Transportation Engineering 1, TEP260S

Faculty of Engineering &

the Built Environment

Department of Civil
Engineering & Surveying

Transportation Engineering 1,
TPE260S, 2023 - FINAL

Section: Traffic Engineering

NQF: 6

NQF Credits: 14

Qualification: Bachelor of Technology

(Civil)

SAQA ID: 99641

Developed by Cheryl Belford

Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
These notes are not for distribution outside of CPUT. All content is compiled from acknowledged sources

WELCOME

Welcome to the Transportation Engineering 1. These notes have been designed as a road
map for students who are navigating their way through their studies. It will systematically
explain the acquisition of transportation knowledge throughout the semester to prepare
students for the world of engineering work.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this section is
1. Understand the factors influencing road vehicle performance characteristics and design.
2. Understand basic traffic stream parameters and models, traffic flow models, and queuing
theory.
3. Perform level of service analysis to determine LOS for selected highway segments.
4. Complete basic signal plans (end of semester)

OUTCOME

After completing this section of work, you should be able to

• Perform localised traffic engineering evaluations.

• Design basic signal plans.

DISCLAIMER

This material is presented as a continuation to the knowledge you have received in

Surveying. It is the student’s responsibility to ensure that they are registered correctly. No
accommodations will be made in this subject for students who did not acquire previous
knowledge successfully.

This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the lecturer
for the students respective teaching assignments. The lecturer acknowledges various
sources such as freely available materials from the internet from which the lecture notes was
prepared and some reference document cited herein. The ownership of the information lies
with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this document is not intended to be used
for commercial purpose and the lecturer is not accountable for any issues, legal or otherwise,
arising out of use of this document. The lecturer makes no representations or warranties with
respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this document and specifically
disclaims any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

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Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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REFERENCES

• GARBER, N. J., & HOEL, L. A. (2015). Traffic and Highway Engineering. St.
Paul, West Pub. Co.

• SAICE Practical Geometric Design Notes

The references used in the compilation of this material is freely available on the internet.
These narratives have not been copyrighted but referenced appropriately.

LEARNER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (E.G. BLACKBOARD)

The activity has one attempt and is preloaded with the incorrect answers. Once the activity
closes the correct answers will be loaded. This will protect the integrity of the activity and
accurately inform the student of their progress.

system (ITS), will also challenge the transportation engineering in the future.

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Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 7

Highway Traffic Characteristics ..................................................................................... 7

Hourly Patterns ........................................................................................................................ 7

Daily Patterns ........................................................................................................................... 7

Monthly and Yearly Patterns................................................................................................... 8

Directional Distribution .......................................................................................................... 8

Traffic Composition.................................................................................................................. 8

Highway Speed Studies.................................................................................................. 10

Speed Studies .......................................................................................................................... 10

Travel Time and Delay Studies ............................................................................................. 18

Volume Studies .............................................................................................................. 23

Volume Counts ........................................................................................................................ 24

Origin Destination Studies ............................................................................................ 25

Zoning ...................................................................................................................................... 25

Desire Line Diagrams .................................................................................................... 26

Constituents of Highway Design Volume...................................................................... 27

Design Year ............................................................................................................................. 27

Average Daily Traffic.............................................................................................................. 27

Design Hourly Volume and Peak Hour ................................................................................. 27

Traffic Prediction Components ..................................................................................... 31

Current Traffic ........................................................................................................................ 31

Future Traffic .......................................................................................................................... 31

Traffic Prediction ................................................................................................................... 32

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Trip Generation ...................................................................................................................... 32

Capacity of the Road ............................................................................................................... 33

Level of Service............................................................................................................... 35

Parking ........................................................................................................................... 36

Methodology of parking studies ........................................................................................... 36

Analysis of parking data ........................................................................................................ 39

Interrupted Flow: Conflict & Control ............................................................................ 41

Uninterrupted vs Interrupted Flow ...................................................................................... 41

Conflicts at an at-grade intersection .................................................................................... 42

Intersection Control ............................................................................................................... 44

Traffic Signal Warrants .......................................................................................................... 46

Signal Timing for different colour indications .................................................................... 49

Problems ........................................................................................................................ 65

ACTIVITES

Activity 1a - EVU __________________________________________________________ 9

Activity 1b – EVU with growth ________________________________________________ 9

Activity 2a – Space & Time Mean Speed _______________________________________ 10

Activity 2b – Space & Time Mean Speed using Spot Speeds _______________________ 11

Activity 2c - Space Mean Speed (Moving(Observer Method) _______________________ 12

Activity 3 - Spot Speed Sample Size __________________________________________ 14

Activity 4 - Determine speed characteristics from a set of speed data_________________ 15

Activity 5 - Significant Differences in Average Spot Speeds ________________________ 17

Activity 6 -Volume and Travel Time using Moving Vehicle Technique _________________ 22

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Activity 7 – Peak Hour Factor and the Design Hourly Volume _______________________ 28

Activity 8 - Peak Hour Meaning ______________________________________________ 29

Activity 9 (Peak Hour with alternative variable peak duration) _______________________ 30

Activity 10 - Alternative Peak Hour ____________________________________________ 30

Activity 11 - Requirements for a parking garage _________________________________ 40

Activity 12 – Conflict Points: T Junction ________________________________________ 42

Activity 13 – Conflict Points: 4 Leg Junction_____________________________________ 43

Activity 14 Intersection Controls (self-evaluation exercise) _________________________ 45

Activity 15 –Traffic Signal Warrants (self-evaluation exercise) ______________________ 48

Activity 16 – Signal Timing – 4 leg-junction _____________________________________ 57

Activity 17 – Signal Timing – 3 leg-junction _____________________________________ 61

Activity 18 – Signal Timing – 4 leg-junction with pedestrians ________________________ 63

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Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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INTRODUCTION

Traffic Engineering is the ‘science’ of measuring traffic, the study of basic laws relating to the
traffic flow and generation, and the application of this knowledge to the professional practice
of planning, designing and operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient movement
of persons and goods.

Highway Traffic Characteristics

It is necessary to predict highway volumes expected on a network for any transport study.
To do this, surveys must be undertaken. Traffic fluctuates hourly and daily in a region and so
we must familiarise ourselves with traffic behaviour.

Hourly Patterns

It is possible that hourly patterns will

vary from summer to winter. There is
not usually a morning peak over
weekends. Patters vary from road to
road e.g., urban road volumes are
heavier and have more concentrated
peaks than rural roads. Urban radial
streets have more pronounced
directional flows and urban ring rads
do not have so much sharp peaks.

Daily Patterns

Patterns show an increase in

volume toward Friday, with
distinct peaks at times during the
day. Particularly during vacation
time and in summer, weekend
volumes are higher so that we
have different patterns from
season to season. We also find
that volumes increase in wet
weather as people tend to use
private transport rather than
public transport.

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Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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Monthly and
Yearly Patterns

The these tend to

fluctuate with the financial
climate and availability
and cost of fuel and trains
are the food difficult to
predict. Normally only
determined by field
measurement. General,
a stable premise, I that

Directional
Distribution

Take a dual carriageway road designed to carry 4000 vehicles. For a 50/50 spilt in
distribution two lanes may be sufficient. For a 70/30 split distribution however, three lanes
would be required for equivalent levels of service.

This can only be de

determined by field
measurement.
Fortunately, directional
distribution is generally
stable so current traffic
movements are also
applicable to future
movements on so far as
the upgrading of faculties is concerned.

Traffic Composition

Vehicles of different sizes have different operating characteristics have different operating
characteristics. Besides being heavier, thus exerting greater loads on the road pavement,
trucks and busses are slower and consequently impose a greater traffic effect on the road
than passenger cars. The overall effect of one truck on certain aspects of traffic operation is
thus equivalent to several passenger car units.

Because of the different operating characteristics different weightings must be given to allow
for their effects within the traffic stream. As a result, percentages of the different classes
within the flow should be determined in order that equivalent vehicle unit (EVU) can be
calculated.

