -0.2000
40
∧
∴ QPR = 1800 – 780 28’ = 1010 32’.

Exercise 12.1
∧
1. In a triangle PQR, PR = 40 cm, PQ = 50 cm, QPR = 66°. Calculate the length of
side QR.
2. If C = 100 37’, a = 156 m, b = 146 m, calculate the magnitude of angle B.
∧ ∧
3. In triangle DEF, EF = 10 cm, DE = 9.87 cm, DEF = 290 09’. Calculate EDF .
4. In triangle ABC, a = 2x, b = 3x, B = 950. Find c, and calculate the smallest angle.
5. In triangle ABC, side a = 6.53 cm, side b = 24 cm, C = 260 14’. Calculate the
remaining side and angles of the triangle.
6. The sides of a triangle are 100 cm, 90 cm, and 50 cm. Calculate the magnitude of
the largest angle.
7. The sides of a triangle are 7p, 8p, 5p. Calculate the size of the smallest angle of the

8.

9.
triangle. C
The triangle ABC has sides with the following measurements: 0.6 km, 0.9 km, 1
km. Calculate the three angles of the triangle.
The sides of a triangle are 0.7x, 1.5x, 1.1x. Calculate the angles of the triangle.
M
Exercise 12.1

1. 49.7 cm 2. 640251 3. 760561 4. 2.07x; 410371

5. 4.5 cm; 390491;66031 6. 860111 7. 380131
8. 360201; 620431; 800571 9. 25 51 ; 110 551; 430141
0 1 0
K

Case IIl Two angles and one side

Fig 12.6 illustrates the given information. The third angle is found by subtracting the sum
of the two given angles from 1800. The sine rule is then used to determine the remaining
two sides.
A

B C
Fig 12.6

Example 3
In triangle ABC, A = 590, B = 390, a = 6.73 cm. Find the length of the smallest side.
First sketch the triangle with the given information (fig 12.7).

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A

59o

39o
B C
6.73 cm
Fig 12.7
C = 1800 – (390 + 590) = 820
Since B is the smallest angle, b is the smallest side.
b a
=
sin B sin A
b 6.73
0
=
sin 39 sin 59 0
6.73 × sin 39 0
b =
sin 59 0
= 4.94 cm.

Case l V Two sides and non-included angle

Suppose we are given the sides a, c and the angle a (fig 12.8).
B

c a
C
M
A C
Fig 12.8

We use the sine rule to find C first. The sine rule is used again to find b, as the third angle
B is now known.
K

Example 4
In triangle ABC, A = 300, c = 10 cm and a = 7.5 cm. Sole the triangle.
We use the sine rule to find C (fig 12.9).
B

10 7.5

30o
A C
Fig 12.9
7.5 10
0
=
sin 30 sin C
10 × sin 30 0 10 × 12
or sin C = = = 0.6667
7.5 7.5
giving C = 410 49’ or 1380 11’.
We have two values for C and both e are possible. Hence there are two possible triangles
ABC 1 and ABC 2 (fig 12.10). This is called the ambiguous case. It will usually arise if the
opposite the given angle is less than the other side and the given angle is acute. (For the
exception see Example 6).

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B
138o 11'
7.5

30o 41o 49'

A C1 C2
Fig 12.10
We must now solve both triangles.
Triangle ABC 1 ,
B = 1800 – (300 + 1380) = 110 49’
AC1 7.5
By the sine rule 0
= ;
sin 11 49' sin 30 0
7.5 × sin 110 49' 7.5 × 0.2048
AC 1 = 0
=
sin 30 0.5
= 3.072 cm.
Triangle ABC 2
B = 1800 – (300 + 410 49’) = 1080 11’
AC 2 7.5
By the sine rule = ;
sin 108 0 11' sin 30 0
7.5 × sin 710 49' 7.5 × 0.9501
AC 2 = 0
=
sin 30 0.5

Example 5
= 14.25 cm. C
In triangle ABC, B = 400, c = 8 cm and b = 12 cm. Solve the triangle.
M
This is not the ambiguous case as b is greater than c, and B is acute (fig 12.11). It should
also be noted that C must be less than 400 and hence could not be obtuse, as it would be in
the ambiguous case. The solution is straight forward.
A

8
12
K

40o
B C
Fig 12.11

8 12
By the sine rule = ;
sin C sin 40 0
8 × sin 40 0
so sin C = = 0.4285,
12
and thus C = 250 22’ (the obtuse value not being possible);
the third angle A = 1800 – (400 + 250 22’) = 1140 38’.
a 12
Using the sine rule again, = ;
0
sin 114 38' sin 40 0
12 × sin 65 0 22'
So a = = 16.97 cm.
sin 40 0

Example 6
In triangle ABC, A = 300, c = 10 cm and a = 4 cm. Solve the triangle.

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B

10
h 4

30o
A C
Fig 12.12
10 4
By the sine rule (fig 7.12) = .
sin C sin 30 0
10 × sin 30 0 10 × 2 1
So sin C = = = 1.25.
4 4
But this is impossible as sin C cannot exceed 1. Hence the triangle cannot be drawn and
there is no solution.
If h is the length of the perpendicular from B to AC, h = 10 x sin 300 = 5, which is greater
than BC. This confirms there is no solution.
In this example, A is acute and less than c. If a is less than c sin A, no triangle can be
drawn and there is no solution.

Summary of Case IV
The possibilities that may arise are:

C
c sin A

c
a
One solution if a > a
a
A
M
c No solution if a < c sin A.
One solution if a = c sin A.
A Two solutions if c sin A < a < c.
K

c a

A
One solution if a > c.

Exercise 12.2
1. In triangle ABC, A = 770 43’, B = 600 45’, b = 4.31 cm. Find the length of the
longest side.
2. In triangle DEF, D = 740, E = 420 16’, DE = 2400 m. Solve the triangle to find the
missing elements.
3. In triangle ABC, B = 1220 44’, C = 150 22’, c = 25 cm. Solve the triangle.
4. In the triangle ABC, B = 310 19’, C = 1090 51’, a = 28 m. Solve the triangle.
5. Examine the data for the following triangles and state whether the ambiguous case
is involved or not, giving your reasons:
(a) Triangle ABC: B = 630 17’, c = 14.2 cm, b = l0.1cm.
(b) Triangle ABC: C = 270 38’, a = 7.9 cm, c = 11.2 cm.
(c) Triangle PQR: Q = 1010 33’ , p = 1.3 cm, q = 4.2 cm.
(d) Triangle XYZ: Y = 690 23’, x = 8.2 cm, y = 9.5 cm.
(e) Triangle PQR: P = 480 32’, q = 5.3 m, p = 4.1 m.
6. In the triangle ABC, B = 280 05’, a = 0.6 cm, b = 0.35 cm. Solve the triangle
completely, giving both solutions if ambiguous.

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7. In the triangle ABC, B = 420 16’, b = 1.8 cm, c = 2.4 cm. Solve the triangle for all
possible solutions.
8. Solve completely the triangle in which A = 1280 17’, a = 24.4 cm, c = 15.6cm.
9. Solve completely the triangle in which B = 690 14’, b = 10.0 cm, c = 8.5cm.
10. Give all possible solutions for the triangle in which B = 650 08’, a = 31.2 m, b =
29.2 m.
11. Solve completely the triangle in which B = 450 07’, a = 89.2 m, b = 67.4 m.
12. Solve completely the triangle in which C = 950 44’, a = 50 cm, c = 90 cm.
13. In the triangle ABC, A = 250 25’, a = 8 mm, b = 5mm. Solve the triangle.
14. Solve the triangle ABC, where A = 1400, b = 2.4 cm, c = 4.5 cm.

Exercise 12.2

1. 4.83 cm
2. F = 630411; EF = 2572 m; DF = 1800 m
3. A = 410541; a = 6.3 cm; b = 7.93cm
4. A = 380501; b = 23.2 m ; c = 42cm
5. (a) Ambiguous case; b < c;
(b) Not the ambiguous case; c > a;
(c) Not the ambiguous case; Q is not obtuse;
(d) Not the ambiguous case; y > x;
(e) Ambiguous case; p < q C
6. A = 530491; C = 98005.51; c = 0.736 cm
A = 1260111; C = 25043.51; c = 0.323 cm
7. A = 740; C = 630441; a = 2.57 cm
A = 210281; C = 1160161; a = 0.979 cm
M
8. B = 210361; C = 300071; b = 11.4(5) cm
0 1 0 1
9. A = 58 08 ; C = 52 38 ; a = 9.08 cm
10. A = 750451; C = 390071; c = 20.3 m
A = 1040151; C = 100371; c = 5.93 m
11. A = 690391; C = 650141; c = 86.4 m
K

A = 1100211; C = 240321; c = 39.5 m

12. A = 330341; B = 500421; b = 70 cm
13. B = 150341; C = 139011; c = 12.23 mm
14. a = 6.52 cm C = 260201; B = 130201

The area of a triangle

1
The area of a triangle is found from the formula 2
(base) x (altitude). The base and
altitude of a triangle are shown in fig 12.14.

Altitude
Altitude

Base
Base Fig 12.14

In fig 12.15, a triangle BC has a perpendicular drawn from A to the side BC.

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C

N
a b
h

B c A

Fig 12.15

If h is the length of the perpendicular, then h = b sin C or c sin B from the triangles CAN,
ABN.
1
Now area of the triangle = 2
ah
1
= 2
ab sin C
1
= 2
ac sin B
1
Similarly it can be shown that the area equals 2
bc sin A. The area of a triangle is usually
represented by the symbol ∆ .

Hero’s formula
In a triangle ABC, where the sides are a, b, c, the perimeter is (a + b + c).

