<br>

SOWDAIMBIKAA GROUP OF SCH0OLS

SOWDAMGIKAA GROUP OF SCHOLS
CESE STFEAI

-NUSEI
TRISH-THURAIYUR- THIEJNEUWIU:

THCHY - THUEATIA- THRUNERUY3LA -B.S3I

stranded
|XII NEET BOTANY WS 16) A completely radioactive
double
DNAmolecule undergoes two round of
Numericals
replication in a non radioactive medium.
1)Ads DNA with 34nm,has 10%Adenine What will be the radioactive the
statUs ofAcTcvE, 2NONN K
Find out the following daughter molecules 2-RAD1o
0 four
a)Total number of nucleotides 17) In a segment of DNA 3.2 kilobases
are
b) hydrogen bonds,Phosphodiester bonds 80,148 present. If DNA segment has 8 20 adenine
c)Glycosidic bonds,sugars, Phosphate Q00o Qoo molecules, then what will be number of
d)CN rings, Phosphoester bonds )300, 348 cytosine ? 460
2) 1)A ds DNA with 340A,has 20%Guanine 9*.* X18) minutes in 15NH4Imedium then what
Find out would be the proportion of hybrid and
the following
a)Total number of nucleotides =) 2O0 heavy density DNA molecules
and Stahl
b) hydrogen bonds, Phosphodiester bonds >20 40 19) Regarding to Meselsonconservative nature of
experiment for semi
c)Glycosidic bonds, sugars,Phosphate ->200, Q00,00
DNAreplication select out the wrong
d)CN rings,Phosphoester bonds )300,398
a statement
3) Number of spirals are found in DNA= of
2O0 200Bpin (1) 15N of 15NH4CI was incorporated in DNA
2000 base pairs is and other compounds
1) 2000 2) 1003/oo 4) 45.5 on
k(2) 15N & 14N can be differentiate the
The length ofa double helix DNAis 1.7 m, basis of radioactive activity
the number of base pairs present in the DNA
501
(3) Heavy and normal DNA Molecules could
5)The length of ds DNA in one chromosome is 510 be distinguished by CsCl density
A. It has 20% 5 methyl uracil. The total number of gradient centrifugation
nucleotides and hydrogen bonds in that DNA is-2Q0 (4) 15N used in 15NH4CI was not a
-195 radioactive isotope
20) If A and C make 30% and 20% of DNA,
6) A typical ds DNA Molecule with a length of
1360A undergoing replication in medium a respectively, what will be the percentage
deoxyribonucleotides. After 3
composition of Tand G? 4= 20.
containing
21) One of the strands of double stranded DNA
generations of replications how many
deoxyribonucdeotids are. consumed from the
has base composition as follows 15% A,
15% T, 40%
:

G'and 30% C. What iwill be the

T=5o
medium ? percentage of these bases in the
Azlso
1) 6400 2) b600 3)6000 4) 4800
complementary strand? C=3o -3%
7) Escherichia coli with completely heavy DNA 22)How many nucleosomes are present in [Link]--ERO
allowed toreplicate in a medium with 23)Ten [Link] cells with 15N - dsDNA are
14 NH4CI for two generations. The percent incubated in medium containing 14N
age of DNAstrands with 15N in its DNA is nucleotide. After 60minutes, how many
1) 25 2) 12.5) 50 4) 6.25 [Link] will have DNA totally with
15N ? ZERO
15) A normal DNA molecule is continuously
replicate in N15 medium than what is the % 24) Inthe base sequence of one strand of DNA
of lighter DNA in 4th géneration. is CAT, TAG, CAT,CAT, GAC what would be
(1)12-5% (2) 25% (4) 6-25% the base sequence of its complementary
m-RNA GTAATCGTAGTACTG

NCERT DRIVE LINE BY LINE

<br>

163
ontyin
based,on
to as -) present in 'as
of nucleotide referred
INTRODUCTION a muipliato
-pXAt
is the
an organism.
known as ¢ x174 has s384ba,gs
nand Doub
Ph.D. degree in 1950on study 2ja bacteriophage
1)Watson received his [Link] lambda has M2So2 Jne
of
of the effect of hard X-rays nucleotides, Bacteriophage
2)He met Crick and
discoveredtheir common
interest in
pairs(bp), Escherichia
coli has
3:3
t6xi0
X}o
-bp, and haploid
effort, was -bp.
serious
solving the DNA
structure, Theirfirst
upon more content of human DNAis
unsatisfactory. Their Se<Onaeffort
based Polynucleotide Chain
.5.1.1 Structure of -
appr of the components a
experimental evidence and better
onre in Manch 1)
A
nucleotide has three
in case of RNA, and
-