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 Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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Activity 1a - EVU

Determine the EVU of a two-lane road in a mountainous terrain with an AADT (annual
average daily traffic) count of 1000 vehicles with 10% heavies.

Determin EVU for both the truck or bus scenario.

EVU factors

Level Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Terrain

Trucks 1,70 4,00 8,00
Busses 1,50 3,00 5,00
Improved Question
Passenger vehicles = 1000* 0,9 *1 = 900; PCU factor of 1
Determine the EVU of a two lane
Assumption 1 raod in a mountainour terrain
Busses (as heavies - assumption 1) = 1000 * 0,1 * 5 = 500 with an AADT of 1000 vehicles
OR with 10% heavies of which 4%
Final EVU rating of = 900 + 500 = 1400 units/day is trucks and 6% is busses.
Assumption 2
PCU:1000 - 10% = 900 EVU
Trucks (as heavies - assumption 2) = 1000 * 0,1 * 8 = 800 Total Heavies 1000-90% = 100
Final EVU rating of = 900 + 800 = 1700 units/day Trucks 100 *0.4 = 40 * 8 = 320 EVU
Busses 100 * 0.6 = 60 *5 = 300
EVU
Final EVU = 900 + 320 +300 = 1520
Activity 1b – EVU with growth

The following information was recorded for a highway one year ago. Since then, the traffic
has increased by 15% per year and the % heavy vehicles has doubled each year.

Total vehicle counts 6000 Busses 0.367% Trucks 1.70%

Terrain factors: 1.6 for busses 1.8 for trucks

Determine the total EVU rating using the information provided.

[(6000 – (1.70% * 6000) – (0.367% * 6000)] + [(0.367% * 6000 * 1,6) + [(1.7% * 6000 * 1,8)]
= 5875,98 + 35,232 + 183,6 = 6095 units/day

[(6757,377– (1.70% * 6757,377) – (0.367% * 6757,377)] + [(0.367% * 6757,377* 1,6 * 2) +

[(1.7% * 6757,377 * 1,8 * 2)]
6000 * 1.15 = 6900
therefore [(6900 – (1.70% * 6900) – (0.367% * 6900)] + [(0.367% * 6900 * 1,6*2) + [(1.7% * 6900 * 1,8*2]
= 6614,754 + 81,03 + 422,28 = 7118 units/day
6095 + 6952 = 13 047 units / day
Total = 6095 + 7118 = 13213 units/day

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Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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Highway Speed Studies

Speed Studies

When planning a new or improved road or road system, it is necessary to know the
distribution and performance of the traffic on existing roads. In almost all planning studies,
measurements of traffic flow and speeds are needed.

Space and Time Mean Speed

There are two types of mean speeds, namely

Space mean speed ( us) is the harmonic mean of the speeds of

vehicles passing a point on a highway during an interval of time. It is
obtained by dividing the total distance travelled by two or more
vehicles on a section of highway by the total time required by these
vehicles to travel that distance. This is the speed that is involved in
flow-density relationships. The space mean speed is found by:

! #$%&#'% )*+"#,-% "&#$%!!%)

Alternatively, Space mean speed = Xs = = = km/kr
" "*.% "#/%,

Time mean speed ( ut) is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of

vehicles passing a point on a highway during an interval of time. The
time mean speed is found by:

0* 12. 34 15%%)+
Alternatively, time mean speed (Average Speed) = Xt =
,
= 62.7%& 34 378
= km/hr

U = mean speed (m/sec or km /hr)

n = number of vehicles
ti the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel across a section of highway (sec)
ui speed of the ith vehicle (m/sec or km/hr)
L length of section of highway (m or km)

Activity 2a – Space & Time Mean Speed

The table records the observation(s) of a section of

road 20m long. Determine time and space mean
speed. (4)

12. 34 +5%%)+
Xi = 63 34 37+%&$#"*3,+ = 57 km/hr

9$' )*+"#,-%
Xs = = 16,67 m/s * 3.6 = 60 km/hr
"*.% "#/%,

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Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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Activity 2b – Space & Time Mean Speed using Spot Speeds

The spot speeds of 5 cars were observed as 69, 49, 69, 59 and 51 km/hr. Assuming that
each car was travelling at constant speed then determine the time and space mean speed.

• Time Mean Speed = [69 + 49 + 69 + 59 + 51] / 5 = 59,4 km/hr

• Space Mean Speed = 5/ [(1/69) + (1/49)…+(1/51)] = 58,17km/hr

Methods of Measurement SEE LATER EXAMPLE EXPLAINED IN CLASS!

Methods of measurement include moving observer method where a road section with
relatively uniform traffic flow conditions is selected of a length “L”. A vehicle is driven through
this section several times at a speed which is estimated to be average (6-8 times). The
observers in the car note the following traffic characteristics.

Ti This is the travel time of the test vehicle through the section when moving in the
direction “i” (opposite direction is call “j”).

Nj This is the number of vehicles moving in direction ‘j’ which overtake the test vehicle
when it is moving in direction “I”.

Fi The number of vehicles moving in direction “i” which overtake the test vehicle when it is
moving in direction “i”.

Si The number of vehicles moving in direction “i” which are passed by the test vehicle
when moving in direction “i”.

Averages are calculated for each of the above and used in the following formulae

6:;(=*>1*)
Traffic Volume qi = (veh / min)
@*;@:

=*>1*
Average Time t = Ti - (min)
A*

B B
Space Mean Speed Xs = " = !"#$" (km / min)
@*>
%"

Both running and journey speeds may be calculated by including and excluding stationary
periods as necessary. The advantages of this method are:

• May be used with high traffic volume (it is less accurate with very low flows
• Economical in manpower – a small team of observers with one or two cars can collect
reliable data over considerable lengths of roadway in relatively short period of time
• Other important information can be collected at the same time. E.g., journey times and
speeds, delays, congestive conditions, etc.

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Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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Activity 2c - Space Mean Speed (Moving(Observer Method)

The observations shown below were obtained by an observer while travelling with an against
a traffic stream; in both cases the distances travelled by the observer was 1,859km.
Calculate the flow and mean journey speed of the traffic stream and indicate whether on its
run with traffic the test vehicle was traveling faster / slower than the traffic stream.

Number of vehicles Travel time of Number of vehicles Travel time of

met by observer observer while passing the observer observer in
whilst travelling travelling against minus the number passed minutes moving
against the traffic the stream (in by the observer (Fi-Si) in direction “I”
stream (Nj) minutes) (Tj) (Ti)
83 1,99 -1 1,97
82 1,52 -1 1,29
78 1,21 -3 0,87
85 1,82 3 2,97
93 1,13 -2 0,69
83 2,39 0 1,35
99 2,00 -5 0,73
81 1,62 -4 1,98
79 1,54 1 1,92
75 1,23 -9 1,55

Averages: Nj = 83,80 Tj = 1,65 Fi – Si = -2,10 Ti = 1,53

!"#(%&'(&) +,,+.#('/,0.)
• Traffic Volume qi = (veh / min) = = 25,69 veh / min
*&#*" (0,1,# 0,31)

But traffic flow is never expressed in veh/min; convert this value to veh/hr which = 1542 veh/hr

=*>1* >C,E
Average Time t = Ti - (min) = 1,53 - = 1,61 min
A* TypeCF,GH
text here
4 0,+16
• Space Mean Speed Xs = = = 1,15 km / min. Again, speed is not
5 0,30
expressed in km/min but km/hr and therefore we need to convert this value =
69,20 km/hr

• Speed of vehicle with traffic stream = 1,859 / Ti = 72,90 km/hr is faster than
stream. Speed of vehicle with traffic stream = 1,859 / T = 67,6 km/hr is slower
than stream. While taking measurements by the moving-observer method, a test vehicle covered a 1.859km road
section in 1.65 min going against traffic and 1.53 min going with traffic. Given that the traffic flow
was 1542 veh/h and that the test vehicle passed 2 more vehicles than passed it when going with traffic,
find (8)

• the number of vehicles encountered by the test vehicle while moving against traffic.
• the average time for the traffic being measured,
• the concentration (Space Mean Speed) of the traffic stream,
• and whether on its run with traffic the test vehicle was traveling faster or slower than the traffic stream

Ne = 83.8 Ti = 1.61 Xs = 69.00km/hr X (Ti) 72.9km/h > X (Tj 67.6km/h

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Transportation Engineering 1, TPE260S
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Spot Speed

Spot speed is defined as the speed of a vehicle at a special location i.e. the speed measure
in a speed trap. Spot speed has the following uses:

• To measure the effect on traffic flow constrictions, different road configurations etc. For
example, it can be used to determine whether speeds increase after introducing
parking restrictions, one-way systems etc
• To determine enforceable speed limits
• To verify speeds used in the geometric design of new or improved facilities.