Now (i)
(ii)
a+b–c
a+c–b
(iii) b + c – a
=
=
=
C
Let the perimeter be 2s, i.e. 2s = a + b + c; s is called the semi perimeter.
a + b + c – 2c
a + b + c – 2b
a + b + c – 2a
b2 + c2 − a 2
=
=
=
2s = 2c = 2(s – c);
2s = 2b = 2(s – b);
2s = 2a = 2(s – a).
M
In a triangle ABC, cos A = and from Pythagoras’ theorem
2bc
sin2 A = 1 – cos2 A.
∴ sin2 A = (1 – cos A) (1 + cos A)
 b2 + c2 − a 2   b2 + c2 − a 2 
=  1 −  x 1 + 
 2bc   2bc 
K

2bc − (b 2 + c 2 − a 2 ) 2bc + (b 2 + c 2 − a 2 )
= x
2bc 2bc
a − ( b − c)
2 2
( b + c) − a
2 2
= x
2bc 2bc
(a − b + c) (a + b − c) (b + c − a ) (b + c + a )
= x
2bc 2bc
2(s − b). 2(s − c) . 2(s − a ) : 2s
= .
4b 2 c 2

2
∴ sin A = s( − a ) (s − b) (s − c) ;
bc
But ∆ = 1
2 bc
sin A;
∴ ∆ = s( − a ) (s − b) (s − c) (Hero’s formula).
Using Hero’s formula, the area of a triangle can be found from the three sides.
∆ = 1 x (base) x (altitude)
2
= 1 bc sin A
2
= 1 ac sin B
2

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= 1 ab sin C
2
= s( − a ) (s − b) (s − c) .
Example 7
The sides of a triangle are: a = 12.7 cm, b = 13.9 cm, c = 8.6 cm. Calculate the height of
the perpendicular from A to side BC.
First the area of triangle must be found, using Hero’s formula.
1
s = 2
(12.7 + 13.9 + 8.6) = 17.6
s–a = 17.6 – 12.7 = 4.9
s–b = 17.6 – 13.9 = 3.7
s–c = 17.6 – 8.6 = 9.0
∴ ∆ = 17.6 × 4.9 × 3.7 × 9
Now ∆ = 1 ah
2
where h is the length of the perpendicular.
∆ ∆
∴ h = a
=
2
6.35
≈ 8.44 cm.

Example 8
The area of triangle ABC is 20 3 cm2. A = 600 and B = 8 cm. Find the length of side a.
∆

Now a2
c =

=
= 1 bc sin A;
2

2∆
b sin A
=
C
b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
2 × 20 3
8× 2
3
= 10 cm.

(cos A = cos 600 = 1

)
M
2
1
= 64 + 100 – 2 x 8 x 10 x 2
= 164 – 80
= 84
∴ a = 9.17 cm.

(Note: Calculation by logarithms is unnecessary, as only simple figures are involved in the
K

working.)

Example 9
A triangle has the following measurements: s – a = 5 cm, s – b = 3 cm, s – c = 2 cm.
Calculate the area of the triangle.
Add all three measurements:
(s – a) + (a – b) + (s – c) = 3s – (a + b + c)
= 5+3+2 = 10 cm
= s since (a + b + c) = 2s;
∆ = s(s − a ) (s − b) (s − c)
= 10 × 5 × 3 × 2
= 300 = 10 3 ≈ 17.3 cm2.

Exercise 12.3

1. In triangle PQR, P = 300, PR = 8 cm, PQ = 35 cm. Find the area of the triangle.
2. In triangle ABC, A = 470 36’, b = 4.8 cm, c = 69 cm. Find its area.
3. The sides of a triangle are 4 cm, 5 cm, and 7 cm long. Calculate its area to 2 sig.
figs.
4. The sides of a triangle are 31.2 cm, 29.2 cm, 18.8 cm. Calculate the area of the
triangle to 3 sig. figs.

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5. In triangle ABC, a = 5 cm, b = 4 cm, and the area of the triangle is 86 cm2.
Calculate the size of angle C, given that it is obtuse.
6. The sides of a triangle are 6 cm, 15 cm and 19cm respectively. Calculate the
altitude of the triangle, taking the longest side as the base. (Answer to 3 sig. figs.)
7. A triangle has the following measurements: s – a = 1.5 cm, s – b = 1.8 cm, s – c =
2.7 cm. Calculate its area correct to 3 sig. figs.
8. The sides of a triangle are respectively 4p, 7p and 5p units, and the area is 245
square units. Calculate the value of p.
25 3
9. The triangle ABC has an area of cm2, C = 600, and a = 5 cm.
2
Find angles A and B.
10. In triangle ABC, B = 620 13’, c = 30 cm, and the area is 53.1 cm2 calculate side a.
11. Triangle ABC has C = 400, a = 160x cm, b = l00x cm, and area = 1290 cm2.
Calculate the value of x.
12. The following measurements are given for a triangle ABC: s = 30 cm, s – a = 8.4
cm, s – b = 15.6 cm. Calculate the area of the triangle.

Exercise 12.3

1. 1 cm2 2. 12.2 cm2 3. 9.80 cm2 4. 268 cm2

0
5. 120 41 1
6. 3.94 cm
9. A = 300; B = 900 10. a = 4 cm
C 7. 6.61 cm
11. x =
1
2
2
8. p = 5
12. 154 cm2
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Ξ
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░ 13░
COMPLEX
Definitions:
NUMBERS:
A complex number, z, is a number of the form z = x + iy
Where x and y are real numbers and i = − 1

x is called the real part of z; y the imaginary part.

Since i = −1
2
i = -1,
i3 = -i,
i4 = 1, …..
The modulus of z is z = x 2 + y2 .
y
The argument of z is arg(z) = tan-1   where – 180o < arg(z) ≤ 180o.
x
The conjugate of z, denoted by z* or Ζ , is x –iy.

z 1 = a + ib and z 2 = c + id are equal if and only if a = c and b = d, i.e. if the real parts are
equal and the imaginary parts are equal. C
z = x+ iy is zero if and only if x = 0 and y = 0

Example 1
1
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3
For the complex number z = + i, find:
2 2
(a) z,
(b) arg z,
(c) z*.
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 3 2  1  2
z  
 2  +  2 
(a) = = 1
 
 1 2 
(b) argz = tan-1 
 3 2 

 1 
= tan-1  
 3
π
=
6
3 1
( c) z* = - i
2 2

Example 2

Find the real values of x and y if (x -1) + i(y -2) = 0.

If (x -1) + i(y -2) = 0

Then (x -1) = 0 and (y - 2) = 0

S0 x =1 and y = 2.

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Operations
Let z1 = a + ib
And z 2 = c + id.

Addition: z1 + z2 = (a + ib ) + (c + id)
= (a + c) + i(b +d)
Subtraction: z 1 –z 2 = (a + ib) – (c + id)
= (a – c) + i(b-d)
Multiplication: z1z2 = (a + ib) (c + id)
= ac + i2bd + iad + ibc
= (ac – bd) + i(ad + bc)

Division: z 1 ÷z 2 =
(a + ib )
(c + id )

=
(a + ib )(c − id)
(c + id )(c − id )
 ac + bd   
=   + i  bc − ad 
 c2 + d2   c2 + d2 
   

Example 3

(c) pq,
(b) p - q,
(d) p ÷ q.
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If P = -2 + 3i and q =1 + 2i, express as complex numbers in the form x + iy,
(a) p + q,
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(a) p + q = (-2 + 3i) + (1 + 2i)
= -1 + 5i

(b) p - q = (-2 + 3i) – (1 + 2i)

= -3 + i.
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( c) pq = (-2 + 3i)(1 + 2i)

= -2 + 6i2 + 3i – 4i
= -2 – 6 - i
= -8 – i.

(d) p÷q =
(− 2 + 3i )
(1 + 2i )
=
(− 2 + 3i )(1 − 2i)
(1 + 2i )(1 − 2i)
−2+6  3 − −4 
=   + i  
 1+ 4   1+ 4 
4 7
= + i
5 5

Operations with the conjugate

Addition: z + z* = (x + iy) + (x – iy)
= 2x
Subtraction: z - z* = (x + iy) – (x – iy)
= 2iy
Multiplication: zz* = (x + iy)(x –iy)
= x2 + y2

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z ( x + iy)
Division; =
z* ( x + iy)
( x + iy)( x + iy)
=
( x + iy)( x + iy)
(x 2 − y 2 ) 2 xy 
= + i 2 
(x + y )
2 2 x + y2 
 
Example 4

If z = 3 + 4i, evaluate:
(a) z + z* (b) z-z*
(c) zz* (d) z ÷z*.

(a) z + z* = (3 + 4i) + (3 – 4i)

= 6.

(b) z-z* = (3 + 4i) –(3-4i)

= 8i.

(c) zz* = (3 + 4i)(3 -4i)

= 9 + 16
= 25.

(d) Z ÷z* =

=
3 + 4i
3 − 4i
(3 + 4i )(3 + 4i)
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(3 − 4i )(3 + 4i )
 − 7   24 
=  +  i
 25   25 
Roots of equations
If the complex number p + iq is a root of a polynomial equation with real coefficients then
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its conjugate, p-iq is also a root.

Example 5

If (2 + 3i) is a root of a quadratic equation with real coefficients, find the equation.

Since (2 + 3i) is a root, (2 – 3i) is the other root.

The required equation is
[x – (2 + 3i)][x-(2-3i)] = 0
i.e x2 – [(2 + 3i) + (2 -3i)]x + (2 + 3i)(2 – 3i) =0
i.e x2 – 4x + 13 = 0

Example 6

(a) Given that z 1 = 2 -3i and z 2 = 3 + 4i find

(i) z1 z2,
z1
(ii) , in the form p+ iq where p and q are real.
z2
(iii) Given that 2 + 3i is a root of the equation
z3 – 6z2 + 21z -26 = 0, find the other two roots.
(a)
(i) z 1 z 2 = (2 -3i)(3+4i)
= (6 + 12) + (-9+8)

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= 18 –i
z1 2 − 3i
(ii) =
z2 3 + 4i

=
(2 − 3i )(3 − 4i)
(3 + 4i )(3 − 4i)
=
(6 −12) + i(−9 − 8)
9 + 16
6 17
= - - i
25 25

(b) z3 – 6z2 + 21z – 26 = 0

We are given that 2 + 3i is a root of this equation. Since the coefficients of the equation
are real, 2-3i is also a root.
Hence z – (2 + 3i) and z – (2 – 3i) are factors of the equation.
The product of these factors is
[z – (2 +3i)][z - (2-3i)] = z2 – 4z + 13
Dividing the LHS of the original equation by z2 - 4z + 13 gives z – 2.
Hence z3 – 6z2 + 21z – 26 = 0 can be written as
(z - 2)[z – (2 +3i)][z-(2-3i)] = 0,
Giving the other two required roots as z = 2 and z = 2-3i.

