Road Traffic Engineering – Numerical & Design (Blue Theme)

Unit I – Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering

Key Formulas & Values
Key Formula / Value Meaning / Notes

SSD = V·t + V²/(2·g·f ± 2·g·G) Use +G for upgrades, –G for downgrades; V in m/s, g=9.81 m

OSD (quick) ≈ 3·V·t_c + 2·V²/a t_c ≈ 2.5 s, a ≈ 0.67 m/s² (passenger car)

e + f_lat = V²/(225·R) V in km/h, R in m; e (superelevation) ≤ 0.07 (typical design lim

Typical values t = 2.5 s; f (dry) = 0.36–0.40; f_lat(max)=0.15

Problem 1. Compute SSD for V=80 km/h on level road using t=2.5 s and f=0.36.
[FORMULA] SSD = V·t + V²/(2·g·f)
Where V = speed (m/s), t = reaction time (s), g = 9.81 m/s², f = longitudinal friction.

Step 1: Convert V: 80×1000/3600 = 22.22 m/s

Step 2: Lag distance = 22.22×2.5 = 55.55 m
Step 3: Braking distance = 22.22² / (2×9.81×0.36) = 69.87 m
Step 4: SSD = 55.55 + 69.87
[TIP] Use f=0.36 from reference table for dry pavement.

Result: SSD ≈ 125 m

Problem 2. Estimate OSD for V=80 km/h with a=0.67 m/s² and clearance t_c=2.5 s.
[FORMULA] OSD ≈ 3·V·t_c + 2·V²/a
V in m/s, a = overtaking acceleration, t_c = clearance interval.

Step 1: V = 22.22 m/s

Step 2: 3·V·t_c = 3×22.22×2.5 = 166.65 m
Step 3: 2·V²/a = 2×(22.22²)/0.67 ≈ 737.6 m
Step 4: Sum distances
[CAUTION] OSD increases sharply if gradients or slow lead vehicles are present.

Result: OSD ≈ 905 m

Problem 3. Find minimum radius for V=65 km/h with e=0.07 and f_lat=0.15.
[FORMULA] e + f_lat = V²/(225·R) ⇒ R = V² / [225·(e+f_lat)]
e = superelevation (ratio), f_lat = lateral friction, R in metres.

Step 1: Compute denominator: e+f_lat = 0.22

Step 2: R = 65² / (225×0.22) = 4225 / 49.5
[TIP] If R is very small, check comfort and sight distance constraints.

Result: R ≈ 85 m

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Problem 4. SSD for V=60 km/h on +3% upgrade (t=2.5 s, f=0.36).

[FORMULA] SSD = V·t + V² / [2·g·(f+G)]
G = grade (decimal, + for upgrade).

Step 1: V=16.67 m/s

Step 2: Lag = 16.67×2.5 = 41.7 m
Step 3: Braking = 16.67² / (2×9.81×(0.36+0.03)) ≈ 36.4 m
Step 4: SSD = 41.7 + 36.4
Result: SSD ≈ 78 m

Problem 5. Safe speed on a curve of R=200 m with e=7% and f_lat=0.15.

[FORMULA] V = √[225·R·(e+f_lat)]
V in km/h, R in m.

Step 1: e+f_lat = 0.22

Step 2: V = √(225×200×0.22) = √9900
Result: V ≈ 100 km/h

Problem 6. Check if 480 m sight distance allows overtaking at 50 km/h.

[FORMULA] OSD (50 km/h) ≈ 450–500 m (rule-of-thumb with standard assumptions).
Use quick check; detailed method may vary slightly.

Step 1: Available = 480 m vs. required ≈ 450–500 m

Result: Adequate for 50 km/h

Problem 7. Braking distance from 90 km/h on level road with f=0.36.

[FORMULA] BD = V²/(2·g·f)
BD = braking distance only (excludes reaction).

Step 1: V = 25 m/s
Step 2: BD = 25² / (2×9.81×0.36) ≈ 88.6 m
Result: ≈ 89 m

Problem 8. Lag distance at 70 km/h with t=2.5 s.

Step 1: V = 19.44 m/s
Step 2: Lag = V·t = 19.44×2.5 = 48.6 m
Result: ≈ 49 m

Problem 9. Required superelevation for V=80 km/h, R=250 m (limit f_lat=0.15).