Methods of measurement include direct timing (measure between two points), radar gun, and
time laps camera (taking pictures at a pre-set rate so speed is calculated).

Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies

Sample size of Spot Speed Studies

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Activity 3 - Spot Speed Sample Size

Where,
N minimum sample size
Z number of standard deviations corresponding to the required confidence
level 1.96 for 95 percent confidence level
s standard deviation (km/h)
d limit of acceptable error in the average speed estimate (km/h)

Therefore only 62 samples were

needed, 120 was too much.

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Activity 4 - Determine speed characteristics from a set of speed data

The table below shows the data collected on a rural highway during a speed study.
Determine the arithmetic mean speed and standard deviation by way of a speed distribution
table. Work in 2km/hr classes starting on an even speed class.

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Comparison of mean speeds

Activity 5 - Significant Differences in Average Spot Speeds

Speed data was collected at a section of highway during and after utility maintenance work.

The speed characteristics given are as shown below. Determine

whether there is any significant difference between the average
speed at the 95% (1,96) confidence level.

It can be concluded that the

difference in mean speeds
is significant at the 95%
confidence level.

A few km’s difference in

speed is statiscally
concerning, even though in
class a difference of
10km/hr was put forward as
a ‘real’ life instance of when
an intervention would occur.

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Running and Journey Speed

Apart from spot speeds we often need information regarding speed variations throughout a
particular route. This can be obtained by measuring the running and journey speeds.

Running speed is the average speed over a given route while the vehicle is in motion
(stationary periods are excluded for calculation). Running speed issued for

• Speed values used for capacity determination

• Measure of the level of service of the highway
• In economic studies for estimating the value of highway alternatives and assessing
priorities for improvements.

Journey speed is obtained by dividing the total distance by the total time taken to get from
one end to the other. This is used for calculating commuting costs and the overall relative
qualities of road networks as in highway economic studies

These concepts are no explored further within the scope of this subject but taken up in
Planning subjects.

Travel Time and Delay Studies

Application of Travel Time and Delay Data

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Definitions of Terms Related to Time and Delay Studies

(Refer Spot Speed)

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Activity 6 -Volume and Travel Time using Moving Vehicle Technique

(Passed)

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Volume Studies

The type of volume survey required depends on the extent of the new construction or
improvement proposed and its location with respect to similar roads in the area.

In rural areas, for example in the case of a small scheme such as the reconstruction of an
existing short length of alignment, the anticipated volume of traffic along the new section
could be determined safely by counting the traffic using the existing.

On the other hand, if the scheme involves an entirely new road, then it is likely that traffic
would be drawn from other roads in the area and the traffic survey must hen embrace all
these alternative routes.

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Traffic flow and traffic volume define the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway in
each time. These are probably the most important statistics required by the highway planner
as they give the minimum traffic volumes that can be expected, since they already exist and
show the importance of already constructed highways. The type of data collected depends
upon the use to which it will be put. Traffic flow studies provide only limited information.

Their usual representation is by means of maps drawn with lines of varying thicknesses
according to flow volumes (desire line diagrams). These do not however, give information
about the origin and destination of the motorists, nor where the motorists choose a particular
route because it is less crowed or because is the most direct route. Volume studies can help
significantly at intersections with design improvements and give information regarding vehicle
accumulation within an area.

Volume Counts

Volume counts are important basic operations to establish existing conditions as a basis for
planning and design of improvements and new facilities. Counting may be carried out
manually or by automatic means

Manual Method
tally
Manual counts are made using ally boards normally with four counters per board. Each
counter can be used either for counting different movements at an intersection or different
classes of vehicles. The period of counting is generally limited to a few days, preferably for 7
consecutive days.
busiest
Since traffic flows vary from one month to another, the count should be taken at the busies
time of the year or else the figure should be adjusted to take account of this seasonal
fluctuation.

Advantages

• Flexible in that counts can be changed from location to location at will

• Simple and quick in that it requires no setting up or expensive equipment
• Can classify traffic and record turning movements
• Information obtained is accurate and specific – office work is simplified

Disadvantages

• Not suitable for long period counts or at odd hours (nigh time).
• Has weather limitations.

Automatic Method

These concepts are no explored further within the scope of this subject but taken up in
Planning subjects.

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Origin Destination Studies

Origin and destinating surveys form the basis of all overall transportation studies to enable
planners to decide where routes should
be located or improved and how traffic
they will carry when constructed and
should therefore determine the pattern
of the journeys that people make and
the amount of travel between the
various locations in the study area.

The information gathered is not simply

volume and type of traffic, it must
include the origin and destination of the
journey, the reason for it being made
(e.g., business, education, recreation,
etc.), the number of people involved and emphasises the travel desires rather than the actual
routes.

Origin and destination surveys also provide a method of predicting the traffic generating
potential of residential, industrial, and commercial and other forms of land use by determining
the relationships that already exist between the amount and type of travel and the traffic
generating factors. These surveys emphasise the travel desires rather than the travel routes.
Zoning of a survey area must be carried out to determine the origin and distribution areas

Further discussion on types of OD Surveys will be taken up in “planning subjects” in the

programme.

Zoning

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OD survey methods include Roadside interviews, postcards, registration number method, tag
or sticker method or hoe interview method. In South Africa, great value is place upon the
National Household Transportation Survey (NHTS).

These concepts are no explored further within the scope of this subject but taken up in
Planning subjects.

Desire Line Diagrams

From the information gathered from origin and destination surveys certain travel desires of
the public become apparent and these are presented as desire lines on a map indicating “as
the crow flies” the journey from A to B which a traveller wishes to make, irrespective of the
location of the existing roads. The width of the bands on the diagram are drawn to represent
numbers of trips between zones. Various types of diagrams may be drawn, e.g., for through
trips, internal trips, different types of trips and for important areas such as CBD and industrial
areas, separate diagrams may be necessary to determine their influence.

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Constituents of Highway Design Volume

The final step in the traffic analysis leading to the design of a highway or highway system in
the determination of the volumes of traffic which will have to be handled. There are several
ingredients which make up this volume and these will be discussed individually in the rest of
this module.

Design Year

At present a time of twenty years hence is considered suitable as a design life for rural
highways and motorways. In urban areas, once a major highway is constructed
developments can be expected alongside it. There is thus less scope for changing the
geometric deign in future years, especially as building normally have an economic life of
between 30 and 50 years. It is thus common to design in detail for the next 10 – 15 years
while ensuring the design does not contradict long term strategic developments.

Average Daily Traffic

This is the unit which traffic volume is generally expressed. It represents the total volume o
traffic passing a point in a given period of days, divided by the number of days. When the
period over which the survey is performed in one year, it is referred to as he Annual Acer
Daily Traffic (AADT).

The ADT is no suitable for direct use in the geometric design of the road because it does not
indicate how the volume of traffic is distributed over the 24hr period. The ADT is important
for purposes such as determining the total annual usage of the road as justification for the
proposed expenditure and for the design of the structural elements like the pavement.

Design Hourly Volume and Peak Hour

For purposes of design, it is necessary to express traffic volume in terms of shorter period
than a day, and in nearly all cases the period of one hour is used, yielding the term “design
hourly volume” (DHV).

Because traffic patterns show great variation in hourly values throughout the day and
throughout the year, it must be determined which of this show great variation throughout the
day and throughout the year. Experience has shown that the DHV is usually 12% and 18%,
and a figure of 15% is normally used unless shown to be different by actual counting.