Example 7
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(i) Express the square roots of -2i in the form ± (a + ib) where a and b are real numbers.
(ii) Solve the equation z2 – 3(1 + i )z + 5i = 0
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Giving your answers in the form a + ib.

Hence or otherwise solve the equation.

z2 – 3(1 –i)z + 5i = 0
(i) Let (a + ib)2 = -2i.
Work out (a+ib)2.
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Equate real and imaginary parts.

Find a and b.
Hence roots are ± (a + ib).

(ii) Let z = a + ib.

Work out LHS.
Equate real and imaginary parts.
Find a and b.
Hence roots are a + ib.

Second equation is obtained from first by replacing i by –i.

Hence the roots are a –ib.

Exercise 13.1

1. Express (6 + 5i)(7 + 2i) in the form a + ib. Write down (6-5i)(7-2i) in a similar
form. Hence find the prime factors of 322 + 472.

2. Expand z = (1 + ic)6 in powers of c and find the five real finite values of c for
which z is real.

3. If (1 + i) z-iw + I iz + (1 –i)w -3i =6, find the complex numbers z, w, expressing

each in the form a + bi where a, b are real.

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− 1+ i 3
4(a) Express in the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers.
− 1− i 3
(b) Find the quadratic equation whose roots are -3 + 4i and -3 - 4i, expressing your
answer in the form x2 + px + q = 0, where p and q are real numbers.

5. Find the real values of a and b such that (a + ib)2 =i. Hence, or otherwise, solve the
equation z2 + 2zi + 1 – i = 0, giving your solutions in the form z = p + iq.

6. Let z = x + iy be any non-zero complex number.

1
Express in the form u + iv.
z
1
Given that z + = k with k real, prove that either y = 0 or x2 + y2 = 1. Show
z
(i) that if y = 0 then k ≥ 2,
(ii) that if x2 + y2 = 1 then k≤ 2.

7 (a) Given that z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers, find z2 in terms of x and y.
Hence, or otherwise, find both square roots of i.
(b) One root of a quadratic equation with real coefficients is (7-24i)/5. State the other
root of this equation, and find the equation in its simplest form.

8 C
The roots of the quadratic equation z2 + pz + q = 0 are 1 + i and 4 + 3i. Find the
complex numbers p and q. It is given that 1 + i is also a root of the equation
z2 + (a + 2i)z + 5 + ib = 0, where b are real.
Determine the values of a and b.
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9. Obtain quadratic function: f(z) = z2 + az + b, where a and b are real constants such
that f(-1-2i) =0.

10. Show that 1 + I is a root of the equation x4 + 3x2 -6x + 10 = 0. Hence write down
one quadratic factor of x4 + 3x2 -6x + 10, and find all the roots of the equation.
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11. Given that a = 1+3i is a root of the equation z2 – (p + 2i)z + q(1 + i) =0, and that p
and q are real, determine p, q and the root of the equation.

12. Given that (x + iy)2 = a + ib, where x,y,a,b are real prove that
1
4 2 2
4x – 4ax –b =0. Hence, or otherwise, find the values of (5 + 12i) 2 . What are the
1
values of (5 − 12i) 2
?
Solve the equation z2 – (7+4i)z + (7 + 11i) = 0 .
State the roots of z2 – (7 -4i)z + (7 -11i) =0.
[Give all your answers in the form u + iv where u, v are real.]

13. In the quadratic equation x2 + (p + iq) x + 3i = 0,p and q are real. Given that the
sum of the squares of the roots is 8, find all possible pairs of values of p and q.

Argand diagram

Any complex number z = x + iy may be represented on an Argand diagram by either

(a) the point P(x, y),

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or (b) the position vector OP .

The modulus of z, z, is the length of OP.

The argument of z, arg z, is the angle θ between OP and the positive real axis, where - π <
θ ≤ π.

Imaginary axis

z = √(x2 + y2) arg z = θ

 y
= tan-1  
x

Polar form (also called modulus-argument form)

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The polar form of a complex number is z = r (cos θ),
where r = OP and θ = x OP.
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z = r, where r ≥ 0.
arg z = θ, where -π < θ ≤ π.

Z* = r(cos θ - i sin θ)
= r(cos(-θ) + i sin(-θ)
z* = r and arg z* = -θ

Example 8

Express the complex number √3 - i in polar from and illustrate it on an Argand diagram.

Let √3 – i = r(cosθ + isinθ).

r = z
= √((√3)2 + (-1)2) = 2

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θ = argz
 −1  π
= tan-1   = -
 √3 6

So, in polar form√3 – i is 2(cos(-π/6))

Multiplication and division in polar form

Let z 1 = r 1 (cosθ + isinθ )

and z 2 = r 2 (cosφ + i sinφ ).

Multiplication
z1z2 = r 1 r 2 [cos(θ + φ) + i sin (θ + φ)]
z 1 z 2  =
and arg(z 1 z 2 )

Division:
z1
z2
=
z 1 z 2 
=
r1
r2
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argz 1 + argz 2

[cos(θ - φ) + isin(θ - φ)]

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z1 z1
=
z2 z2
z 
And arg  1  = argz 1 – argz 2
 z2 
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Example 9

If z 1 = 4(cos π/3 + isinπ/3) and z 2 = 2(cosπ/6 + isinπ/6), evaluate:

(a) z 1 z 2 and
(b) z 1 ÷ z 2 .
(a) z 1 z 2 = 4(cos π/3 + isinπ/3) x 2(cos π/6 + isinπ/6)
= 8[cos(π/3+π/6) + i sin (π/3 + π/6)]
= 8(cos π/2 + isin π/2)
4(cos π / 3 + i sin π / 3)
(b) z 1 ÷z 2 =
2(cos π / 6 + i sin π / 6)
= 2[cos π/3 -π/6) + i sin (π/3+π/6)]
= 2(cos π/6 + i sin π/6)

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Loci
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If z is a variable complex number, represented by the position vector OZ , then the locus
of Z under certain condition the be sketched. Four common loci are illustrated below.
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The locus of Z when z= a is a crcle, centre O radius a.
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The locus of Z when │z – p │ = a, where p is a fixed complex number, is a circle, centre

P, radius.

The locus of Z when arg z = α, (-π < α ≤π) is a half line from 0, at an angle α with the real
axis.

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The locus of Z when arg(z –p) =arg q, where p and q are fixed complex numbers, is a half
line from P, parallel to OQ.

Example 10

(a) Indicate on an Argand the region in which z lies if z-2+3i ≤ 2.

z +1
(b) If the real part of is zero, show that the locus of the point representing z in
z −1

(a)
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the Argand plane is a circle and write down its centre and radius.

z - 2+3i ≤ 2 can be re-written as z - (2+3i) ≤ 2.

This says that the distance between the fixed point 2-3i and the variable point z in
the Argand plane must always be less than or equal to 2. i.e the circular disc, centre
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2 – 3i and radius 2, shown in the Argand diagram.
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(b) Let z = x + iy,

z +1 x + iy +1
Then =
z −1 x + iy − 1
[( x + 1) + iy][ x − 1) − iy]
=
[( x − 1) + iy][( x − 1) − iy]
( x 2 −1 + y 2 ) + i(−2 y) + i(−2 y)
=
( x − 1) 2 + y 2
z +1
If the real part of = 0,
z −1
Then x2 -1 + y2 = 0
⇒ 2
x +y 2
= 1.
Hence the locus of z is a circle, centre (0, 0), radius 1.

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Example 11

Express the complex numbers z = √2 + i√2 and w = -3 + i3√3 in modulus-argument form

and hence write down the modulus and argument of each of the following:
1
(i)
z
(ii) zw
z 1
(iii) . Show in an Argand diagram the points representing the complex numbers ,
w z
z
zw, .
w

Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

= √2 + i√2,
And find r and θ.
Hence z can be written in modulus-argument form.
Do the same for w = - 3 + i 3 3 .
1 1
(i) = (cos θ - i sin θ)
z r
(ii) To find zw, multiply the moduli and add the arguments.

(iii) To find
z
w
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, divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.

Having written down (i), (ii), the points representing these complex numbers can easily be
shown in an Argand diagram.
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Exercise 13.2

1 (a) The complex number z 1 = 2i. Find the values of a and b such that:
(a + ib)2 =z 1 .
If these two resulting complex numbers are z 2 and z 3 , express z 1 , z 2 and z 3 in
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modulus-argument form and display all three on the same Argand diagram.
(b) The complex number z 4 = √3 + i. Find (z 4 )2.
Express z 4 and (z 4 )2 in modulus-argument form and display them on the same
Argand diagram. Deduce a further complex number z 5 such that: (z 5 )2 = (z 4 )2.
1
2. Express in the form r(cos θ + i sin θ) where r > 0 and
x+i∨3
- π < θ ≤ π.
1
3. Given that z = √3 + i, find the modulus and argument of (a) z2, (b) .
z
Show in an Argand diagram the points representing the complex numbers z, z2 and
1
.
z
1
4. You are given that z = cos θ + isin θ (0 < θ < π). Draw and Argand diagram to
2
illustrate the relative positions of the points representing z, z + 1, -1. Hence, or
otherwise,
(a) Determine the modulus and argument of each of these three complex numbers;
z −1
(b) Prove that the real part of is zero.
z +1

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░ 14░
VECTORS:
Representation
A vector has magnitude and direction. In print a vector is denoted by bold type e.g. a, or
by two capital letters and an arrow, e.g. AB .
In 2-dimensions, the vector a can be represented by
x
a =   or a = (xi + yj)
 y
1   0
Where i =   and j =   are called base vectors.
 0 1 
x
 
In 3-dimensions, a =  y  or a = (xi + yj + zk)
z 
 

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3
 
a = AB =  4 
 2
 
or (3i + 4j + 2k)

Base vectors in 3-dimensions:

1   0  0
     
i =  0  , j = 1  , k =  0 
 0  0 1 
     

Definitions
The magnitude of a, a, is √(x2 + y2) in 2-d
And √ (x2 + y2 + z2) in 3-d.

A unit vector has magnitude 1. a is the unit vector in the direction of a.
The zero vector, 0, is any vector with zero magnitude.
The inverse of a is –a
Two vectors xi + yj + zk and ai + bj + ck are equal, if and only if x = a, y = b and z = c.