resultod in the sugar (le

nucleic acid literature. base, a pei a phos Phe-group. There are
double-helical
proposal of the complementary deoxyribose for DNA), and
bases - Purines(-Acleniland
configuration. two types of nitrogenous cqtos.-and Ih4Ad
ne
3) Francis Harry studied physics at University
College, Pyrimidines (Uidis,
quenuj, and
London. and obtained a [Link]. in 1937. He completed
Ph.D. in 1954 on a thesis
cion! ---).she Ru'nes DNA and RNA and
entitieBrir e
2)-LutsMY. is [Link] both
4)A critical influence in
Crick' Scareer was his friendship in I Uracil is present in-RA
Thymine is present only
a young man of 23, leading in
with J. [Link], then --- at
the place of Thymine.
1953 to the proposal of the double-helical
structure for is M-qycosHs.
linked Ql. of 1' C
-Heplicatton schene 3) nitrogenous base
A
a
DNA and the linkage to form
with Crick include: the John pentose sugar through a
5) The honours to Watson
Collins Warren Prize of the Massachusetts General
nucleoside
such as adenosine or
deoxyddenaske guanop
Hospital, in 1959; the Lasker Award, in 1960; the
deoxyguanosine, cytidine or eaxy-and uridine or tyuc
Research Corporation Prize, in 1962 and above all, the. cytosne
Nobel Prize in lB2 a
phosphate group is linked to OH of -of a
6)At the time of Mendel, the nature of the-IAc94)When einkage,
regulating the patte rn of inheritance was not clear. nucleoside through paosphoss
years, nature of the Rutive corresponding nucleotide (or deoxynucleotide
7)Over the next LD... the
depending. upon the type of -sug. present) is
-genetic material was investigated culminating in the
realisation that -[Link] the genetic material, at formed.
least for theojn o
organisms. 4)Two nucleotides are linked through
8)Nucleic adds are polymers of acleotides phosphodiester linkage to form a dinucleotide. More
nucleotides can be joined in such a manner to form
a
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA)
polynucleotide chain. A polymer thus formed has at one
are the two types of nucleic acids found .in living
systems. PIVA-acts as the genetic material in most of a
end a a free phosphate moiety 5G'sugar, ² which is
.Similarly,
G

the organisms. BNR though also it acts as a genetic. referred to as 5'-end of -Pu4hain at the
material in some viruses, mostly functions as mcsses
a other end of the polymer the sugar has a free OH of 24
c. group
---has
9) RNA
cases as a
functions
fay [Link]
additional roles as well.

molecule.
deial
and in some

10) monomer units are linked to form nucleic acid ---

which is referred to as2-end of the
polynucleotide chain.
S)The backbone of a polynucleotide chain is formed
due to -SugnG. The nitrog enous bases linked to
phosphctte
palyeny sugar
11)the process of making RNA from DNA (daan scatinflon moiety project from the [Link]:
6)ln RNA, every nucleotide residue has an additional
-
the genetic code that determines the sequences of
m

O
-acicts-in proteins,the process of protein synthesis ( OH group present at-Z--position in the ribose. Also, in
[Link]) and elementary basis of their regulation. RNAthe uracil is found at the place of ymars-methyl
12)The determination of complete nucleotidesequence uracil, another chemicalname for thymine).
of human genome during last decade has set in a new 7)DNA as an acidic substance present in nucleus was
era of
9the most interesting molecule in the living first identified bytceCk
mersauy in 1869. He named it
system, that is, the -RMA. as Nuclein 8)However, due to fechimitation in
5.1 THE DNA isolating such a long polymer intact, the eucidodiapf
1)DNA is a
long Polymer of
cleo4uot
The length of structure of DNA remained elusive for a very Iong
s
DNA Usually defined as
number of po period of time.
<br>

esent
ent
initwas Francis 14)The proposition of double helix structure
a for DNA
only in 15s that James Watson and explaining the genetic implication
S3S6k, based onthe,& produced [Link] and its Sipa
22 a very simple but ftancuk
Anand
bas<mous saaproposed became
proposed the
Double Helix model for the structure
of DNA. revolutionary. Very soon, ---0K--
oigAo)One of the hallmarks of their proposition was -bAe Central dogma in molecular biology, which states that
paueyeween the two strands of polynucle otide chains. the genetic
on the information flows from DNA 2Mk0AProtein.
11)However, this prgposition was also based reverse
a stranded 15) In some viruses the flow of information is in
observation of -aratthat for double DNA. you suggest
direction, that is, from KW..to Can
DNA, the ratios between Adenine and Thymine and
a simple name to the process?
Guanine and Cytosine are CnctaHd equals -Q.."
a very
unique property to 16)Taken the distance between two consecutive base
12)The bLSSVIgonfers DNA
chains. They are said to be pairs as 0.34 nm P2hY.D-m), if the length of
the polynucleotide
complementary to each other, and therefore if the double
(simply
sequence of bases in one strand is known then the helix in a typical mammalian cell is calculated
sequence in other strand can be PeclictedAlso,
if number of bp with distance
by multiplying the total
as pacatal
a DNA) between two consecutive bp, that is, 6.6 x 109 bpx 0.34
each strand from a DNA (let us call it A