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Determin EVU for both the truck or bus scenarion!

Activity 7 – Peak Hour Factor and the Design Hourly Volume

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Activity 8 - Peak Hour Meaning

The table below shows flow rates that were measured for four 15-minute time periods for
each of the 12 intersection movements.

L Thru R L Thru R L Thru R L Thru R

Examination of this table shows that second time period, which begins at 4h15pm is the peak
15-minute period of the four that are shown here. The total flow for this time period is 4220
veh/15 minutes, or 16880 veh/hr. The average flow rate for the hour is 12 640 veh/hr; this is
the sum of the total volumes observed during each of the four 15-minute periods shown
below. The peak hour factor can then be computed as follows:

PHF = (average flow rate) / (4 * Peak 15-minute flow rate)

= 12 640 / 16 880
= 0.75, this indicates that the 15min flow is variable compared to the peak hour volume

The Peak Hour Factor (PHF) compares the traffic volume during the busiest 15-minutes of
the peak hour with the total volume during the peak hour. It indicates how consistent traffic
volume is during the peak hour.

In summary, A PHF of 0,96 indicates that 15-minn vehicle volumes are relatively constant
and a PHF of 0,81 indicates that the 15-minute vehicle volumes are more variable.

Source: [Link]

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Activity 9 (Peak Hour with alternative

variable peak duration)

Activity 10 - Alternative Peak Hour

Ans: 2087, 0.81

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Traffic Prediction Components

Design Traffic Volumes for a future date are derived from volume of a current traffic and
estimates of future traffic. There are two values of current traffic and three forms of future
traffic to consider. Refer “Constituents of Design Traffic Volume” GRAPHIC alongside.

Current Traffic

This is the number of vehicles that would use the new or improved facility if it were opened at
the time the initial measurement was taken. In urban areas current traffic can be determined
by traffic counts or exiting counts on exiting roadways likely affected and or from roadside
interviews, origin and destination surveys and studies.

On low volume rural highways classified volume counts may be adequate. A knowledge of
the area is also essential to estimate the effect of the new facility. On high volume rural
roads through small urban areas a combination of classified counts and roadside interviews
is required. For major highways in large urban areas information can best be obtain from
comprehensive transport demand studies.

Future Traffic

This is divided into a few different types.

i. Normal traffic growth – this is the increase in traffic volumes due to the normal general
increase in numbers and usage of motor vehicles.
ii. Generated Traffic – this refers to future motor vehicle trips excluding public transport
trips that would not occur at all were it not for the new or improved rad. There are three
types of traffic

a. Induced Traffic is the traffic which did not previous exist in any form and which
results entirely from the new improved facility. It is apparent that the maximum
induced traffic occurs where the
maximum attraction occurs.

b. Converted traffic – this traffic is

created because of changes in
the usual method of travel. A
new road faculty may now be
attractive that people who used to
travel by bus or train may now
use private vehicles. Therefore,
it is dependent upon convenience
and economy (perceived).

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c. Shifted traffic. – where trips were previously made to entirely different

destinations but changed because of the attractiveness f the new highway
e.g., access to shopping centres.

In summary generated traffic can be attributed to the convenience, attractiveness

of and better accessibility provided by the new roadway.

iii. Development Traffic

This is traffic that occurs due to development alongside the new facility over and above that
which would normally have occurred.

Traffic Prediction

Type types of design situations can occur

i. Short term or immediate improvements t a simple link

ii. Future planning for alternative network improvements

Obviously, the way travel needs are predicted in different areas will vary according to the
objects in mind. Generally, the more complex studies can be divided into the following main
phases:

• Inventories of the main traffic facilities, public transport services present and future land
use, and appropriate population and economic data.
• The determination of the existing inter zonal travel patterns and the factors which
control them
• He determination of the way the travel growth characteristics of individual zones
interact and affect future travel distribution between zones
• The assignment of future travel to alternative transport modes, i.e., the modal split, and
then to different route between sones.
• Detailed evaluation of the transport plan
• Detailed system planning and design to meet the requirement so the future.

Trip Generation

Trip end generation models are concerned with the estimation of the number of trips into and
out of various traffic zones. They are based on the principle that land sue generates trips
and these trips are influenced by

i. Socio economic variables e.g., car ownership, household income and size,
occupation status and household composition, i.e., number of workers in the
household.
ii. Location variables such as population/residential density, rateable value, and
distance from town centre.

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iii. Public transport accessibility – particular importance if the modal split is included
a part of the trip generation model

The urban travel forecasting process

Trip generation equations have as their

Land Use Forecast dependent variable (y), the number of trips
generated per person or household for
different rip purposes whilst the
independent variables (x), are the land
Trip Generatin use/socio-economic factors that affect trip
making/

This section of work will be further

Trip Distribution expanded in the ‘planning” subjects.

Modal Choice

Traffic Assignment

Capacity of the Road

Capacity is the ability of the road to carry traffic under given circumstances. It is defined as
the maximum number of vehicles which have a reasonable expectation of passing a fin point
per hour. A publication called “Highway Capacity Manual” (which is based on collected data)
distinguishes between the following

Basic Capacity

Maximum number of PCUs that can pass a given point per hour under the most ideal
roadway conditions. This can only be achieved in the following ideal conditions:

a. two lanes in each direction

b. all vehicles move at the same speed
c. there are practically no commercial vehicles
d. there are no geometric restrictions like inadequate site distances

A freeway, having 4 lanes or more will meet the criteria and a suggested value of 2000 PCUs
per lane per hour can be achieved on this type of facility.

Possible Capacity

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When roadway and traffic conditions are idea, the possible capacity is the same as he basic
capacity. Since however conditions are rarely ideal, the possible capacity is defined as the
maximum number of PCUs than can pass a given point during one hour under prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions.

Practical capacity (design capacity)

This is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point during one hour under
specified conditions without increasing the traffic density (the number of vehicles per
kilometre at any instant) to such an extent that undue accumulation, delay, danger, and other
limitations are created.

The following values recommended by “highway Capacity Manual can be used a s a guide.

• Practical capacity or 2 lane two-way road = [Link]

• Practical capacity 3 lane two-way road = [Link]

(Based on operating speeds of 7- - 80 km/hr)

The factors affecting capacity can be considered under town headings namely:

• The prevailing road conditions

• The prevailing traffic conditions
Prevailing Road Conditions

a. Lane width – land widths of 3,65m are accepted as being the minimum necessary for
heavy traffic volumes. On low volume roads it is often necessary to reduce lane widths
to 3,0m to reduce costs but in these cases, provision should always be made for some
form of surface or hardened shoulder.

b. Shoulders – inadequate should widths decrease the effective width of the road and
means that emergency strops must be made on the carriageway, thus reducing
capacity.

c. Side Obstructions – vertical obstructions such as poles, retaining walls and bridge
abutments within 1,76m from the road edge also reduce the effective width.

d. Geometric features – long, steep gradients, e.g., results in inadequate site distance
and hence reduced capacity.

e. Intersections – the capacity of certain rural and suburban roads, and most urban
streets, are influenced by the traffic restriction imposed by closely spaced at -grade
intersections
Prevailing Traffic Conditions

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Unlike the physical features of the road which are fixed and have definite measurable effects
on traffic flows, the prevailing traffic conditions vary from one hour to another. Hence the
flow at any given time depends on the speeds of vehicles, the composition of the traffic and
the way the vehicles interact, in addition to the road conditions mentioned above.

At the concentrations of vehicles on a given road tends towards zero the flow must also tend
towards zero. On the other hand, when the concentration is high vehicles travelling in each
direction are in a saturated condition representing an almost impossible operating condition
so that the flow again tends towards zero. At some concentration value between the two
extremes, the flow is a maximum
value which can be described as the
ultimate capacity of the road.
112

A B C D E 96
The following figure shows the
80
relationship between speed and
65. Kmh
volume (volume is defined as the
48
number of vehicles per hour).
32

16
This diagram represents the various
0
levels of service which are discussed
in more detail hereafter.

Level of Service

Levels of service are the different operating conditions which occur on a lane or roadway
when accommodating various traffic volumes. It is a qualitative measure of the effect of
traffic flow factors, such as speed and travel time, interruptions, freedom to manoeuvre,
driver comfort and convenience and indirectly safety and operating costs.