Example

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If a = 5i – sj -2k and b = t i + 2 j – u k are equal vectors, find
(a) s, t and u,
(b) a

(a) Since a = b,
then t = 5,
s = -2,
u=2
(b) a│ = √[52 +22 + (-2)2]
= √33

Addition and subtraction

The triangle law is used to add and subtract vectors.

Addition:
a+b=c

Addition is commutative.
i.e. a+b=b+a

And associative,
i.e. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

Subtraction
a - b = a + (-b)
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Example 1

 2 −1 
   
Given a =  − 1 and b =  5  , find
 3  − 3
   
(a) a + b
(b) a – b
 2  −1 
   
(a) a + b =  − 1 +  5 
 3  − 3
   
 
1
 
=  4
0
 

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 2 −1 
   
(b) a – b =  − 1 -  5
 3  − 3
   
 3
 
=  − 6
 6
 
Multiplication

A scalar is a real number, it has only magnitude. If k is a scalar, then ka is a vector

parallel to a but with k times the magnitude.
If k>0, then ka is in the same direction as a.
If k<0, then ka is in the opposite direction to a.

Multiplication by a scalar is distributive over vector addition, i.e k(a + b) = ka +kb.

Example
 − 2 1  − 5 
Solve the vector equation s   + t   =  
 1 1  1 
 − 2 1  − 5 
S   + t   =  
 1 1  1 
− 2s + t = −5
⇒
s+t = 1 

Position vectors.
 ⇒ s = 2, t = −1. C
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The position of a point P(x, y) in the plane can be given by the vector
OP = r
x
=   or (xi + yi).
 y
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(i) The 3-dimensional position vector OQ can be written as

 2
 
OQ = q =  5  Or (2i + 5j + 3k).
3
 

x
 
In 3-dimensions, r =  y  or (x i + y j + z k).
z 
 

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Ratio theorem
If C divides AB internally in the ratio λ:µ, then
λb + µa
C =
λ+µ

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If the division is external, then c =

Example
λb + µa
λ+µ
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If a = (2i + 3j) and b = (8 i + 9 j) are the position vectors of A and B, find the
position vector, c, of C which divides AB internally in the ratio 1:2.
1(8i + 9 j) + 2(2i + 3 j)
c =
1+ 2
12i + 15 j
=
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3
= 4i + 5j.

Example 2
In the diagram, ST=2TQ, PQ = a, SK = and SP =b.
(a) Find in terms of a and b:
(i) SQ
(ii) TQ
(iii) RQ
(iv) PT
(v) TR

(b) What do your answers to (iv) and (v) tell you about the points P, T, R?

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(a) (i) SQ = SP + PQ
= b + a (or a + b by commutativity)

1
(ii) TQ = SQ
3
1
= (a + b)
3

(iii) RQ = RS + SQ
= - 2a + (a + b)
= b–a

(iv) PT = PS + ST
2 2 1
= -b + (a – b) = a - b
3 3 3
1
= (2a –b)
3

(v) TR = TS + SR
=

=
2
3
4
- a- b
3
2
3
(2a – b).
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M
1
(b) Since PT = (2a – b) and PT and TR are both multiples of the same vector (2a –b).
3
Hence PT and TR are parallel and T is common to both lines, so, P, T, R lie on the same
line, i.e. they are collinear.
K

Example 3

(a) Given that a = 3i – 4j and b = -5i + 12j, find

(i) (3a + b) .b
(ii) The angle between a and b.
(b) use vector method to show that the points A(3,1), B(4,4) and C(2,3) form a right
angled triangle.

Solution:
(a) Given that a = 3i – 4j and b = - 5i + 12j
(i) We are required to find (3a + b) .b
Now 3a + b = 3 (3i – 4j) - 5i + 12j
= 9i – 12j + -5i + 12j
= 9i – 5i – 12j + 12j
= 4i + 0j
3a + b = 4i

So (3a + b ) .b = (4i) (-5i + 12j)

= (4i . 5i) + (4i . 12j), by distributive law of the scalar product
= -20i.i + 48i.j
= - 20 x 1 48 x 0, sine = i.i = 1 and i.j =0
= - 20 + 0
= -20

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
(3a + b ) . b = -20

Or simply (3a + b) . b = (4i) . (-5i + 12j)

= - 20 + 0
= -20,
(ii) By scalar (dot) product,
a.b = a x b x cosθ, where θ is the angle between the two vectors, a and b
Now a .b = (3i - 4j) . (5i + 12j)
= 3i. (-5i + 12j) – 4j. (-5i + 12j),
by distributive law of the scalar product.
= - 15i . i + 36i.j + 20j .i – 48j.j, on applying the law again.
= -15 x 1 + 36 x 0 + 20 x 0 – 48 x 1, since i.i = j.j = 1 and i.j = j.i =0
= - 15 – 48
a.b = -63

or simply a.b = (3i – 4j). (-5i + 12j)

= (3 x -5) – (4 x 12 )
= - 15 – 48
= - 63
Also a = 3 2 + (−4) 2
9 + 16
=

And
a
b
=
=
=
5
25

(−5) 2 + 12 2
C
M
= (25 + 144)
= 169
b = 13
Substituting for a .b, a and b ,
⇒ -63 5 x 13 x cos θ
K

=
− 63
⇒ cosθ =
5 x 13
cosθ = - 0.9692.
θ = cos-1 (-0.9692)
θ = 165.70
Is the angle (obtuse angle)
(b) The position vectors of the points A (3, 1), B (4, 4) and C (2, 3) written as column
 3  4  2
vectors are OA =   , OB =   and OC =   respectively, where O is the origin.
1   4 3
Now AB = OB – OA
 4   3
=   -  
 4  1 
 3
AB =  
1 
AC = OC – OA
 2   3
=   -  
 3  1 

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 − 1
AC =  
 2
BC = OC – OB
 2  4
=   -  
3   4
 − 2
BC =  
−1 

Note:
For any two vectors a and b to be perpendicular, their scalar, their scalar product must be
zero. i.e a . b = a x b x 0, since cos900 = 0
a . b = 0 is the condition for perpendicularity of any two vectors a and b
Thus for the points A, B and C to form a right-angled triangle the scalar product of one
pair of any two of the vectors AB, AC and BC
1   − 1
Now AB .AC =   .  
 3  2 
= ( 1 x -1) + (3 x 2)
= -1 + 6
AB. AC = 5 ≠ 0
The vectors AB and AC are not perpendicular.

AB . BC =

=
=
C 1   − 2 
  . 
 3   − 1


(1 x -2) + (3 x -1)
-2 + -3
M
[Link] = -5 ≠ 0
The vectors AB and BC are not perpendicular.
 − 1  − 2 
AC. BC =   .  
 2   − 1
= (-1 x -2) + (2 x -1)
K

= 2–2
AC . BC = 0
The vectors AC and BC are perpendicular i.e ∠ ACB = 900 and so the points A, B, and
form a right-angled triangle.

Example 4

The diagram below shows the points A and B with position vectors a and b
respectively. The point M divides OB such that OM : MB = 3:1, C divides AB in the
ratio 3: 1 and N is the mid-point of AD . Also 3 AB = 4 CD.

D
C

O
M

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
(a) Find the vectors OC, OD and BN in terms of a and b.
(b) Show that MN is parallel to OA. State the ratio MN : OA.

Solution

D
C

O
M

OC = OA + AC (see vector diagram)

But AC : CB = 3:1 (total ratio = 3 + 1 = 4)
3
⇒ AC = AB
4
And AB = -OA + OB
AB = OB – OA
So AC

OC =
=
3
4
(OB – OA)

3
OA + (OB – OA)
4
C
M
3 3
= OA + OB - OA
4 4
1 3
= OA + OB
4 4
1
= (OA + 3OB) since OA = a and OB = b
4
K

1
= (a + b);
4

OD = OA + AC + CD (see diagram)
But given that 3AB = 4CD
3
⇒ CD = AB
4
3
CD = (OB – OA)
4
3
Also AC = (OB – OA), from above
4

3 3
So OD = OA + (OB – OA) + (OB – OA)
4 4
4OA + 3OB − 3OA + 3OB − OA
=
4
6OB − 2OA
=
4
3OB − OA
=
2

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
1
= (3OB - OA)
2
1
OD = (3b – a)
2

BN = BA + AN (see diagram)
But BA = OA – OB
= a–b

1
And AN = AD since N is mid-point of AD .
2

Also AD = OD – OA
1 1
= (3b – a) – a, since OD = (3b – a) from above
2 2
3b − a − 2a
=
2
3b − 3a
=
2
3
AD = (b – a)
2
⇒ AN

⇒ BN
=

=
3
4
(b – a)
3
a – b + (b – a)
4
C
4a − 4b + 3b − 3a
M
=
4
a−b
=
4
1
BN = (a – b)
4
K

(b) MN = MB + BN (see diagram)

But OM: MB = 3:1 (total ratio = 3 + 1 = 4)
1
⇒ MB = OB
4
1
= b
4
1
Also BN = (a - b), from above
4
1 1
So MN = b + ( a – b)
4 4
1 1 1
= b+ a- b
4 4 4
1
MN = a
4
but OA = a.
1
This means that MN = OA
4
MN is a scalar multiple of OA and so MN is parallel to OA

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
1
Now MN = OA
4
MN 1
⇒ =
OA 4
MN : OA = 1: 4

Example 5

(a) Given that a = 3i + 2j and b = -i + λj, find the value of λ such that vectors a and b are
at right angles.
(b) The diagram below shows a parallelogram OABC. OA = a and OC = c divides AB in
the ratio 1:3 and Q divides OP in the ratio 4:1.

A P B

(i)
(ii)
O
c C C
Find vectors QB in terms of vectors a and c.
Show that the point Q lies on AC.
M
Solution:

(a) a = 3i + 2j, b = -i + λj

Using the scalar product (dot product).