a new strand, x 10-9m/bp), it comes out to be approximately

DNA) acts as a template for synthesis of
us them as Clau metres.
the two double stranded DNA (let call of
-
DNA) thus, produced would be identical to the 17) A length that is far greater than the dimension
ght m).

paxntl-DNA molecule. Because of this, the genetic typical nucleus (approximately l

very clear. How is such a long polymer packaged in a cell?
implications of the structure of DNA became mm, can you
The salient features of the Double-helix structure of 18)f the length of E. coli DNA is 1.36
calculate the number of base pairs in [Link]?
DNA are a -not
19)ln prokaryotes, such as, E. coli, though they do
(0) made of two polynucleotide chains, where the.
It is
a Aucleus. the DNA is not cctoug throughout the
have d8tie
backbone is constitted by sugar-phosphate, and the is held with Some
have nti cell. 20)DNA (beingVe4-charged)
bases project !hslce () The two chains charges) in a region termed
Peallaolarity. It means, if one chain has the polarity.23 proteins (that have - SYe
as 'n4okp21)The DNA n nucleoid is organised in
other has2£'(ii) The bases intwo strands
4he large loops held by ptSn
n
eukaryotes, this
are paired through ydigbond(H-bonds) forming is a set of
organisation is much more22)There
base pairs (bp). Adenine forms R
hydrogen bonds
positively charged, basic proteins called isA
with tyrom opposite strand and vice-versa.
protein acquires charge depending upon the
Similarly, Guanine is bonded with Cytosine with-S..H of
n
residues with charged S.
comes opposite to abundance
bonds. As a result, always appuine amino acid
chains. Histones are rich in the -4e
a
pyrimidine. This tuform two residues4yngnd Ag4nBoth the amino acid residues
generates approximately-..u1anAbetween the
strands of the helix
(iv) The two chains
are coiled in a 8handed
[Link].. charges in their side chains.
23)Histones are organised to form unit
a of --..
(a nanometre is molecules called-MEIONS-octamer.
fashion. The pitch the helix is-nm
of around the
24)The negatively charged DNA wrapped
is
are
one billionth of a metre, that isl..-m) and there octamer to a structure
the positively charged histone forn
roughly 1bp in each turn. Consequently,
called tAASOSNYA typical nucleosome contains-Do
distancebetween a bp in a helix is . of DNA
helix. veprating
approximately 4-nm. (v) The plane [Link]..
25) Nucleosomes constitute the --.--unit of a
over the other in double helix. This, in addition to
H

like
structure in nuçleus called chromatin, thread
bonds, confers lt-of the helical structure seen in nucleus. The nucleosornes
stained (DL bodies
)Compare the structure of purines and pyrimidines. as 'nlCUA stucture when
in chromatin arc seen
Can you find out why the distance between two (EM)
viewed under electron microscope
polynucleotide many such beads (nucleosomes)
6Theoretically, how
chains in DNA remains almost constant? are present in a mammalian cell?
do you imagine
<br>
allowed

were infe

phages the
as
removed
Sioactive Then,
SometLQNSfozming bler
bacteria. tranferred from coatwere
bacteria.
chromatin is thes
theminthe
27)The beads-on-string structure
killed S strain, had enabledthe..R. strain to synthe
packaged to form claomatl are further coiled from
a smooth polygacho'and become virulent. ating
and condensed at metashtage of cell division to form --.GM. Cenkiuge
eparated
must be due to the transfer of
the -----Howeve:
chromosomes. The packaging of chromatin at higher
levelrequires additionalset of proteins that collectively the bochan4fsure of genetic materialwas not defined acteria