Roadway and traffic conditions, ranging from ideal to forced flow, have been divided into six
levels of service for qualitative evaluation. For interrupted flow, the levels are defined as
follows

Level A – free flow, operating speed are beginning to be restricted somewhat by traffic
condition. Drivers still have reasonable freedom to select their speed. Suitable for rural
design standard.

Level B – stable flow, operating speeds are beginning to be restricted somewhat by traffic
conditions. Drivers still have reasonable freedom to select their speed. Suitable for rural
design standards.

Level C – stable flow but speeds and manoeuvrability are more closely controlled by higher
volumes. Suitable for urban design standards.

Level D – approaches unstable flow stable, tolerable operating speeds which are however,
considerably affected by operating conditions. Drivers have little freedom to manoeuvre.

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Parking

Methodology of parking studies

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Analysis of parking data

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Activity 11 - Requirements for a parking garage

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Interrupted Flow: Conflict & Control

There are two types of roadway facilities, uninterrupted and interrupted. Uninterrupted-flow
facilities are roadways where traffic can travel over a length of roadway without stopping or
slowing due to traffic signals, Stop/Yield signs, railroad/light rail grade crossings, or other
interruptions to traffic flow, although traffic may slow or stop in response to traffic congestion.

In comparison, interrupted flow facilities are those roadways where specific features of the
roadway (such as signals, signs, or other features) delay traffic because a conflicting traffic
stream must share the same space. The concept of shared space is one of many differences
between uninterrupted and interrupted flow facilities. (ITE: THE 2016)

Uninterrupted vs Interrupted Flow

Uninterrupted flow facilities comprise freeways and long sections of multilane rural highways.
Two-lane highways can also be considered uninterrupted-flow facilities, but the inability to
pass without entering a lane of oncoming traffic limits the application of many of these
concepts to those roadways. Traffic on uninterrupted-flow facilities typically travels at higher
speeds and, due to these higher speeds, pedestrians and bicyclists are not normally present
on the roadway in the immediate vicinity of vehicular traffic. As a result, uninterrupted-flow
facilities are used almost exclusively by motorcycles, automobiles, and heavy vehicles. Since
uninterrupted flow is largely a single mode (motorized vehicular travel), the relationships
between traffic characteristics such as flow, speed, and density are well established and
provide practitioners with the ability to use these characteristics to analyse past, current, and
future traffic conditions with a reasonable level of accuracy. (ITE: THE 2016). These
concepts are not explored further within the scope of this subject but taken up in Planning
subjects.

Under uninterrupted-flow conditions, the flow and related parameters of traffic movement are
governed primarily by the interactions between individual vehicles and between vehicles and
elements of the roadway environment. On interrupted flow streets, intersections function as
the boundary points and define the length of roadway sections. According to the Highway
Capacity Manual (HCM) (TRB, 2010) a link and its boundary intersections constitute a
segment, and a roadway facility is defined as the “extent of roadway that is composed of
contiguous street segments. Urban roadway facilities with interrupted flow are functionally
classified as urban arterial or urban collector streets (TRB, 2010). On such facilities, certain
concepts of uninterrupted vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-roadway interactions are still
applicable but managing the conflicting vehicular and pedestrian streams at intersections
through external control devices (e.g., STOP signs, YIELD signs, or traffic signals) and/or
geometric designs such as roundabouts is critical. (ITE: THE 2016)

From this section of work, you can

• Identify conflicting movements intersections

• Rationale for various forms of intersection control

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• Apply Warrants for some forms of intersection control

• Carry out signal timing for isolated intersections

Conflicts at an at-grade intersection

Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different directions interfere with each other.
The figure below shows the different conflict points that exist at a four-approach unsignalized
intersection (South African Directions). The number of possible conflict points at any
intersection depends on the number of approaches, the turning movements, and the type of
traffic control at the intersection. The primary objective in the design of a traffic-control
system at an intersection is to reduce the number of significant conflict points. In designing
such a system, it is first necessary to undertake an analysis of the turning movements at the
intersection which will indicate the significant types of conflicts. Factors that influence the
significance of a conflict include the type of conflict, the number of vehicles in each conflicting
stream, and the speeds of the vehicles in those streams. Crossing conflicts, however, tend to
have the most severe effect on traffic flow and should be reduced to a minimum whenever
possible. (Garber & Hoel, 4th Ed).

Various junctions are explained overleaf.

Activity 12 – Conflict Points: T Junction

Using an appropriate diagram, identify all the possible conflict points at an unsignalized T –
intersection

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Activity 13 – Conflict Points: 4 Leg Junction

Using an appropriate diagram, identify all the possible conflict points at an unsignalized T –
intersection

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Intersection Control

These comprise yield signs, stop signs and traffic signals.

Yield Signs

All drivers on approaches with field signs are required to slow down and yield the right of way
to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection. Stopping at yield signs is not mandatory, but
drivers are required to stop when necessary to
avoid interfering with a traffic stream that the right of
way. Yield signs are therefore usually placed on
minor road approaches., where it is necessary to
yield the right of way to the major road approaches.
In the earlier pictures, see the shape for a yield
sign. The most significant factor is the warrant for
yield signs is the approach speed on the minor
road. This sign is warranted at intersections where
there is a separate or channelized right-turn lane
without an adequate acceleration lane.

Stop Signs

A stop sign is used where an approaching vehicle is required to stop before entering the
intersection. The earlier pictures show the
regulated shape of a stop sign. Stop signs should
be used only when they are warranted, since the
use of these signs results in considerable
inconvenience to motorists. Stop signs should not
be used at signalised intersections or through
roadways or expressways. The warrants for stop
signs suggest that stop sign may be used on a
minor road when it intersects a major road, at an
unsignalized intersection, and where. A
combination of high speed, restricted view, and serious crashes indicates the necessity for
such a control.

Multiway Stop Signs

Multiway stop signs require that all vehicles

approach the intersection stop before entering it.
They are used as a safety measure at some
intersections and normally are used when the
traffic volumes on all the approaches are
approximately equal. When traffic volumes are
high, the use of signals is recommended. They
should also be considered when five or more
crashes occur at an intersection in a 12 moth

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period and these crashes could be voided with a multiway stop control. Refer SARTSM
Volume 3 for The volume warrants for this control.

Channelisation

Intersection channelisation is used mainly to separate lanes from though lanes. A

channelised intersection consists of solid white lines or raised barriers which guide traffic
within a lane so that vehicles can safely negotiate a complex intersection. When raised
islands are used , than can also provide a refuge for pedestrians.

Guidelines have been developed for the cost-effective design of channelised intersections.
Guidelines include:

a) Laying out islands or channel lines to allow a natural, convenient flow of traffic
b) Avoiding confusion by using a few well-located islands
c) Providing adequate radii of curves and width of lanes for the prevailing type of vehicle.

Traffic Signals

One of the most effective ways of controlling traffic at an intersection is the use of traffic
signals. Traffic signals can be used to eliminate many conflicts because different traffic
seams can be assign the use of the intersection at t different times. Since this results in a
delay to vehicles in all areas, it is important that traffic signals be used only when necessary.
The most important factor that determines the
need for traffic signals at a particular intersection
is the intersections approach traffic volume,
although other acts such as pedestrian volume
and crash experience may also play a significant
role. South African Road Traffic Signs Manual
(SARTSM) Volume 2 Chapter 2 describes the
warrants for Traffic Signals

Activity 14 Intersection Controls (self-evaluation exercise)

- Where and when are intersection controls used?

- Can these intersection controls be used in combination? Discuss combinations or
exceptions!