K

a.b = │a││b│ cosθ

If a and b are at right angle, then θ = 900
⇒ cosθ = cos900 = 0
⇒ a.b = │a││b│ x 0
i.e a.b = 0
on substitution,
⇒ (3i + 2j ). (-i + λj) = 0
-3 + 2λ = 0.
2λ = 3
3
λ = = 1.5
2
Therefore λ = 1.5

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 Kampala Mathematics Club

A P B

O
c C
(b)

Given OA = a, OQ : QP = 4 : 1

(i) QB = QP + PB ………(i) (see diagram)

But OQ : QP = 4 : 1 (total ratio = 5)
1
⇒ QP = QP (see diagram)
5
And OP = OA + AP (see diagram)
Where AP:PB = 1:3 (total ratio = 4)
1
so AP = OC, since AB = OC as OABC is a parallelogram.
4
⇒ OP

OP
=

=
OA +

a+ c

1
1
4
1
4

1
OC C
M
= (a + c)
5 4
1
QP = (4a + c)
20

Now we also find PB:

K

From AP : PB = 1 : 3,
3
PB = AB (since total ratio = 4 which correspond to AB: also see diagram).
4
3
⇒ PB = OC, as AB = OC (opposite sides / vectors of a parallelogram).
4
Substituting for QP and PB in (i) we have:
1 3
QB = (4a + c) + c
20 4
4a + c + 15c
=
20
4(a + 14c )
=
20
1
QB = (a + 4c)
5

(ii) AQ = OQ – OA
4
But OQ = OP (since OQ:QP = 4:1)
5
1
and OP = a+ c, from b(ii) above
4

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
4  1
⇒ OQ = a + 
5  4
4a 1c
OQ = +
5 5
4a 1
So AQ = + c – a, as OA = a
5 5
4a + c − 5a
=
5
1
AQ = (c–a) ……………..(∗)
5
Also AC = OC – OA
AC = c – a, as OC = c and OA = a
Substituting for ( c – a) in equation (∗)
1
⇒ AQ = AC
5
But if any two vectors a and b are such that a = κb where k is a scalar, i.e a is a scalar
multiple of b, then the two vectors are parallel.
So since AQ is a scalar multiple of AC, then AQ is parallel to AC. But since both vectors
contain a common point, A, then the points A, Q and C are collinear (i.e on straight line)
Hence the point Q is on AC .

Example 6 C  4
The position vectors of the point, P, Q and R are   ,

Using vector methods, find the:

 2
1   1 
  and   respectively.
 3  − 4
M
(i) largest angle enclosed by P, Q and R.
(ii) area of the triangle PQR.

Solution:

 4 1   1
K

OP =   , OQ =   , OR =   where O is the origin

 2  3  − 4
⇒ PQ = OQ – OP
 − 1  4 
=   -  
 3   2
 − 5
PQ =  
 1 

PR = OR – OP
 1 4 
=   -  
 − 4  2
 − 3
PR =  
 −6

QR = OR – OQ
 1   − 1
=   -  
 − 4   3
 2 
QR =  
 − 7

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 − 5
Let a = PQ =  ,
 1 
 − 3
b = PR =  
 − 6 
 2
and c = QR =  
 − 7 
Now a = (−5) 2 +12 = 26
b = (−3)
2
) + (− 6) 2 = 45
c = 2 2 + (−7) 2 = 53

In any triangle, the largest angle is the angle opposite (corresponding to) the longest side.
It can be seen from above that of the three vectors, a, b and c, the length of vectors c i.e c
constitutes the longest side of triangle PQR; and so the largest angle enclosed between
sides whose length are a and b.

b
α a
C Q
M
c

Let this angle be α

ab cos α
K

By dot product a.b =

 − 5  − 3 
  .   = 26 x 45 x cos α
 1  − 6
15 + -6 = 26 x 45 x cos α
9 = 26 x 45 x cosα
cosα = 26 x 45
cosα = 0.2631
α = cos-1 (0.2631)
α = 74.70,

Example 7

The position vectors of points A, B and C are a = -3i – j, b = 2i + 3j and c = 3i – 2j

respectively.
(i) Find size of angle BAC,
(ii) Calculate the area of triangle ABC.

Solution:

(i) OA = a = -3i – j, OB = b = 2i + 3j, OC = c = 3i – 2j, where O is the origin.

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 Kampala Mathematics Club

α
A

AB = OB – OA
= 2i + 3j + 3i + j
AB = 5i + 4j

AC = OC – OA
= 3i – 2j – (-3i – j)
AC = 6i – j
If ∠BAC = α, then by scalar product,
AB . AC = AB x AC cosα
But .AC = (5i + 4j) . (6i – j)

AB
=
=

=
30 – 4
26

52 + 42
C
M
AB = 41
Also AC = 6 2 + (−1) 2
AC = 37
⇒ 26 = 41 x 37 x cos α
K

26
cos α =
41 x 37
cos α = 0.6675
α = cos-1 (0.6675)
Angle BAC is 48.10

1
(ii) Area of ∆ ABC = x AC x AB x sin α
2
1
= x 37 x 41 x sin 48.10,
2
The area of triangle ABC is 14.496 units2

Example 8

(a) In a parallelogram OABC, OA = a and OC = c. If D lies on AB such that AD : DB =

2:3, express OD and D in terms of a and c.
(b) The points A, B , C and D have position vectors -2i + 3j, 3i + 8j, 7i + 6j and 7i – 4j
respectively. Show that AC is perpendicular to BD.

Solution

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 Kampala Mathematics Club

C B

c
D

a
O

OA = a, OC = c, AD : OB = 2 : 3

OD = OA + AD (seediagram)
But AD : DB = 2 :3 (total ratio = 2 + 3 = 5)
2
⇒ AD = AB
3
Now AB = OC (opposite sides (vectors) of a parallelogram are equal)
2
⇒ AD = OC
3
2
So OD = OA + OC
3

OD
=

=
a+ c
1
5
2
5
(5a + 2c)
C
M
= DA + AO + OC (see diagram)

DC = - AD + -OA + OC
2 2
= - c + -a + c as OC from above
5 5
3
K

= c–a
5
1
DC = (3c – 5a).
5
OR:
DC = DB + BC see diagram
DC = DB + -BC
3
But DB = AB, and AD: DB = 2 : 3
5
3
DB = OC, as AB = OC
5
Also CB = OA
3
⇒ DC = OC - OA
5
3
= c–a
5
1
DC = (3c – 5a), as before
5

(b) OA = -2i + 3j, OB = 3i + 8j

OC = 7i + 6j, OD = 7i – 4j, where O is the origin
Now AC = OC – OA

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
= 7i + 6j – (-2i + 3j)
= 7i + 6j + 2i – 3j
AC = 9i + 3j

Also BD = OD – OB
= 7i – 4j – (3i + 8j)
= 7i – 4j – 3i – 8j
BD = 4i – 12j

Now let θ be the angle between AC and BD.

By scalar product,
AC. BD = AC x BD x cos θ
AC . BD
⇒ cos θ =
AC x BD

Where [Link] = (9i + 3j) . (4i – 12j)

= 36 – 36
= 0
0
⇒ cos θ =
AC x BD
cos θ = 0
θ = 900
The angle between AC and BD is 900
Hence AC is perpendicular to BD

Example 9
C
M
 2 6
Vectors OA =   , OC =   and the points D (4, 1) and B (x , y) lie in the same plane.
 4  4
1
If AB = AC, find
2
(i) the values of x and y,
K

(ii) BC ,
(iii) the angle between AD and BC,

Solution:

 2 6  4 x
OA =   , OC =   , OD =   , OB =  
 4  4 1   y
AB = OB – OA
 x   2
=   -  
 y   4
x −2
AB =  
 y − 4

AC = OC – OA
 6  2
=   -  
 4  4
 4
AC =  
0

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
1
Now if AB = AC,
2
x −2 1  4
⇒   =   , on substitution
 y − 2 2 0

x −2  2
  =  
 y − 4 0
⇒ x–2 = 2 …….(i)
And y – 4 = 0 …….(ii)

From (i) ⇒ x = 2+2

x = 4
From (ii) ⇒ y = 4

x = 4 and y=4

 4
(ii) So OB =  
 4
But BC = OC – OB
 6  4
⇒ BC =   -  

⇒
BC

BC
=

=
 4  4
 2
 
0
22 + 02
C
M
= 4
BC = 2units

(iii) AD = OD – OA
 4  2
K

=   -  
1   4 
 2
AD =  
 − 3
 2
and BC =   , from (i) above
0
Now by scalar products,
[Link] = AD x BC x cosθ , where θ is the angle between AD and BC
 2  2
But AD. BC =   .  
 − 3 0
= 4+0
= 4
and AD = 2 2 + (−3) 2
= 13 units
BC = 2 units, from (ii) above

⇒ 4 = 13 x 2 x cos θ

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
2
cos θ =
13 x 2
4
=
13
θ = cos-1 (0.5547)
θ = 56.30, 1 [Link]
The angle between AD and BC is 56.30

Example 10
5 4
   
Given that a =   and b =  3  , find the
3
 11  7
   
3 3
(i) angle between a + b and 2a – 3b,
(ii) area of triangle POQ, if OP = a + b and OQ = 2a – 3b

Solution:
(i)
5 4
   
a =  3  , b = 3
 11  7
   
3

a+b =
3
5
 
 3 +
 11 
 
4
 
3
7
 
C
M
3 3
9
 
= 3
 18 
 
3
3
K

a+b =  
 6
5 4
   
2a – 3b = 2  3  - 3 3
 11  7
   
3 3
 10   12 
   
=  3  -  3
 22   21 
   
 3   3
− 2
 
2a – 3b =  3 
 1 
 
 3 
Let the angle between a + b and 2a – 3b be α.
By dot product,

(a +b ).(2a – 3b) = a − b x 2a − 3b x cos α

3  − 2 / 3
But (a + b) . 2a – 3b ) =   .  
 2  1/ 3 

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
 − 2  1
= 3 x  + 6 x 
 3   3
= -2 + 2
= 0
⇒ 0 = a − b x 2a − 3b x cos α
0
⇒ cosα =
a + b x 2a − 3b
cos α = 0
α = cos-10
α = 900.
The angle between (a + b) and 2a – 3b) is 900
1
Area of ∆ POQ = x OQ x OP
2
But OQ = 2a − 3b
 − 2 2  1 
=   +  2
 3   3
4 1
= +
9 9
5 5