are referred to as n0nhistheCho omosomal (NIC) from his experiments. 3)Bac

Pr otn
28) In a typical nucleus, some region of chromatin are Biochemical Characterisation of Transforming Princinla
radio:
DNA
loosely packed (aihidtand are referred asQuchnomti)Prior
to to the work of -Oswald.., Colne and Mec
Avey Maclyn
-29). The chromatin that is more densely packed and
stains dark are called as -teADchaomati n (L9.32.h4), the genetic material was thought to be a
30). Euchromatin is said to be transcription ally .Qve prDtsin They worked to determine the tocharmi6Sture
chromatin, whereas heterochromatin is--Jnatve of 'transforming principle' in Griffith's experiment.
5.2 THESEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL 12)They purified biochemicals (paanein RMA, RNA
1)Even though the discovery of hev-Meickand --, -) from the heat-killed > cells to see which ones
hiclain could transform live Rcells into cells. They discovered
the proposition for principles of inheritance by Mendel
were almost at the that DNA alone from 2 bacteria caused Rbacteria to
sebut that the NA acts as a
genetic material took long to be l'scod-eADNn become transformed.
2)By L12B, the quest to "tutt++determine
the 13)They also discovered that protein-digesting enzymes
mechanism for geneticinheritance had reached the Moleuhy (-fettsas) and RNA-digesting enzymes (RNAALL.) did
-level. not affect transformation, so the transforming
3) Previous discoveries [Link],.wglte1.9uHon substance was not a pI9teinor RNA
kunt numerous [Link]
eaAnand 14)Digestion with-PNAS did inhibit transformation,
sientists hadnarrowedthe search tothe t%@ns
suggesting that the..DNA caused the fosmtho4hey
chromosomes located in the Leleaof most cells. But concluded that DNA is the hereditary material, but -mt
the question of what molecule was actually the genetic cL biologists were convinced. i
material, had not been-Mee
d

5)Can you think of any difference between DNAS and

Transforming Principle DNase?
4)ln 422, Frederick Griffith, in a series of 5.2.1 The Genetic [Link] DNA
experiments with StxepftocBheumoniae (bacterium 16)The unequivocal proof that DNA is the genetic
responsible for -Fem), witnessed a miraculous material came from the experiments of „[Link]
tcnomt n
the bacteria. Manthca.
hg-9-7)
hexchey
They worked withviruses that ihfect
5)During the course of his experiment, a living bacteria [Link]
organism (bacteria) had changed in ph4siulform. 18)The bacteriophage attaches to the bacteria and its
6)When Streptococcus pneumoniae phelumaccus genetic materialthen enters the -atteual cel
bacteria are grown on a culture plate,some produce Smoom 19)The bacterial cell treats the viral genetic material as
Hoan. colonies (S) while others produce 91DL4u. if it was its [Link] subsequently
manufactures more
colonies(. This is because the S strain bacteria have a virus
MUOus (paycalca coat, while .strain does .pal, Hershey and Chase worked to discover
not. Mice infected with the S strain (Lknt) die from whether it was -pHOit'br VA..from the viruses that
pneumonia infection but mice infected with the R. entered the bacteria.
strain do not [Link] Griffith was able to 20)Theygrew some viruses on a medium that contained
killbacteria [Link]-them. radioactive pen24nd some others on medium that
7) He observed that heat-killed S strain bacteria contained [Link](fw
injected into [Link] kill them. 21)Viruses grown in the presence of radioactive
8)When he injected a mixture of hes phauy
hrat..kalR....$u" s'contained radioactive DNA but not radioactive
-, the mice died. protein because DNA contains paephsut protein
9)More over, he recovered living -..-bacteria from does not. Similarly, viruses grown on radioactiveqe
the dead mice. contained radioactive protein but not radioactive DNA
10)He concluded that the -A... strain bacteria had
because DNA does not contain &u
somehow been transformed bythe heat-killedstrain
 intorom
<br>

irulent.
syntheythe o
9)This now can easily be explained in light of the
DNA
adioactive phages were allowed to attach to-.2ae
Howeve? that the two strands being complementary separated
if
bacteria. Then, as the infection proceeded, the carcohclion
ofined
[Link]--were removed from the bacteria by by heating come together, when appapicte
were provided, Further.2-9H! group present at every
agitating them in blendes, The virus particles
separated from the bacteria by spinning them in a --- a
nucleotide in RNA is reactive
group and makes RVA
easily-clegtaclablu
Cabilk and
-Centoifugt ctet viruses 10) RNA is also now known to be catalytic, hence
23)Bacteria which was ingith that had
radioactive LV. were radioactive, indicating that reactive. Therefore, DNA chemically is less reactive and
DNAwas the material that passed from the virus to the structurally more stable when compared to RNA.
a
bateua Therefore, among the two nucleic acids, the DNA is
24)Bacteria that were infected with viruses that had better genetic material. thynidina
radioactive pHatelwere not Aadieactie 11)ln fact, the presence of uHad
at the place of
25). This indicates that-pi0t&irdid not enter the ----also confers additional stability to DNA. (Detailed
bacteria from the viruses. DNA is therefore the genetic discussión' about this requires understanding of the
DN
process of epaiH in Jmutote
material that is passed from virus to bacteria
S.2.2 Properties of Genetic Material (DNA versus RNA) 12)Both DNA and RNA are able to-X2pcatsffact, RNA
1) it is cdear that the debate between protein versus being nstak, mutate at a
fastenate
DNA as the genetic materialwas unequivocally resolved 13)Consequently, iruses having--BNA genome and
from
HeceyohO4e experiment. having -mteXife span mutate and evolve Fatet.
2)1t became an established fact that it is DNA that atts
as genetic material. However, it subsequenthy became 14)RNA can directly code for the synthesis of -pADtRLH