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Traffic Signal Warrants

Reference: South Africa Traffic Signals Manual

(SARTSM), Volume 3, Chapter 2

There are many minimum requirements for the

installation of traffic signals, not all of which are
listed below. The most important of these are the
following:

a) Speed limit - the speed limit on any approach to a signalised junction or pedestrian or
pedal cyclist crossing shall NOT exceed 80 km/h.
b) Visibility requirements - traffic signal faces should be clearly visible and recognisable
on an approach to a traffic signal.

The installation of traffic signals for the control of junctions and pedestrian or pedal cyclist
f
crossings are warranted when:

a) the traffic signals can meet all the minimum requirements described above and in the
SARTSM manual; AND
b) no viable and feasible alternative solution is available which, when implemented, would
obviate the need for traffic signals; AND
c) the traffic signals meet the queue length.

There is no justification for keeping a traffic signal that does not meet ALL the above
requirements. The removal of traffic signals at junctions and pedestrian or pedal cyclist
crossings is warranted when any one of the above requirements is not met.

Average Queue Length is deemed to be the number of vehicles waiting behind the stop line,
excluding any vehicles on or just beyond the stop line or any moving vehicles behind the
stationary queueing vehicles. This measurement is taken at multiple observations within a
specified duration

a) Queue lengths at junction or crossing are observed by counting the number of vehicles,
pedestrians or pedal cyclists waiting to be served at a junction or crossing. Each
individual queue of traffic should be counted separately. The definition of an individual
queue is given as part of the warrants.
b) Queue lengths are counted at regular time intervals of typically 15, 30 or 60 seconds.
The appropriate time interval depends on whether traffic patterns on the main road
(road without stop or yield control) are random or platooned due to the presence of
nearby traffic signals:

It is important to note that queue length should be counted as quickly as possible at the end
of a time interval, and not during the time interval. The queue length is required at a point in
time rather than over a period of time.

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The INSTALLATION of a traffic signal is deemed warranted at a junction or pedestrian or

pedal cyclist crossing when ANY one of the following three queue length warrants are met.

a) WARRANT 1: The average length of ANY individual queue equals or exceeds four (4)
over any one hour of a normal day.
b) WARRANT 2: The SUM of the average lengths of all queues equals or exceeds six (6)
over any one hour of a normal day.
c) WARRANT 3: The SUM of the average lengths of all queues equals or exceeds four
(4) over each of any eight hours of a normal day (the hours do not have to be
consecutive, but they may not overlap

Alternatives to traffic signalisation may include, but are not limited to, the following:

a) Re-designing the geometry of an existing priority control junction to maximise traffic

throughput and provide better safety. For instance, the provision of a separate right-
turn lane on the stop or yield controlled approach is a particularly effective method of
increasing the capacity of such a junction.
b) The provision of a traffic circle or mini circle would not only increase the capacity of the
junction but will also significantly improve traffic safety.
c) Grade separation, if warranted by high volumes of traffic.
d) Introduction of road closures, bans on turning movements, provision of one-way
systems and other traffic management measures

For example, the approach below is measured at 15s intervals for a duration of 3,5 minutes.

Determine the average queue length.

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Solution: The average queue length is calculated by adding together the observed queue
lengths during a time interval (including zero queue lengths) and dividing the sum by the
number of observations. Thus 22 ‘waiting’ vehicles divided by 15sec observations equals
1.47 vehicles. The duration was less than 1 hour so warrant 1 and warrant 2 applies, “….
equals or exceeds 4”. This average queue length is less than any of the warrants. Thus, no
warrant is required.

Activity 15 –Traffic Signal Warrants (self-evaluation exercise)

Traffic signal warrants have been developed and are discussed in the SARTSM Vol 3 Chap
2. From this reference you should understand:

• Queue length (definition)

• Types of queue length warrant
• Measuring queue length (method? duration?)
• Field observations of queue lengths

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Signal Timing for different colour indications

Warrants will help the engineer in deciding whether a traffic signal should be used at an
intersection. The efficient operation of the signal also requires proper timing of the different
colour indications, which is obtained by implementing the necessary design. Before
presenting the different methods of signal timing design, however, first it is necessary to
define several terms commonly used in the design of signal time.

Interval

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Correct
Ni = 77 T= 4.21min Xs =

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Objectives of signal timing

Two main objectives of signal timing at an intersection are to reduce the average delay of all
vehicles and the probability of crashes. These objectives are achieved by minimizing the
possible conflict points when assigning the right of way to different traffic streams at different
times. In general, it is usual to adopt a two-phase system whenever possible, using the
shortest practical cycle length that is consistent with the demand. At a complex intersection,
though, it may be necessary to use a multiphase (three or more phases) system to achieve
the main design objectives.

Signal Timing at Isolated intersections

An isolated intersection is one in which the signal time is not coordinated with that of any
other intersection and therefore operates independently. The cycle length for an intersection
of this type should be short, preferably between 35 and 60 seconds, although it may be
necessary to use longer cycles when approach volumes are very high. However, cycle
lengths should be kept below 120 seconds, since very long cycle lengths will result in
excessive delay. Several methods have been developed for determining the optimal cycle
length at an intersection, and (in most cases) the yellow interval is considered as a

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component of the green time. Before discussing two of these methods, we will discuss the
basis for selecting the yellow interval at an intersection.

Yellow Interval

The required yellow interval is the time period that guarantees that an approaching vehicle
can either stop safely or proceed through the intersection without speeding. The yellow
interval is normally 2 sec to 3 sec and never more than 5 sec. Long yellow phase can be
followed by all red phases. For academic purposes these values will be prescribed.

Cycle Lengths of Fixed (Pretimed) Signals

The signals at isolated intersections can be pretimed (fixed), semi-actuated, or fully

actuated. Pretimed signals assign the right of way to different traffic streams in accordance

with a pre-set timing program. Each signal has a pre-set cycle length that remains fixed for a
specific period of the day or for the entire day. Several design methods have

been developed to determine the optimum cycle length — the Webster is presented here.

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Gai = Gei + li - t; with t = yellow & red

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Traffic Signals: Timing parameters (refer SARTSM Vol 3 Chap 2)

The concept of signal timing is best thought of as intervals of a cycle time during which
different light signals are given to the different streams of traffic. An example of such signal
intervals is shown in Figure 6.1. This figure shows the intervals during which green, yellow
and red-light signals are displayed on two intersecting roads.

Several important timing parameters are shown in Figure 6.1. The following are definitions of
these parameters:

a) Cycle: The time required for one complete sequence of light signals.
b) Intergreen: The yellow signal interval plus the all-red interval. This is the safety
period between the end of one green light signal and the start of another green
light signal that gives right of way to a conflicting traffic stream. This period is
also called the interstage interval.
c) Offset: The time difference between the start of a signal stage at one traffic
signal relative to the start of a stage at another signal, or relative to some system
time base. Offsets are sometimes also measured at the start of an interstage
interval.
d) Phase: An interval of the signal cycle during which a particular green signal is
displayed. The phase starts when the particular green signal is first displayed
and ends as
e) Stage: An interval of the signal cycle during which any combination of vehicular
green signals is displayed (pedestrian or pedal cyclist green signals excluded).
A stage starts when any vehicular green signal is first displayed and ends as
soon as any of the vehicular green signals being displayed are terminated.
f) Signal group: A group of traffic signal faces that always display the same
sequence of light signals at the same time. These signal faces are electrically
interconnected and can therefore not display different signals at any time.

Figure 6.1 overleaf shows an example of a three-stage traffic signal with six signal groups.
The following signal groups are provided:
a) North/South Street – all turning movements.
b) East approach - protected-only right-turn.
c) East approach – left-turn and straight-through movements.
d) West approach – all turning movements.
e) North/South pedestrian signal.
f) East/West pedestrian signal.

The three stages in Figure 6.1 are as follows:

a) Stage 1 during which green is given to the N/S street and N/S pedestrians.
b) Stage 2 during which green is given for the protected-only right-turn phase on
the east approach.
c) Stage 3 during which green is given for the E/W street and E/W pedestrians.