And OP
=

=
=
9
a+b
=
3

32 + 6 2
9 + 36
C
M
= = 45
= 9x5
= 9 x 5
= 3 5 units
1 5
K

⇒ area of ∆ POQ = x x 3 5
2 3

=
( 5) 2

2
Area of ∆ POQ = 2.5 units2.

Example 11

M is the mid-point of PQ in the triangle OPQ. If OP = p and OQ = q find in terms of the

vectors p and q, the vectors PQ, PM and OM. N is a point on OM such that ON : NM = 2
:1
Express ON and PN in terms of p and q. Given that S is a mid-point of OQ , use vector
methods to show that N lies on PS and hence determine the ratio PN : NS

Solution:
(i)

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P
M
Q

N
p S

O
PQ = -OP + OQ
= OQ – OP
PQ = q–p
1
PM = PQ, since M is the mid-point of PQ
2
1
PM = (q – p)
2
OM = OP + PM (see diagram)
1 1
= p+ q– p
2 2
1
= (p + q)
2

⇒
ON : NM = 2:1

ON =
3
2
OM

1
C
(total ratio = 2 + 1 =3)

2
M
= x (p + q)
3 2
1
ON = (p + q)
3

PN = PO + ON (see diagram)
= -OP + ON
K

= ON – OP
1
= (p + q) – p
3
1 1
= P+ q–p
3 3
1 2
= q- p
3 3
1
PN = (q – 2p)
3

Now NS = NO + OS (See diagram)

= -ON + OS
= OS – ON
1
But OS = OQ, since S is the mid –point of OQ
2
1
⇒ OS = q
2
1
Also ON = (p + q) from above
3

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 Kampala Mathematics Club
1 1
⇒ NS = q - (p + q)
2 3
1 1 1
= q- p- q
2 3 3
3q − 2p − 2q
=
6
1
NS = (q – 2p)
6
1
But PN = (q – 2p )
3
1
(q − 2 p )
PN 3
So =
NS 1
(q − 2 P )
6
1 6
= x
3 1
PN
= 2
NS
PN = 2NS
Since PN is a scalar multiple of NS, then PN is parallel to NS.

(lie on a straight line).

So N lies on PS as required.

Now
PN
=
2
C
But since both vectors contain a common point N, then the points P, N and S are collinear.
M
NS 1
So PN : NS = 2:1
Hence PN : NS = 2 : 1
or PN : SN = 2 :1
K

Example 12

In a regular hexagon ABCDEF with centre O, vectors OA = a and OB = b

The points, P, Q and R outside the hexagon are given by OP = a + b, OQ = b -2a and QR
= a – 2b. Sketch the positions of these vectors in relation to the hexagon.

(i) express in terms of a and b the vectors CB, AF, FP and DB.
(ii) Find the vectors OR, RF, FP and PQ
(iii) Show that the points P,O and R are collinear.
Solution
(i)
E R

F
D

O
a Q

A b
C

P
B

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Since ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, all the six triangles that form it are equilateral and
congruent triangles.
(
CB = OA Since CB = OA , for equilateral triangles and also have same direction i.e
parallel)

CB = a
AF = BO (for similar reason as above)
= -OB
AF = -b
DE = BA (see diagram)

But BA = BO + OA
= -BO + OA
= OA – OB
⇒ BA = a–b

DE = a–b
DB = DC + CB

But DC = OB
= b

FP = FO + OP (see diagram)

But
And
=
=

OP
OF
-OF + OP
OP – OF

=
=
a+b
(a – b)
C
M
⇒ FP = a + b – (a – b)
= a + b –a + b
FP = 2b
PQ = PO + OQ see diagram
= -OP + OQ
K

= OQ – OP

But OQ = b – 2a
And OP = a+b

⇒ PQ = (b – 2a) – (a + b)
= b – 2a – a – b
PQ = -3a

(ii) PO = -OP
OP = - (a + b), from (ii) above.
So PO = OR
Since PO is a scalar multiple of OR, the PO is parallel to OR; but since the two vectors
contain a common point O, then the points P, O and R are collinear.

Example 13
 6 15 
(a) (i) Find the lengths of the vectors a =   and b =  
8  8 
(ii) By dot product method obtain the angle between the vectors a and b
 − 8
(b) Given that vector c =   is perpendicular to vector b, determine the value of κ
 κ

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Solution:
 6
(a) (i) a =  
 − 8
⇒ a = 6 2 + (− 8) 2
= 100
a = 10 units
The length of a is 10 units

15 
b =  
 8
⇒ b = 15 2 + 8 2
= 289
b = 17 units
The length of b is 17 units

(ii) By dot product, a.b = a x b x cosθ , where θ is angle between a and b.

 6  15 
  .   = 10 x 17 x cos θ
 − 8  8 
90 – 64
26
cosθ
=
=
=
170 cos θ
170 cos θ
26
170
C = 0.1529
M
⇒ θ = cos-1 (0.1529) = 81.20

The angle between a and b is 81.20 (1 [Link])

 − 8 15 
(b) c =   , b =  
 κ 8 
K

If c is perpendicular to b, then the their scalar (dot) product is zero

 − 8   15 
⇒  .   = 0
 κ   8 
120 + 8κ = 0
8κ = 120
120
κ =
8
κ = 15.

Example 14
 − 2  − 3.5   − 4.5 
Given the position vectors A =   , B =   and C =   show that the points
 3  9   13 
A, B and C are collinear.
(i) Find the ratio of AC to AB .
(ii) Determine the position vector of D such that D divides AC in the ratio 3:2

Solution:

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 − 2  − 3.5   − 4.5 
OA =   , OB =   , OC =   where O is the origin.
 3  9   13 

AB = OB – OA
 − 3.5   − 2 
=   -  
 9   3
 − 1.5 
AB =  
 6 
 − 1
AB = 1.5   …………..(i)
 4

AB = OC – OA
 − 4.5   − 2 
=   -  
 13   3 
 − 2.5 
=  
 10 
 −1 
AC = 2.5   …..(ii)
 4

From (i),
 −1 
Now for simplicity, let p = 
 4
⇒ AB = 1.5p ……….(iii)


⇒ AC = 2.5p ………(iv)
C
M
From (ii)

Diving (iv) by (iii) we have

AC 2.5P
=
AB 1.5P
2.5
=
K

1.5
25
=
15
AC 5
=
AB 3
5
⇒ AC = AB, which is of form m = kn, where k is a scalar
3
AC is parallel to AB.
But since both vectors AC and AB contains a common point A, then the points A, B and C
are collinear.

AC 5
(i) Now = , from above
AB 3
⇒ AC : AB = 5:3
⇒ AD : DC = 3 : 2 (total ratio = 3 + 2 =5)
3
⇒ AD = AC
5

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C

O
A

(ii)
 − 2.5 
Now AC =   , from above
 10 
3  − 2.5 
⇒ AD =  
5  10 
 − 1.5 
AD =  
 6 
 − 2
Also OA

OD
=

=

 3


OA + AD
 − 2
C
 − 1.5 
M
So OD =   +  
 3  6 
 − 3.5 
OD =  
 9 
 − 3.5 
The vector position of D, OD is  
9 
K

Exercise

1. The vector p has magnitude 7 units and bearing 0520, and the vector q has
magnitude 12 units and bearing 1630. Draw a diagram (which need not be to scale)
showing p, q and the resultant p + q. Calculate, correct to one decimal place, the
magnitude of p + q.

2. From an origin O the points A, C have position vectors a, b, 2b respectively. The

points O,A, B are not collinear. The midpoint of AB is M, and the point of
trisection of AC nearer to A is T. Draw a diagram to show O, A, B, C, M, T. Find,
in terms a and b, the position vectors of M and T. Use your results to prove that O,
M, T are collinear, and find the ratio in which M divides OT.
4
3. Given that OA = a, OB = b, OP = OA and that Q is the midpoint of AB, express
5
AB and PQ in terms of a and b. PQ is produced to meet OB produced at R, so that
QR = nPQ and BR = kb. Express QR:
(i) on terms of n, a and b;
(ii) in terms of k, a and b. Hence find the value of n and of k.

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4. The position vectors of three points A, B and C relative to an origin O are p, 3q –p,
and 9q -5p respectively. Show that the points A, B and C lie on the same straight
line, and state the ratio AB: BC. Given that OBCD is a parallelogram and that E is
1
the point such that DB = DE, find the position vectors of D and E relative to O.
3
5. The point A, B and C have position vectors a, b and c respectively referred to an
origin O.
(a) Given that the point X lies on AB produced so that AB: BX = 2:1, find x, the
position vector of X, in terms of a and b.
(b) If Y lies on BC, between B and C so that BY:YC = 1:3, find y, the position
vector of Y, in terms of b and c.
( c) Given that Z is the mid-point of AC, show that X, Y and Z are collinear.
(d) Calculate XY:YZ.

6. O, A and B are three non-collinear points; the position vectors of A and B with
respect to O are a and b respectively. M is the mid-point of OB, T is the point of
trisection of AB nearer B, AMTX is a parallelogram and OX cuts AB at Y. Find, in
terms of a and b, the position vectors of:
(a) M; (b) T; (c) X; (d) Y.