cdear that ,hencecan easily express the characters. DNA,

in some viruses, RNA is the genetic material (for however, is dependent on KM for synthesis of
example; -înAY, Bactahphete) [Link] protein synthesising machinery 'has
3)why DNA is the predominant genetic material, i: evotved around-RIMAL.
whereas RNA performs qnaunctions of messenger15)The above discussion indicate that both RNÀand
to be found from the differences DNA can fyncion as genetic material, but DNA being
and adapter has State preferred for stotage of
hendsa structures of the two nucleic more is [Link]
between
acid molecules. Forthe transmission of genetic information,--BA....
--. is better.
Can you recall the two chenical differences between 5.3 RNAWORLD
DNA and RNA?
5)A molecule that can act as a genetic materialmust 1)From foregoing discussion, an immediate question
Fulfil the following criteria: i becomes evident -which is the first genetic material? It
6)1t should be able to generate its replica (12puIt shall be
should be stable shen catd-staucttk ay .BNA... was the first geneticmaterial.
It should provide the scope [Link] changes (.4llfeiN)2)There is now enough evidence to suggest that
are required for eQk°t should be able to essential life processes (such
as etabcm....
--)that Lanslatlon
express itself in the form of ehdPlitancharacto
to act
7) Because of rule of -[Link] and -NA., both splicing, etc.), evolved around .EAVa, RNAused
as a .4Qnattmaterial as well as a catalyst (there are
the nucleic acids (cserrenfhave the ability to direct
their clupistthe other molecules in the living Some
important biochemical reactions in living systems that
system, such as pDELhfail to fulfil first criteria and not by st..enzos
are catalysed by .RNA.
8)The genetic material should be stable enough not
to
y&r with Catalyct
change with different stages of agesf hence
-

as one of 3)But, RNA being a BAALAwas reactive and

change [Link]'pf the organism. Stability
was very - [Link] Therefore, DNA has evolved from--RNA..
the properties of genetic material evident in

Cuitfef aansfor;if that heat, which killed the bacteria,

make it more -Sto
with chemical modifications that
at least did not destroy 0me..KepADP having
--4)DNA being double stranded and
genetic material
<br>