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Several signal phases are also shown in the figure:

a) The North/South main phase.
b) The East approach right-turn phase.
c) The North/South pedestrian phase.
d) The East/West pedestrian phase.
e) Intersection layout?
f) Signal Stage layout.

ff

Signal Stage Layout. Intersection layout?

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Activity 16 – Signal Timing – 4 leg-junction

The intersection below shows peak hour volumes for a major intersecting on an expressway.
Using the Webster method, determine a suitable signal timing for the intersection using the
four-phase system shown below. Use a yellow interval of three seconds and the saturation
flow given

ADDITIONS

• Yellow + Red time per phase is 3 sec + 2 sec

• Lost time per phase is 3.5 se
• Pedestrians are considered in the signal timing

“Change to SA
intersection”

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Gai = Gei + li - t t = yellow & red

-2 - 2

30 sec3
0
s
e
-2 - 2
c

20 sec2
0
s
e
c

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-2 - 2

5 sec 5
s
e
c
-2 - 2

25 sec;2 round down as total green must equal

80 sec5green plus 12 sec yellow plus 8sec red = 100sec
s
e
“Traffic Signal Stripes” c

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Activity 17 – Signal Timing – 3 leg-junction

Use the Webster method and determine a suitable signal timing for the 3-legged intersection
and stage plan below for the morning peak below using a three-phase system. Also, indicate
the signal stripes. The PHF is 0,96 and lost time is 3,5 sec per phase. For phase 1 and
phase 3 use a yellow plus red interval (3 sec + 2 sec). For phase 2, use a yellow plus red
interval (2 sec + 1 sec). Use a walking speed of 1,0 m/second and the saturation flows given.
Determine equivalent hourly flows, optimum cycle length and green splits. Optimise the
signal time if necessary. Ignore pedestrian movement.

NOTE: All equations provided. Work consistently.

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Lets begin…

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Q 360 446 + 289 112 262 + 638

Equiv. Hourly Q 375 765 117 938
Sj 1800 3500 1600 3600
Qij/Sj 0.21 0.22 0.07 0.26
Yi 0.22 0.07 0.26
SYi 0.55

L = 3.5 sec * 3 phases = 10.5 sec (E.F ∗EI.F) ; F

𝐶I = E > [Link]
= 45,1 s » 50 sec

Effective Green time, Gte = = C – L = 50 – 10,5 = 39,5 sec

L*
Thus, effective green time = I,FF 39,5

.,//
• Actual Green Time for Phase 1 = .,11 39,5 + 3,5 – (3+2) = 14,3 sec
.,.7
• Actual Green Time for Phase 2 =.,11 39,5 + 3,5 – (2+1) = 5,5 sec
.,/3
• Actual Green Time for Phase 3 =.,11 39,5 + 3,5 – (3+2) = 17,2 sec
•

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Activity 18 – Signal Timing – 4 leg-junction with pedestrians

Use the Webster method and determine a suitable signal timing for the 4-legged intersection
and stage plan below for the morning peak below using a three-phase system. Also, indicate
the signal stripes. The PHF is 0,93 and lost time is 3,5 sec per phase. Use a yellow interval
of three seconds, all red of 2 seconds, a walking speed of 1,0 m/second and the saturation
flows given. Determine equivalent hourly flows, optimum cycle length and green splits.
Optimise the signal time if necessary.

NOTE: All equations provided. Work consistently.

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Q 290 380+52 15+559+279 72 +225+30 20+98+34

Equiv. Hourly Q 312 465 917 352 163
Sj 1600 1800 3400 1800 2000
Qij/Sj 0.26 0.28 0.18 0.08
Yi 0.18 0.28 0.18
SYi 0,64

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• L = 3.5 sec * 3 phases = 10.5 sec

(0.1 ∗0..1) # 1
• 𝐶. = = 57,6 s » 60 sec
0 ' ..3:
• Effective Green time, Gte = = C – L = 60 – 10,5 = 49,5 sec

L*
Thus, effective green time = I,GM 49,5

.,/+
• Actual Green Time for Phase 2 = .,3: 49,5 + 3,5 – (3+2) = 20,2 sec
.,0+
• Actual Green Time for Phase 1 & 3 = .,3: 49,5 + 3,5 – (3+2) = 12,4 sec

B&&
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝐺5,.*, = 7 +
E.I
− 𝑌 − 𝑅- Ignore from here on.

N
No pedestrian consideration.
Phase 2 𝐺5,.*, = 7 + − 3 − 2 = 10 sec
E.I

EM
Phase 3 𝐺5,.*, = 7 + − 3 − 2 = 16 𝑠𝑒𝑐
E.I

There is not enough actual green time to address the ped green time in phase 3.

Try increasing the cycle time by 5s per time until enough phase green time is determined. A
cycle time of 75 seconds realises phase 3 pedestrian green time of 16,6 sec.

.,0+
• Actual Green Time for Phase 1 & 3 = .,3: (75 – 10,5) + 3,5 – (3+2) = 16,64 sec
.,/+
• Actual Green Time for Phase 2 = .,3: (75 – 10,5) + 3,5 – (3+2) = 26,72 sec

*The use of one or two decimal places here is to ensure that all the bits of the cycle time add
up exactly to the cycle time.

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Problems

Question One

a. What is Traffic Engineering?

b. What do you understand by the following terms:
– EVU – DHV
– AADT – ADT
c. What is the difference between running and journey speed?
d. There are two types of delay name and briefly describe them by means of examples.

Question Two

a. There are five basic highway traffic characteristics which designer should be aware of,
briefly discuss these.
b. Briefly describe with the aid of a sketch, what the traffic prediction components are.

Question Three

a. What is the difference between Spot Speed, Space Speed and Time Mean Speed.
b. There are various methods of measuring Spot Speed. Briefly discuss these methods.
c. There are three reasons for measuring Running Speed, name and briefly discuss these
methods.

Question Four

a. The speeds of 25 cars were observed in the expressway, 10 cars were noted to travel at
35km/hr, 8 cars were noted to travel at 45km/hr, 2 cars were noted to travel 50km/hr and
5 cars were noted to travel at 45 km/hr. Assuming each car was travelling at constant
speed, determine the time means speed and space mean speed.

ANS: 41,4km/h

ANS 40,4km/h or 40.67km/h

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b. The observations shown below were obtained by an overseer while travelling with and
against a traffic stream; in both cases the distances travelled by the observer was
1,359km. Calculate the mean journey speed and the flow of the traffic stream.
IGNORE as duplication of 4e & 4f
No of vehicles met by Travel time of vehicles met N0 of vehicles passing Travel time of
observer whilst by observer whilst the observer minus the observer in
travelling against the travelling against the traffic number passed by the direction i
traffic stream (Nj) streams (in minutes) (Tj) observer (Fi-Si) (minutes) (Ti)
73 2.99 -1 2.97
72 2.52 -1 2.29
58 2.21 -3 1.87
75 2.82 3 3.97
63 2.13 -2 1.69
83 3.39 0 2.35
89 3.00 -5 1.73
81 2.62 -4 2.98
69 2.54 1 2.92
65 2.23 -9 2.55

Ni =72,80 Tj = 2,65 Fi – Si = -2,10 Ti = 2,53 qi = 13,66 veh / min

t = 2,68 min Xs = 0,51 km/min Work consistently (e.g., 2 decimals places) throughout.