7. The vertices A, B and C of a triangle have position vectors a, b and c respectively

relative to an origin O. The point P is on BC such that BP: PC = 3:1; the point Q is
on CA such that BR: AR = 2:1. The position vectors of P, Q and R are p, q and r

8.
line segments PQ and QR.
C
respectively. Show that q can be expressed in terms of p and r and hence or
otherwise show that P, Q and R are collinear. State the ratio of the lengths of the

The points P and Q have position vectors p and q respectively relative to an origin
M
O, which does not lie on PQ. Three point R, S, T have respective position vectors
1 3
r = p + q, s = 2p –q, t = p + 3q. Show in one diagram the positions of O, P, Q,
4 4
R, S and T.
K

Answers

1. │p + q│ = 11.5 units
1 2
2. m = (a + b); t = (a + b); OM : OT = 3 : 4.
2 3
1
3. AB = b- a, PQ = (5b – 3a);
10
n 1 1 2 1
(i) (5b – 3a); (ii) (1 + 2k)b - a, n = , k = .
10 2 2 3 3
4. AB: BC = 1: 2; OD = 6q – 4p; OE = -3q + 5p
1 1
5. (a) x = (3b – a); (b) y = (c + 3b); (d) XY : YZ = 1 : 1
2 4
1 1 1
6. (a) OM = b (b) OT = (a + 2b) (c) OX = (8a + b)
2 3 6
1
(d) OY = (8a + b)
9
1
7. q = (r + 4q); PQ: QR = 1: 4
5

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░ 15░
Matrices:
Definitions
A matrix may be considered as a rectangular array of numbers. The entries in a matrix are
called elements.
The order of a matrix is the number of rows x the number of columns.
A row matrix has only one row of elements.
A column matrix has only one column of elements.
A square matrix has the same number of rows as columns, i.e. its order is of the form
(n x n).
Matrices are equal if and only if they are of the same order and corresponding elements
are equal.
A zero or null matrix, 0, is a matrix in which every element is zero.
The identity or unit matrix, I, is a square matrix in which each element in the leading
diagonal is I and every other element is zero.
a b 
The determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix A =   is the number
c d

detA =

=
a b
c d
C
ad – bc.
If det A = 0, then A is called a singular matrix.
Every non-singular n x n matrix A has an inverse A-1 such that AA-1 = A-1A=1.
M
a b  1 d − b 
If A =   , then A-1 =  
c d det A  − c a 

Operations
K

Matrices may be added (or subtracted) if and only if they are of the same order. Add (or
subtract) corresponding elements.
Matrix addition is commutative and associative.

To multiply a matrix by a scalar, multiply each element of the matrix by the scalar.

Two matrices A and B may be multiplied together if and only if they are compatible, i.e.
if the number of columns of A equals the number of row of B. Each element of AB comes
from a row in 1 and columns in B.
In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative.
However, it is associative.
Examples
 2 3 5  0 − 1 3
1. If A =   and B =   , then
 4 7 1 8 2 − 5 
2 2 8   2 4 2
A + B =   and A – B =  
12 9 − 4  − 4 5 6

5 − 3 6 15 − 9 18 
2. 3   =  
 −1 9 7   − 3 0 21 

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p q
a b c    ap + br + ct aq + bs + cu 
3.    r s  =  
d e f   t u   dp + er + ft dq + es + fu 
 
(2x3matrix) x (3x2 martrix) →(2 x 2 matrix)

Transformations of points Transformations in the plane, other than transalations, can be

produced and described using 2x2 matrices.
Any point (x,y) can be mapped to (x 1 ,y 1 ) using a 2x2 matrix M,
x  x
where  1  = M   .
 y1   y
To find the matrix describing a given transformation,
(a) find the image of P (1,0), say P 1 (a,b),
(b) find the image of Q (0,1), say Q 1 (c,d),
a c 
( c) the required matrix is   .
b d
If M is the matrix which represents a transformation in the plane and det M ≠ 0 then M is
the matrix which represents the inverse transformation.

If M and N are two matrices representing two transformations for which the origin is an
invariant point, then NM is the matrix which represents the result M followed by N

Example 1

If M = 
0 −1 
C
 , a reflection in y = -x, then (2, 3) is mapped to (-3, -2) by M, since
 − 1 0
M
 0 −1   2 − 3
    =  
 −1 0 3   − 2

Example 2
K

For rotation of + 900 about 0,

P(1,0) →P 1 (0,1)
Q(0,1) → Q1(-1, 0)

 0 − 1
The matrix is M =  
1 0 
Example 3

 0 − 1  0 1
M =   and M-1 =  
1 0   −1 0
M-1 is a rotation of -900 about 0

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Example 4

 − 1 0   0 1   0 − 1
NM=     =  
 0 1  1 0   1 0 
M, a reflection in y=x, followed by N, a reflection in x=0, is equivalent to a rotation of +
900 about 0.

Transformations of lines

The linear transformation of the plane defined by

x x
  → T   ,
 y  y
a b 
Where T =   and ad –bc ≠ 0, maps any line in the plane to a line in the plane.
c d
Example 4
 2 3
Find the image of y=3x under the mapping  
1 2 

Let any point on y =3x be (λ, 3λ), where λ is a parameter. The image of (λ, 3λ) is given
by
 2 3 λ 
   
1 2   3λ 
=
11λ 
 
 7λ 
C
This is the position vector of any point on 11y =7x.
So 11y = 7x is the required image of y =3x.
M
Example 5
(a) A transformation T is equivalent to a shear parallel to the x-axis (the invariant line)
which takes (1, 2) to (7, 2), followed by a reflection in the y = x. Find the matrix which
defines T.
(b) A liner transformation P of the plane maps the points (1, 3), (-2, -3) to the point (2,
4), (-3, -11), respectively. Find the matrix of this transformation.
K

1 k 
(a) The matrix   represents a shear parallel to the x-axis (the invariant line).
0 1 
Since (1,2) → (7,2), we have
1 k  1  1 + 2 k 
    =  
 0 1   2  2 
7 
=  
2 
⇒ k = 3.
 1 3 
So S =   defines the shear.
0 1 
0 1 
The matrix R which defines reflection in y = x is  
1 0 
Hence, the matrix which represents the shear followed by the reflection is
 0 1  1 3 
RS =    
1 0   0 1 

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0 1 
=   .
1 3 
a b 
(a) Let   be the matrix which defines P.
c d 
 a b  1   a + 3b   2
Now     =   =   ,
c d  3  c + 3d   4
a b   − 2  − 2a + 3b  − 3 
And     =   =  
c d  − 3  − 2c + 3d   − 11
So, a + 3b = 2,
And 2a + 3b = 3,
1
⇒ a = 1, b = .
3
Also, c + 3d = 4,
And 2c + 3d = 11,
⇒ c = 7, d = -1.
 1 1 / 3
Hence   is the matrix defines P.
 7 −1 

Example 6

3x – y =
 3 1
(a) Given that A = 
 0 2 

1
1 2 
 , B = 
 − 1 5 
C
 and C = AB, find C-1

(b) Use matrix method to solves the simultaneous equations

M
2x + 3y = 19

Solution:
 3 1 1 2 
(a) Given A =   , B =  
0 2  −1 5
K

C = AB

 3 1  1 2 
⇒ C =    
0 2  −1 5

 3 x 1+1 x − 1 3 x 2 +1 x 5 
=  
 0 x 1+ 2 x − 1 0 x 2 + 2 x 5 

 2 11 
C =  
 − 2 10 
⇒ det C = (2 x 10) – (11 x -2)

= 20 – (-22)
= 42
10 − 11
So C-1 =  
2 2 
 10 − 11 
 
C-1 =  42 42 
 2 2 
 
 42 42 

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(b) 3x – y = 1

2x + 3y = 19

3 −1  x 1 
⇒     =  
2 2   y 19 
3 − 1  3 − 1  x  3 1  1 
      =    
 − 2 3  2 3   y   − 2 3 19 

11 0   x   22 
    =  
 0 11  y   55 
11 x   22 
  =  
11y   55 
⇒ 11x = 22

i.e x = 2
and 11y = 55
i.e y = 5
x = 2 and y = 5

Example 7 C
10. A triangle OAB has vertices O(0,0), A(4,3) and B (1,3.) It is mapped onto its

image oA’B’ by a transformation represented by the matrix P = 

0 −1 
 .
 −1 0
M
(a) Determine the coordinates of OA’ and B’
(b) The image OAB undergoes another transformation represented by the matrix Q
3 0 
=   to give OA”B”. Find the coordinates of O A”
 0 3
K

( c) If the area of triangle OAB is 4.5 square units, find the area of the its final image
OA”B”

(d) Determine a single matrix of transformation that will map O A”B” back onto
OAB.

Solution:

 0 A B  0 A B 
0 −1     
(a)    0 4 1  = 0 + 0 0 + − 3 0 + −3 
 −1 0  0 3 3  0 + 0 − 4 + 0 0 +−3 
   
0 A" B" 
 
= 0 −9 −9 
0 − 12 − 3 


The co-ordinates of O, A” and B” are O(0,0), A”(-9, -12) and B” (-9, -3) respectively
OAB is mapped onto OA”B” by matrix P followed by Q.
So the combined matrix QP will map OAB directly onto OA”B”
Hence the inverse of this matrix i.e (QP)-1, will map OA”B” back onto OAB.

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0 −1  3 0 
Now P =   and Q =  
 −1 0  0 3
3 0   0 − 1
⇒ QP =   
0 3   − 1 0 
 0 + 0 − 3+ 0
=  
0+ − 3 0+0 
0 − 3 
QP =  
 −3 0 

Example 8
5 1   − 2 3  2 1 −1 
(a) Given the matrices A =   , B =   and C =   , find
 0 2  1 0 1 5 2 
(i) ABC,
(ii) ( A + B)C.
(b) By use of matrices, solve simultaneous equations:
3x + 4y = 8
x + 2y = 3.

Solution:

(a)
5 1 
Given A =   , B =
 0 2
 − 2 3

 1 0
C
 and C = 
 2 1 −1 
1 5 2 

M
(i) ABC = (A x B) x C
 5 1   − 2 3
Now AxB =    
0 2   1 0 
 − 10 + 1 15 + 0 
=  
 0+ 2 0 + 0 
K

 − 9 − 15 
AxB =  
 2 0 
 − 9 − 15   2 1 −1 
⇒ ABC =    
 2 0  1 5 2 
 − 3 66 39 
ABC =  
 4 2 −2 
(ii) (A + B) C
5 1  − 2 3 
A+B=   +  
0 2  1 0
3 4 
A+B=  
1 2 

3 4   2 1 −1 
(A + B) C =    
1 2  1 5 2 
 6 + 4 3 + 20 − 3 + 8 
=  
 2 + 2 1 + 10 − 1 + 4 
10 23 5 
(A + B) C =  
 4 11 3 

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Note: Two matrices P and Q can be added (or subtracted) only if they are of the same
order (have same number of rows and columns)
Columns of P is equal to the number of rows of Q i.e if the orders of P is a x b and the
order of Q is a X c, then P Q is possible. The two matrices are then said to be
incompatible.