polymera

of-teP
DNA replig
process
the is
grow for 80. minutes AlsoThere
()f E. coli was allowed to
complementary strand further resists changes by proportions of light and hybi replication
what would be the oNA.
evolving a process of
densities DNA molecule? origin o
involving use
13)Very similar experiments origi
5.4 REPLICATION detect distribution of newly
structure for radioactive-thyMCo
1)While proposing the double helical was performed
DNA, Wason-and Ceck.-had immediately proposed synthesised DNA in the chromosomes ----
on (faba beans) by Cyand colleagues in
scheme
a
[Link]
,
falou
for replication of DNA. in
is as 14)The experiments proved that the DNA
2) To quote their original statement that AValiveyl.
our the specific chromosomes also replicate -Sontcon£s
follows:"It has not escaped notice that
a 5.4.2 The Machinery and the Enzymes
pairing we have postulated immediately suggests process of
1)In living cells, such as.Zam4, the
possible copying mechanism for the genetic material"
wdtson ck., J4.S3). The scheme suggested that replication requires a set of catalysts (Az% Th main
andi as a template enzyme is referred to as -AA-deDenceht
DÀ
oameras
the two strands would separate and act a PMA
new complementary strands. uby i 2)DNA polymerase, since it uses template
for the synthesis of
leOx4nes
3)After the completion of Heptat ach DNA catalyse the polymerisation of
enzymes are highly efficient enzymes as they have to
molecule would have one parental and one newly
was termed as Sem catalyse alymenlsS a large number of hucain in a
synthesised strand. 4)This. scheme
consenYQhveDNA replication very short time.
sameonsevahlg) E. coli that has only °O(compare it with
5.4.1 The Experimental Proof
human whose diploid content is bbXlQ bp),
5)lt is ncw proven that DNA replication is --It
was shown first in -cole
as
and subsequentL.
human
in completes the
process of replication within (6.4; that means the
higher organisms, such -plats approxirmately
average rate polymerisation has to be
6) otbn
Meleson
and Stahl-performed the following of
these polymerases have to be PP
experiment with Z-DL-in a. [Link]; P.HG4)Not only do
r
15NH4CI (15N is the pui-of nitrogen) as the only..e but they also have to catalyse the reaction with high
nitrogen source for many generations. degree of accuracy. 5)Any mistake during replication
7)The result was that 15N was incorporated into newly would result into 4tu Furthermore, energetically
synthesised DNA (as well as other -'gontaining replication9b0boGPIQCesS.
is a very
2On4 In. addition to
compounds).This heavy DNA molecule could be 6]usadšervel-purposes.
.: acting as substrates, they provide energy for
distinguished from the normal DNA by centrifugation
in a .sedensity gradient polymerisation
8) 15N is not a radioactive isotope, and it can be:treaction (the twoteahaphosphates in
on HRs deoxynucle oside triphosphates [Link],
separated from 14N only based
same as in case of ATP).
9)Then they transferred the cells into a medium with clebandon t manyPNA PDYmensc
normal H,clandtook samples at various definite 7n addition, to RA additional
as cells multiplied, and extracted the enzymes are required to complete the process of
time intervals the , For
DNA that remained as -24L.=stcan de4 heuOS replication with high Agaee. long DNA
'sinde the twoQcwtac
strands DNA cannot be
10)The various samples were separated [Link],
measure DNA separated in its entire length (due to very high energy
on CsCl gradients to the densities of
11) Can you recall what centrifugal force is, and think requirement), the replication occur wihitao Snal eication
why a molecule with higher massfdensity would opening of the DNA helix, refered to aso0k3)The -
was DNA dspendamt.2IYLcátalyse polymerisation only in one
sediment faster 12)Thus, the DNA that extracted
from the culture one generation after the transfer from C9IEA... that is>. This creates some additional
15N to 14N medium [that is after
-
minutes; E. complications at the kpicctian for e
colidivides in 20 minutes] had a hybrid or ediale
HA 9)on one strand (the template with 22.
polarity
13) DNA extracted from the culture after another the replication iscantwhíle on the other (the
generation [that is after 40 minutes, generation] .lešatio
template with polarity -s2.2), it is
was composed of equal amounts of this eig.. and 10)The discontinuously synthesised fragments are later
of [Link]
DNA
joined by the
enzyme
-.NA.9ase
<br> polyme

DNA
-tef
of
process repli
he
to grow for 80 minutes JAlsoThere
the
i
changes by (A)NE E. coliwas allowed and hybi 'replicatior
complementary strand further resists proportions of light opóNA.
what would be the
evolving a process of
densities DNA molecule? involving use origin
13)Very similar experiments orig
distribution of newly
5.4 REPLICATION
structure for radioactive-thqCUo detect
1)While proposing the double helical chromosomes was performed
Watson-and CCk..had immediately proposed
synthesised DNA in the -
DNA,
on Mctt Te4leand,I colleagues in
a
Taloaba beans) by
scheme
for replication of DNA. experiments proved that the
DNA in
2) To quote their original
statement that is as 14)The
replicate oACONss AVvey
chromosomes also
follows:"It hasnot escaped our notice that the specific
immediately suggests a 5.4.2 The Machinery and the Enzymes
pairing we have postulated
living cells, such as.
u, the process of
genetic material"( 1)ln
possible copying mechanism for the
replication requires a set of catalysts Th main,
wqtson and4Sk,4SS.). The scheme suggested that enzyme is referred to as -1 polyrerast
two strands would separate and act as template
a
the . 2)DNA polymerase, since it uses
for the synthesis of new complementary strands.
a-.M template to,l,
of Dleoxr"hese
3)After the completion of 1epaY
DNA
ach catalyse the polymerisation
one newly enzymes are highly efficient enzymes as they have to
molecule would have one parental and Palymenisa fa large number of a

synthesised strand. 4)[Link] was termed as SLM catalyse nuein

very short time.
ConsenahvepNA replication it wth
samiconsewails) E. coli that has only [Link]
5.4.1 The ExperimentalProof -6bXQ
human whose diploid content is bp),
5)1t is now proven that DNA replication is It
was shown first in -cOL and suseu
huum cy. completes the
process of replication within &.4; that means the
higher organisms, such
as
-plnts
average rate of polymerisation has to be àpproximately
6)
and Stahl.-performed the following
experiment with Z:cDu.-in a. [Link] P.3S4)Not only do these polymerases have to be r
high
but they also have to catalyse the reaction with
,
15NH4CI (15N is the pof
as
nitrogen) the only
degree of accuracy. 5]Any. mistake during replication
nitrogen source for many generations.
would result into
u
Tu Eurthermore, energetically
7) The result was that 15N was incorporated into newly [Link]
a PI9cess.
synthesised DNA (as well as cther -niH9Lontaining ervecaa
Deon
purposes. In . addition to
compounds).This heavy DNA molecule could, be 6)
yacting as substrates, they provide energy for
distinguished from the normal DNA by centrifugation
a
in -.[Link] gradient polymerisation
8) 15N is not
a
radioactive isotope, and it can be: reaction (the twotealphosphates in
on deoxynucleoside triphosphates are-hih--phosphates,
separated from 14N only based lensies sarme as in case of ATP)..
9)Then they transferred the
normal
cells into a nedium with