[FORMULA] e = V²/(225·R) − f_lat
Step 1: Compute V²/(225·R) = 6400/(225×250) ≈ 0.114
Step 2: e = 0.114 − 0.15 = −0.036 → friction suffices; provide min e for drainage
[CAUTION] Adopt minimum e (≈2%) even if negative, to ensure drainage and consistency.

Result: Provide e ≈ 0.02

Problem 10. Flow from average headway 2.5 s.

[FORMULA] q = 3600 / headway
Step 1: q = 3600 / 2.5 = 1440 veh/h
Result: 1440 veh/h

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Road Traffic Engineering – Numerical & Design (Blue Theme)

Unit II – Traffic Surveys and Intelligent Transport System

Key Formulas & Values
Key Formula / Value Meaning / Notes

PCU_total = Σ(Flow_i × PCU_i) Typical PCU: car 1.0, 2W 0.5, bus 3.0 (urban arterials)

V_space = n / Σ(1/v_i) Harmonic mean for space mean speed

Delay (uniform) d = [0.5·C·(1−g/C)²]/(1−X) Webster uniform delay (approx), X=v/c

Capacity = s × (g/C) s ≈ 1800 pcphpl (adjust 1500–2000)

Problem 1. Convert 600 cars, 800 2W, 60 buses per hour to PCU.
Step 1: PCU = 600×1.0 + 800×0.5 + 60×3.0 = 1180 pcph
Result: 1180 pcph

Problem 2. Compute space mean speed from speeds 40, 45, 60, 55, 50 km/h.
[FORMULA] V_space = n / Σ(1/v_i)
Use speeds in consistent units (km/h).

Step 1: Σ(1/v) ≈ 0.1021; n=5

Step 2: V_space ≈ 5 / 0.1021 ≈ 49 km/h
Result: ≈ 49 km/h

Problem 3. Find 85th percentile from spot speeds: 32, 35, 38, 40, 42, 45, 46, 48, 52, 55 km/h.
Step 1: Ranked sample; position = 0.85×(n+1)=9.35
Step 2: Interpolate between 52 and 55: 52 + 0.35×3 = 53.05
Result: ≈ 53 km/h

Problem 4. Given time mean 52 km/h and C_v=0.2, find space mean speed.
[FORMULA] V_t = V_s (1 + C_v²)
Thus V_s = V_t /(1+C_v²).

Step 1: V_s = 52 / 1.04 = 50 km/h

Result: ≈ 50 km/h

Problem 5. Journey speed and running speed on 5 km link: total 10 min incl. 2.5 min stopped
delay.
Step 1: Journey speed = 5 / (10/60) = 30 km/h
Step 2: Running speed = 5 / (7.5/60) = 40 km/h
Result: Journey 30 km/h; Running 40 km/h

Problem 6. Signal capacity: s=1800 pcphpl, g=30 s, C=90 s.

[FORMULA] Capacity = s × (g/C)
Step 1: Capacity = 1800×(30/90)=600 pcph
Result: 600 pcph

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Problem 7. Degree of saturation for demand 750 pcph, capacity 600 pcph.
[FORMULA] X = v/c
Step 1: X = 750/600 = 1.25
[CAUTION] X>1 indicates oversaturation; expect growing queues.

Result: X = 1.25 (oversaturated)

Problem 8. O–D balancing with growth: P=1200→×1.10; A=1300→×1.05. Balance totals.

Step 1: P' = 1320; A' = 1365
Step 2: Scaling A by BF = 1320/1365 = 0.967 → A_bal = 1320
Result: Balanced totals: P=1320, A=1320

Problem 9. Uniform delay with X=0.85, C=100 s, g/C=0.4.

[FORMULA] d = [0.5·C·(1−g/C)²]/(1−X)
Step 1: Numerator = 0.5×100×0.6² = 18 s
Step 2: Denominator = 0.15 → d = 120 s/veh
Result: ≈ 120 s/veh

Problem 10. Reliability index change: σ from 6→3 min on 30-min trip.
Step 1: RI_before = 6/30 = 0.20; RI_after = 3/30 = 0.10
Result: Reliability index halves to 0.10

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Road Traffic Engineering – Numerical & Design (Blue Theme)

Unit III – Parking Studies

Key Formulas & Values
Key Formula / Value Meaning / Notes

Parking Load = Σ(vehicle-hours) Area under accumulation-time curve

Turnover = Volume / