Definition of Gravity

Gravity is the force of attraction between any two objects in the universe. Every object with mass
attracts every other object with mass.

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Force between two objects of mass m1 and m2, separated by distance r:

F=Gm1m2/r2
Where:
F = Gravitational force
G = Gravitational constant (6.67×10−11 Nm2/kg2)
r = Distance between masses

Derivation of Unit of G (Gravitational constant)

From formula:
F=Gm1m2/r2
G=Fr2/(m1m2)
Substitute units:
• F=N=kgm/s2
• r2=m2
• m1,m2=kg
So unit of G=Nm2/kg2.
Value: G=6.67×10−11Nm2/kg2

Why Earth does not fall into the Sun?

The Earth doesn't fall into the Sun due to a balance of forces. While the Sun's gravity pulls the Earth
towards it, the Earth's forward motion creates a centripetal force that counteracts this pull, causing
the Earth to orbit the Sun in a stable path.

Centripetal Force:

Centripetal force is a real force that acts on an object moving in a circular path, always directed
towards the center of the circle.

Stone attracts Earth, but why Earth does not move?

Force on both is same (Newton’s 3rd Law). But Earth’s mass is extremely large, so acceleration is
almost zero. Hence Earth does not move.
Effect of Distance on Gravitation

If distance is doubled → force becomes 1/4

If distance is halved → force becomes 4 times.

Applications of Earth’s Gravitational Force

• Keeps us on Earth.
• Causes high and low tides due to moon’s pull.

We Remain on Earth (Gravity holds us)

Earth’s gravity pulls everything towards its center. This is why: We don’t float away into space.
Atmosphere, oceans, and all objects are bound to Earth. Our weight exists only because Earth pulls
us. (Weight = mass × g).
Example: If Earth had no gravity, people, water, and even air would drift off into space.

Low and High Tides

Tides in oceans are caused due to the gravitational pull of the Moon (and Sun, to a lesser extent). At
the side of Earth facing the Moon, water bulges out → High tide. On the opposite side, another
bulge occurs → another High tide. Between them, Low tides occur. These tides are important for
navigation, fishing, and even in producing tidal energy. Without Earth’s gravitational force, these
ocean tides wouldn’t form in a regular manner.

Acceleration due to Gravity (g)

Acceleration due to gravity is the rate at which the velocity of an object changes due to the force of
gravity when it's in freefall.
Formula:
g = GM/R2
Where:
• M = Mass of Earth
• R = Radius of Earth
• Value = 9.8m/s2
• At greater height → g decreases.
• At poles → g is maximum (radius smaller).
• At equator → g is minimum (radius larger).
PS: Distance of poles and centre of earth is minimum and distance of equator and centre of
earth is maximum.
Body falls quicker at poles than equator.
Earth’s shape and rotation make gravity stronger at poles. Stronger gravity means more acceleration
due to gravity and hence objects fall faster. That’s why a ball falls quicker at the poles than at the
equator.

Special Cases
• Planet with half mass & half radius of Earth:
g′ = G(M/2)/(R/2)2 = 2GM/R=2g
So a body will take half the time to fall to the same distance because the acceleration due to gravity
is double of earth.

Difference between G and g:

Property G (Gravitational g (Acceleration due to
Constant) Gravity)
Definition Universal constant in Acceleration produced in a
Newton’s law body due to Earth’s gravity
Symbol G g
Value 6.67 × 10^-11 N·m²/kg² 9.8 m/s² (on Earth)
Unit N·m²/kg² m/s²
Depends on None (same everywhere) Mass and radius of
planet and location on Earth
Nature Constant Variable
(changes with height and latitude
of planet)
Formula F = G (m1 m2)/r² W = mg or g = GM/R²

Difference between Mass and Weight

Property Mass Weight
Definition Amount of matter contained in a Force with which a body is
body attracted towards Earth due to
gravity
Unit Kilogram (kg) Newton (N)
Nature Scalar quantity Vector quantity (acts downward)
Depends on Independent of location Depends on value of g (gravity),
changes from place to place
Measurement Measured by a balance Measured by a spring balance
Weight on Moon
Gravitational force of Moon is 1/6th of earth. So, weight in moon is 1/6 times that of earth. But
mass remains constant.
The mass of a boy is 60 kg. Find his weight on Earth and on the Moon.

Solution:
Weight on Earth:
W_earth = m * g
W_earth = 60 kg * 9.8 m/s2
W_earth = 588 N
Weight on Moon:
g_moon = 9.8/6 = 1.633... m/s2 (use 1.63 m/s2)
W_moon = m * g_moon
W_moon = 60 kg * 1.63 m/s2
W_moon = 97.8 N
Final Answer:
Mass = 60 kg (same on Earth and Moon)
Weight on Earth = 588 N
Weight on Moon = 97.8 N

Effect of Mass and Radius on Weight

If diameter of Earth is halved and mass is doubled:
Given formula:
g = GM / R2
New radius = R/2
New mass = 2M
So,
g' = G (2M) / (R/2)2
g' = G (2M) / (R2 / 4)
g' = (2GM * 4) / R2
g' = 8GM / R2
g' = 8g
Therefore, the new acceleration due to gravity becomes 8 times.
Hence, weight also becomes 8 times.

If g = 0 on Earth
No centripetal force → Moon will move away in a straight line.
The Moon revolves around the Earth because of gravitational force. Earth’s gravity pulls the Moon
towards itself. This gravitational pull acts as the centripetal force that keeps the Moon in a circular
orbit. If g = 0 on Earth → this means Earth has no gravity. Then Earth cannot pull the Moon
towards itself. So, there will be no centripetal force acting on the Moon. According to Newton’s
First Law of Motion, if no force acts on a moving body, it continues moving in a straight line at
constant speed. Hence, instead of revolving around Earth, the Moon would fly away in a straight
line tangent to its orbit.

Free Fall
Motion of a body under gravity alone. Equations of motion apply with acceleration = g.
Examples:
Ball dropped from 50 m:
v = √2gh = 2×9.8×50 ≈ 31.3m/s
Two bodies of different mass fall with same acceleration → reach ground together.

Kepler’s Laws
1. Planets move in elliptical orbits.
2. Line joining planet and Sun sweeps equal areas in equal times.
3. T2∝R3 (Time period related to cube of radius).

Thrust & Pressure

Thrust = Force applied perpendicular to a surface.
Pressure = Force/Area.
SI unit of Pascal = Pascal
1 Pascal = 1 N/m².

A sharp knife has a very small surface area at the edge.

For the same force, pressure is larger. Hence, it cuts easily compared to a blunt knife.
Difficult to hold a school bag with thin straps
Thin straps have small surface area. For the same weight of the bag, pressure on shoulders
increases. This causes pain. Bags are made with wide straps to reduce pressure.
Nails have sharp ends
A nail with a sharp tip has less area at the point. When force is applied, pressure increases. This
makes it easy to push the nail into wood or wall.
Camels have broad feet
Camel’s broad feet spread weight over a larger area. This reduces pressure on sand. So, camels do
not sink in desert sand easily.
Feet sink deeper in sand when standing, but not when lying down
While standing, weight acts on a small area (feet). Pressure is high, so feet sink into sand. While
lying down, body weight spreads over a larger area. Pressure reduces, so body does not sink.
Rear wheels of a tractor are broad
Broad wheels have more surface area in contact with ground. This reduces pressure. Tractor does
not sink into soft soil and can move easily in fields.

Buoyant Force & Archimedes’ Principle

Buoyant Force = Upward force exerted by liquid.
Archimedes’ Principle: A body immersed in fluid loses weight equal to weight of fluid displaced.
Applications:
Submarines, hot-air balloons, ships.
Easier to swim in salty water (denser → more buoyant force).
If object pushed deeper → Buoyant force increases.

Why is it easier to swim in sea water than in river water?

Sea water is salty and has higher density than river water. According to Archimedes’ principle, the
buoyant force is equal to the weight of displaced liquid. Since sea water is denser, it exerts greater
buoyant force. Therefore, it is easier to swim in sea water.
Why does a ship made of iron float on water while an iron nail sinks?
A solid iron nail has small volume and displaces little water, so the upward buoyant force is less
than its weight and it sinks. A ship, though heavy, is hollow and has a large volume, so it displaces a
large amount of water. The buoyant force becomes equal to or greater than its weight, and it floats.
Why do submarines sink or float at will?
Submarines have special ballast tanks. By filling these tanks with water, their weight increases, so
they sink. By pumping out the water and filling the tanks with air, their weight decreases, buoyant
force becomes greater, and they float.
How does a hot air balloon rise up in the air?
The air inside the balloon is heated, so it becomes less dense than the surrounding cool air. The
denser outside air exerts a greater buoyant force on the balloon. When this upward buoyant force is
greater than the weight of the balloon, it rises.
Why is it easier to swim in sea water than in river water?
Ans: Sea water is salty and has higher density than river water. According to Archimedes’ principle,
the buoyant force is equal to the weight of displaced liquid. Since sea water is denser, it exerts
greater buoyant force. Therefore, it is easier to swim in sea water.

Why is it easier to lift a bucket of water when inside water than in air?
When a bucket is inside water, an upward buoyant force acts on it equal to the weight of water
displaced. This reduces the effective weight of the bucket. Hence, it feels lighter inside water than
in air.
An object floats on water. If pushed deeper, what happens?
Buoyant force increases.