NH,Cland took samples at various

definite :glla adeitto DNA cebondon f many additse
enzymes are required to complete the process of
time intervals as the cells multiplied, and extracted the
DNA that remained as e4L.=Lfcan de heuxS replication with high egxe.., For long DNA
the two strands of DNA cannot be
10)The various samples were separated [Link],'sinte
length (due to very high energy
on CsCl gradients to measure the densities of DNA separated in its entire
requirement), the replication occur Smallaticatic
11) Can you recall what centrifugal force is, and think
to
withit8)The
as
opening of the DNA helix, referred
why a molecule with higher mass/density would poymIOe polymerisation only in one
sediment faster 12)Thus, the DNA that was extracted PVA dspenda..VAcatalyse
CIEM... that is.2 This creates some additional
from the culture one generation after the transfer from
15N to 14N medium [that is after 22.. minutes: E. complications at the -Aepicatag for k
coli divides in 20 minutes] had a hybrid or lAf2naLci 9)on one strand (the template with 22S.
polarity

13)DNA extracted from the culture after another

the replication iseaatinwhile on the other (the
generation [that is after 40 minutes, generation] template with polarity -s22-), entins
it is

was composed of equal amounts of this baeA. and 10)The discontinuously synthesised fragments are later
of "[Link].
PNA
joined by the enzyme -2NR.... a9ase
<br>

edto
grow
oportions
for
80 polymerases on
oflight minutes their own cannot initiate the two strands of
ents
pNA
-Hepiation 2)There is a PAtining
Sprocesssof a
L--of transcription unit.
and the DNA in the
involving
t distribution Jalsothe
replication does not initiate .AAndalyin st rands have opposite polarity and the
3)Since the two
omes use There is a definite region in E. coli DNA where the clependen.t..RNA.. also catalyse the PNA
was
ndcolleagues of e,
perform
replication originates. Such regions are termed as polymerisation in only -.n-
the strand that has the
direction, that is,-
-
acts as a
origin 0ugt
of is bcause of the requirement of the
polaremptatmd The
as
template, and is also referred to
the in- origin of s3 and the
replication that 3 piece of DNA if needed to be other strand which has the polarity-
DNA
sequence same as RNA (except
{ at the place of
propagated during recombinant DNA procedures,
it uracil), is 4pladuring transcription. Strangely,
this
requires a Vecto ooigin
anything) is referred to
cess 13) The vectors provide the -[Link], not strand (which does not code for
defining
every detail of replication [Link] as CDding strand. All the reference point while
of strand. To
a transcription unit is made with cDding
14) Ineukaryotes, the replication of DNA takes place at a
poym a hypothetical sequence from
Sphass of the cell-cycle. The replication of DNA and -- explain the point,
transcription unit is represented below:
-[Link] be highly coordinated. A -ATGCATGCATGCATGCATGCATGC-5" Template
failure in cell division after DNA replication results into
3

-TACGTACGTACGTACGTACGTACG-3' Coding
polyelady(a.chaamaS2mal An am oy Strand5'
RNA transribed
4)Can you now write the sequence of
5.5 TRANSCRIPTION
from the above DNA? al e
terminator flank the Stauctte
l
1)The process of copying genetic information from
as 5)The promoter and
strand of the DNA intokNA is termed to be
in a transcription unit. The promoter said
is
transcription. Here also, the principle of -.ompLementgene the structural gene
-gove rns the process, gf transcription, except the
located towards 5' -end-Pof of --
reference is made with respect to the polarity
adenosine mpehoWforms base pair with .CY |-(the
codaagstrand):
-
instead of thymine. 6) It is a DNA sequence that provides
binding site for--
process of replication, which a pmin a
2) However, unlike in the poymeHOSand it Is-the presence 'of
once set in, the fataL-6f af'organismgets duplicated, the template and
DNA and only-Qhe transaiption unit that also defines
in transcription only Cegmeof
a
Coding- strands.
-of the strands is copied into
RNA.