IGNORE as duplication of 4e & 4f

c)
a. While taking measurements by the moving-observer method, a test vehicle covered a 3km
road section in 2.5 min going against traffic and 3.5 min going with traffic. Given that the
traffic flow was 850 veh/h and that the test vehicle passed 13 more vehicles than passed
it when going with traffic, find (8)

• the number of vehicles encountered by the test vehicle while moving against traffic.
• the average time for the traffic being measured,
• the concentration (Space Mean Speed) of the traffic stream,
• and whether on its run with traffic the test vehicle was traveling faster or slower than
the traffic stream
(Hint: Work back for Nj; Show ALL calculation to support answer)
Half Correct as "Test vehicle passing 13 more vehicles implies negative sign" but these answers used "+13"
Ni = 72veh T = 2,58min Xs = 69,60km/h Faster (i) Slower (j)
Statement Work consistently throughout. Xs(i) = 51.4km/hr, slower than stream

Correct: Fi-Si = -13

Ni = 98 T = 4.42min Xs = 40.20km/hr Xs(i) = 51.4km/hr, faster

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IGNORE
d b. While taking measurements by the moving-observer method, a test vehicle covered a 2km
road section in 2 minutes going against traffic and 3 minutes going with traffic. Given that
the traffic flow was 744 veh/h and that the test vehicle passed 15 more vehicles than
passed it when going with traffic, find (8)
• the number of vehicles encountered by the test vehicle while moving against traffic.
• the average time for the traffic being measured
• the concentration of the traffic stream,
• and whether on its run with traffic the test vehicle was traveling faster / slower than the
traffic stream.
Half Correct 40.0 km/hr
Ni = 47veh T = 1,79min Xs = 67,2km/h Slower (i) Slower (j)
Work consistently throughout.
Correct
Ni = 77 T= 4.21min Xs = 28.80 km/hr Xs(i) 40.0km/hr, faster

e c. Tables below show data obtained in a travel time study on a section of roadway using
the moving vehicle technique. Estimate the travel time and the volume in each direction
of this section of roadway.
Lets pick up here as this method was explained in class!

Run Number Travel Time Number of vehicles No of Vehicles No of Vehicles

(min) Travelling in Opposite That Overtook Overtaken by
Direction Test Vehicle Test Vehicle
Northward
1 5,25 100 2 2
2 5,08 105 2 1
3 5,30 103 3 1
4 5,15 110 1 0
5 5,00 101 0 0
6 5,51 98 2 2
7 5,38 97 1 1
8 5,41 112 2 3
9 5,12 109 3 1
10 5,31 107 0 0

Run Number Travel Time Number of vehicles No of Vehicles No of Vehicles

(min) Travelling in Opposite That Overtook Overtaken by
Direction Test Vehicle Test Vehicle
Southward
1 4.95 85 1 0
2 4,85 88 0 1
3 5,00 95 0 1

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4 4,91 100 2 1
5 4,63 102 1 2
6 5,11 90 1 1
7 4,83 95 2 0
8 4,91 96 3 1
9 4,95 98 1 2
10 4,83 90 0 1

Ne = 104,20 Nw = 93,90 Te + Tw = 10,14

Ve = 558 veh/hr; Te = 5,2 min Vw =617 veh/hr Tw = 4.88min

Students to provide full notation of Ne, Oe, Pe, Te, Tw for marks.

f d. The moving observer method was used to determine the flow and running
speed of a rural road in two different directions. The length of this section is
2,50km. The table presents the data (average) obtained during the study.

Run Travel Time with Number of Number of Number of vehicles

Number traffic (min) vehicles vehicles met while travelling
overtaking overtaken against traffic
Eastbound
82 1.99 1 1.97 20
Westbound
83 1.52 1 1.29 86

• Calculate directional flow and space mean speed of the traffic stream. (Lots of marks)
• Comment on the space means speed versus posted speed of 80km/hr.! (3+3)

Ve = 1454 veh/hr; Te = 2,03 min Xs = 73,89 km/h

Vw = 337 veh/hr Tw = 1.5 7min Xs = 95,44 km/h
Students to provide full notation of Ne, Oe, Pe, Te, Tw for marks. Work consistently)
throughout.

Question Five

a. Speed data collected on an urban roadway yielded a standard deviation in speeds

of 5.6 km/h.
i. If an engineer wishes to estimate the average speed on the roadway at a 95%
confidence level so that the estimate is within 2 km/h of the true average, how
many spot speeds should be collected.
ii. If the estimate of the average must be within 1 km/h, what should the sample
size be?
ANS: 30,12 120,47 Work consistently throughout.

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b. An engineer wishing to obtain the speed characteristics on a bypass around her

city at a confidence level of 98.8%, and an acceptable limit of 2.0 km/h collected
a total of 124 spot speed samples and determined that the variance is 4.8km/hr.
Has the engineer met with all the requirements of the study? Refer applicable
tables.
Simplify!!
ANS: 36 km/hr and statement

Question Six

a. An engineer wishing to determine whether there is a statistically significant

difference between the average speed of passenger cars and that of large
trucks on a section of highway, collected the data shown below. Determine
whether the engineer can conclude that the average speed of large trucks is the
same as that for passenger cars.

ANS: Difference in speeds > Std Dev difference @ 95% confidence; thus significant
AND statement requirement

b. Spot speeds were collected at a section of highway located in a residential area,

after an intervention. Report, for the after case, the mean speed and comment
if there has been any improvement if the posted speed limit in the area 40km/h.
(17)

The after detail is presented below:

Car No Speed After (km/hr) Car No Speed After (km/hr)

1 50 11 42
2 46 12 32
3 31 13 42
4 39 14 36
5 34 15 35
6 42 16 39
7 33 17 30
8 31 18 41
9 28 19 42
10 28 20 46

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Note 1: Speed categories will start at lowest seven peed, in 2km/hr increments

Note 2: Work to two decimal places in the frequency distribution table; used only
necessary headings.

ANS: 38 km/hr and statement.

c. The accompanying data show spot speeds collected

at a section of highway located in a residential area.
Using the student’s t test, determine whether there
was a statistically significant difference in the average
speeds at the 95% confidence level, noting the local
speed limit of 30km/hr

ANS:
Mean before = Mean = 35,9km/hr
Mean after = 28,6km/hr
S/Dev = 3,61 S/Dev = 5,77.
Diff in mean speeds > Std Dev Diff (3)
Statement (2)

Question Seven

Briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the manual method of volume counts.

Question Eight

• There are various types of capacity as defined by the Highway Capacity Manual,
discuss these.

• The factors affecting capacity can be considered under two headings, mainly prevailing
road conditions and prevailing traffic conditions. Discuss these factors.

• Levels of service are the different operating conditions which occur on a lane or
roadway when accommodating various traffic volumes. Discuss the meaning of this
statement

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Question Nine

a. Data collected at a parking lot indicate that a total of 300 cars park between 8 a.m. and
6 p.m. 10% of these cars are parked for an average of 2 hr, 30% for an average of 4
hr, and the remaining cars are parked for an average of 10 hr. Determine the space-
hours of demand at the lot.
ANS: 2100 (total [Link]) 0,85 Eff 0,85
2200
b. If 10% of the parking bays are vacant on average (between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m.) in (a),
determine the number of parking bays in the parking lot. Assume an efficiency factor
of 0.85.
ANS: 2200 (total [Link]) 259 bays
2442 288
c. The owner of the parking lot in (a), is planning an expansion of her lot to provide
adequate demand for the following 5 years. If she has estimated that parking demand
for all categories will increase by 5% a year, determine the number of additional parking
bays that will be required.
ANS: 2653 (total [Link]) 312 total bays Diff 53 bays
ANS Totz Increas 368 bays Diff 80

Question Ten IGNORE, Refer PPT

a. Using an appropriate diagram, identify all the possible conflict pints at an unsignalized
T intersection.
two at
b. A to-phase signal system is installed t the intersection in (a) with channelised left turn
shared
lanes and shred through right turn lanes. Using a suitable diagram, determine the
possible conflict points. Indicate the phasing system used.

points
c. Using appropriate diagrams, determine the possible conflict pints on a four-leg
signalised intersection for a two-phase system. Assume no turn on red.

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Question Eleven IGNORE

a. For the geometric and traffic characteristics shown for the intersection below,
- determine suitable phase and pedestrian lengths using the Webster method. (11)
- Does any of the phase greens need adjustment? (11)
- If so, discuss adjustments and show calculation (6)
4
Note: 2 phase signal pattern, namely N-S (B&D) & E-W (A&C)

Correct
Ni = 77 T= 4.21min XXs = 28.80 km/hrs =

b. In question above, increase saturation flow rates by 10%. What effect does this have
on the cycle length?

c.

In question above again, increase pedestrian flows that are 20% higher. What effect does
this have on the cycle length and the different phases?

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