3 4   x  8
(b) ⇒     =  
1 2   y   3
 2 − 4  3 4  2 − 4 8
    =    
 − 1 3  1 2   − 1 3   3
 6−4 8 − 8 x 16 −12 
    =  
− 3 +3 − 4+6   y − 8+9 
 2 0  x   4
    =  
 0 2  y  1 
 2x   4
  =  
 2y  1 
⇒ 2x = 4
x = 2
Also 2y
y
=
=

x = 2 and y =
1
C
1
2
1
2
M
Example 9

1 3 
Given the matrix A =   , evaluate A2 – 2A Hence find the inverse of A.
 2 1
K

Solution:

1 3 
A =  
 2 1
A2 = AxA
1 3  1 3 
=    
 2 1  2 1
1 + 6 3 + 3 
=  
 2 + 1 6 +1 
7 6
A2 =  
4 7 
1 3 
2A = 2  
2 1
 2 6
2A =  
4 2 
7 6 2 6
So A2 – 2A =   -  
 4 7  4 2

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5 0
A2 – 2A 
= 
 0 5
1 0 
⇒ A2 – 2A = 5I, since I =  
 0 1
But A = AI and AA-1
So we can write the equation as follows:

AA – 2AI = 5AA-1
⇒ A (A – 2I ) = 5AA-1, since MN ± MP
= M ( N ± P)
A(A – 21 ) = 5A -1
1
⇒ A-1 = (A – 21)
5
1 3  1 0 
But A =   and I =  
 2 1  0 1
1
⇒ A-1 =
5

Example 10

(a) Given the matrix M = 

 2 3
1 4 
singular, where I is 2 x2 identity matrix
C
 , find the scalar λ such that the matrix (M - λ I) is

(b) Use the matrix method to the simultaneous equations:

M
4x + 2y =6
3x + 5y = 5

Solution
(a)

 2 3
K

M =  
1 4 
 2 6
I =  
1 4 
 2 3 1 0 
⇒ M- λI =   - λ  
1 4   0 1
 2 3  λ 0 
=   -  
1 4   0 λ 
2−λ 3 
⇒M - λI =  
 1 4 −λ

If (M - λ I = is a singular matrix, then

⇒ det (M - λ I ) = 0 (since a singular matrix is one whose determinant is zero).
But det (M - λ 1 ) = (2 - λ ) (4 - λ ) – 3 x 1
= 8 – 2λ - 4x + λ 2 – 3
⇒ det (M - λ I ) = 5 - 6 λ + λ 2
so 5 - 6 λ + λ 2 = 0
⇒ λ 2 - 6 λ + 5 = 0 on rearrangement.

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(-5, -1)
⇒ λ2 - 5λ + -λ + 5 = 0
( λ - 5 λ ) + (- λ + 5 )
2
= 0
λ ( λ - 5) + - 1 ( λ - 5) = 0
( λ - 5) ( λ - 1) = 0
Either λ - 5 = 0 or λ - 1 = 0
λ = 5 or λ = 1
The valves of the scalar λ such that the matrix (M - λ 1) is singular are 1 and 5
4x + 2y = 6
3x + 5y = 5
 4 2  x   6
    =  
3 5   y  5

 4 2
Let C =  
3 5 

⇒ detC = ( 4 x 5 ) – (2 x 3 ) = 14
5 − 2
adjC =  
− 3 5
Inverse of C,
C-1 =
1
det C
x adj C
C
M
=1
5 − 2
14 
− 3 4
5 −2 
 
=  14 14 
 −3 4
K

 
 14 14 
5 −2   30 10 
   − 
4 2 x
⇒  14 14      =  14 14 
−3 4 3 5   y  − 18 20 
   + 
 14 14   14 14 
 20 
 
x  14 
  =
 y  2 
 
 14 
20 10
x = =
14 7
2 1
and γ = =
14 7
10 1
Hence x = and =
7 7

Example 11

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10. Under a 2 x 2 matrix transformation the points A( -4, -2), B(-2, -2), C(-2, -4) and
D(-4,-4) of a square are mapped onto the points A’(6,2), B’(4,0), C’ (6, -2), and
D’(8,0) respectively.
Find the:
(i) area of square ABCD,
(ii) matrix of transformation and area of the image A’B’C’D’
(iii) matrix that would map A’B’C’D’ back onto ABCD, respectively.
Solution:
(i) Side of square ABCD = AB = BC = CD = AD
= (−2) 2 + 0 2
= 4
AB = 2 units

But area of a square = (sides)2

⇒ area of square ABCD = AB 2
= 22
Area of square ABCD = 4 units2
a b 
(ii) Let   be the matrix of transformation
c d


a

c
b

d 
A

− 4
− 2

B C C
−2 −2 −4
−2 −4 −4



 − 4a − 2b − 2a − 2b − 2a − 4b − 4a − 4b 
C=

6
 = 
 A'

6
2

4 6 8
B'
4
C'
6
0 −2


0 − 2 0 
D' 
8 


0 
M
 − 4c − 2d − 2c − 2d − 2c − 4d − 4c − 4d  2
Equating corresponding elements in the matrices on both sides we have.

-4a – 2b = 6

i.e – 2a – b = 3 ………(i)
K

-2a – 4b = 6 …………(ii)
-4c – 2d =2
i.e -2c – d = 1 ………… (iii)
-2c – 2d = 0 …………..(iv)

Subtracting (ii) from (i)

-2a – b – (-2a – 4b ) = 3 – 6
-2a – b + 2a + 4b = -3
3b = -3
b = -1

substituting for b in (i), we have

-2a – (-1) =3
-2a +1=3
-2a =2
a= -1

subtracting (iv) from (iii)

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-2c – d- (-2c – 2d ) = 1 – 0
-2c – d + 2c + 2d = 1
D=1

Substituting for a d in (iii), we have

-2c –1=1
-2c =2
c= -1
a= - 1, b = -1, c = -1, d = 1

The reader may check that these obtained values are consistent with the other equations
 − 1 − 1
not outlined from the matrices.  
−1 1
 − 1 − 1
Let M =  
−1 1
⇒ det = (-1 x 1) – (-1 x -1)
= -1 -1
det = -2

matrix.

So ASF = 2
C
But also Scale Factor (ASF) is numerically equal to the determinant of the transformation
M
Area of image (A' B' C' D' )
But also ASF =
Area of object (ABCD)

⇒ 2 =
Area of image (A' B' C' D' )
Area of (ABCD)
K

Area of (A' B' C' D' )

2 = , as area of ABCD = 4 units2 from
4
(i)abovearea of A’B’C’D’) = 2x4
= 8 unit2
The area of (A’B’C’D’) = 8 units2

OR:

Area of (A’B’C’D’) = x
A' B' B' C'
But = ( 6 − 4) 2 + ( 2 − 0) 2
A' B'
= 22 + 22

= 8 units.
A' B'
Also = (6 − 4) 2 + (2 − 0) 2
B' C'
= 2 2 + ( − 2 )2

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= 8 units
B' C'
So area of A’B’C’D’ = 8 x 8
= 8 units2, as before

Note: the matrix M is associated with a transformation which does not change the shape of
the object is A’B’C’D’ applied above is valid.
 − 1 − 1
(iii) If M =   is the matrix that transformed ABCD onto A’B’C’D’, then M-1, the
 − 1 1 
inverse of M will map A’B’C’D’ back onto ABCD

Now det M = (-1 x 1) – (-1 x -1)

= -2
1 1 
adjM =  
1 −1
⇒ M-1 =
1
x adjM
det M
1 1 1
=  
− 2 1 − 1 

M-1 =
 −1 −1

 2
 −1

 2

2 
1 

2 
C
M
The matrix that would map A’B’C’D’ back onto ABCD is
 −1 −1
 
 2 2 
 −1 1 
 
 2 2 
K

Example 12
1 − 2 
Given that Q =   , find the inverse of Q
3 1 
Hence solve the equations:
x – 2y = -4
3x + y = 9

Solution:
1 − 2 
Q =  
3 1 
detQ = (1 x 1) – (-2 x 3)
= 1 – (-6)
= 7
 1 2
adjQ =  
− 3 1 
adjQ
Q-1 =
det Q
1 2 
= 1 7( 
− 3 1 

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Exercise

 2 − 1
1 (i) If M =   , find the values of M2, M3 and M-1
 1 3 
 x   3
Find x and y, given that M   =  
 y   5
(ii) A transformation T is equivalent to an enlargement with centre at the origin, scale
factor 2, followed by a reflection in the line x + y = 0. What matrix defines T? If T
maps a point P onto (6, 2), what are the coordinates of P?

4 1
2 A transformation M is represented by the matrix M where M=  .
2 3 
(i) Find the image of the point (-2, 5) under M.
(ii) Find the inverse of M.
(iii) Given that the point (11,13) is the image of the point (a, b) under M, find the
value of a and of b.
(iv) Find, in terms of a, the image of the point (a, a) under M.
(v) State the equation of the invariant line under M.
*(C )
 1 − 1 1 
 4 1  
   −  , find
3 If A= 

(a) AB;

 2 3
and B = 0 0
C
−1 2 −1 


(b) a matrix X such that AX + B =A.

1

M
1 1
4 Let A =  
 0 1
(a) The plane is mapped onto itself by the map under which the point P of co-ordinates
x  x 
(x1, y1) is mapped to the point Q of co-ordinates (x 2 , y 2 ), where  2  = A  1  .
 y2   y1 
K

 x 
By considering A   , prove that the line y = m 1 x + c is mapped onto a line
 m1 x + c 
of slope m 2 , determining m 2 in terms of m 1 . Hence or otherwise determine whether
any line through the origin is mapped onto itself, and find any such line.
k 0 
(b) Prove that there is no non-singular matrix P such that P-1AP =  1  for
0 k2 
real k 1 , k 2 .

2 1
5 The transformation with matrix T, where T =   , maps the point (x, y) into the
 2 − 2
 x   x1 
point (x , y ) so that T   =
1 1
.
 y   y1 
Find the equation of the image of the line y = 3x under this transformation. Find
also the equations of the lines through the origin which are turned through a right
angle about the origin under this transformation.

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Answers
Exercise

3 − 5  1 − 18  1  3 1
1. (i) M2 =   , M3 =   , M-1 =  ; x = 2, y = 1
5 8  18 19  7  − 1 2 
1  3 − 1
2. (i) (13, 19), (ii)   (iii) a = 2, b = 3 (iv) (5α, 5α) (v) y = x
10  − 2 4 
3. (a) 1

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C
M
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K

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Ξ
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