3)This necessitates defining the bWnc.

aues
that would 7)By switching its position with teme hctordefinition

strand of DNA that of coding and template strands

could be Letse
demarcate the region and the 3' -end (oLmstm
8)The terminator is located towards
would be transcribed. it usually defines the-&h.d
not copied during of the coding strand and
4)Why both the strandsare
transcription has the simple
answer. First, if both of the are .aldnsRlecu tato
code for RNA process of transcription There
as a template, they would or
strands act sequon ce sequences that may be present further upstream
molecule [Link]
J

not mean lQAn COU downstream the -p20matut

to
5) (Remember complementarity does Propior lector
MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
proteins, the sequence
-), and in turn, if they code for
the proteins would be different. NAME THE MICROBES
bakers shaman '
Of amAHOin
aad 1)Toddy-yedi2)Bread,wine1Swissyecyt cheese-.Z.
DNA would be coding for
6)Hence, one segment of the
us
-4)Roqueforte [Link])citric
acid-Asperg h
two different proteins, and this would complicate the
the two RNA -6)[Link]-ctl4H Co.s
genetic infotAahsSecond, ciAYric ,acid ASpe1gillus
molecules if produced simltaneously would be 7)Pencilgro bäct
clostsu nig
16)Aceticacid-cLti..10) Butyricacid- B utyiim m
complementary to
This „Pectinasipasesigcontrol agents,
each other, hence would form -[Link]..
a
Pectinases-fuick-12)lipases-ceten gent fot Mulattbr
would prevent RNA from being translated into Potein 11]
would become a futi u
13)statins.2-c:RA1)[Link] PpseNe
and the exercise of transcription
15)Streptokinase-lutglofertilizers,Biocontrol
17)Biofertilizers, Freeliving -[Link]
5.5.1 Transcription Unit
1)Atranscription unit in DNA is defined primarily by the [Link].-18) Biocontrol agents
..CQnto lung p lant dsecse pests
three regions in the DNA-Þ[Link]
Cteuctutal gene*
<br>

are.VíRus RRoS
therapeutic purposes infectious microbes
Using of living microorganisms for 33. Acellular,
and betterment of human health 35. [Link] gal ghotu
called-pnobiotcs whích increases soil fertility
is 36. Autotrophic microbes
2. Best probiotic bacteria is ka. [Link] PADpy FEe
3. Toddy is made by fermenting
sap from -palm a--BlOECRIÍSER OF
agents are Mitoicls e poiory 37. Aulosira is of--PHOPHroS
4. Proteinaceous infetious are efficient in absorption
are to the production 38. Mycorrhiza
5. Large holes in Swiss cheese due microbe asso ciated with Azolla
bacteriumpxopion'charmarn 39. A nitrogen-fixing oua
of -CU2-by
leaves is.A42nQbact
6. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is called
as Baku hd
eas
y t 40. LugSk-enzyme helpful
in removing oily stains

7. Roquifort cheese is ripened bygrowing

a specific ung
---on it tirertatral
8. Large vessels used to grow microbes during
SN-DNA
fermentation are referred as-fmantor
9. Alcohols produced without [Link]--Be.
qnauitati amd NNN
was discovered isPenicalln NDN
10. First antibiotic that
11. Penicillin doesn't allow the growth of-Sptin
-Cocu
unwashed culture plates Bacteua
12. Plague is caused by- yERINELA PsTLs
13. which cdass, fungus which produces citric acid
belongs-fAscoeets (Apoglus wg).
14. Bottled juices are clarified by the use of -pectinase
and- POtease
[Link] buster' is obtained from -stleptokinase
16. Blood cholesterol lowering agent is-kagaye
e soe. f (Peen tal gtand
Tempkte sttaun d
also
17. Trichoderma spe cies are used as-freelivK
as-20tecosyctem Conttruas Dicontnuoy
18. Adenirus causes respiratory infection sta and
19. Secondary sewage treatment is mainly a -BilQical newt
20. Flocs [Link] ia a! assouat eot mh Sythesised
21. Lrilkap
wrth Fung filamet
the biocontroler against šoil born fungi stnand
22. In which step, of sewage treatment removes
suspended solids-toatm ent
(MOnay uy þwpeus
23. 5tatins are produced by-4eost
24. Lady bird and dragonflies are useful to get rid of-Apho3
-&Mosquitos #ydroga
Bacutoviuse A
25
4ubakses are excellent candidates for bondl
species-specific,narrow spectrum HO

insecticidal applications
26. BOD of water is estimated by measuring the amount
of.Qx4gen equine d by Bactew'a
feet
27. Depth of biogas plant is-4D:1S PNA Hr hstDh
[Link] the first bioinsecticide based on Bacillus
|thuringiensis
-3 Hi'stong
[Link] used to clean oil splls-LLgase
30. An example of predaceous bacteria is..[Link] v ise
octame1
31. % of methane gas in gober gas -1I3.
32. The technology of biogas production in india mainly
Core of 'stone
due to the efforts of..[Link]... andkV IC molule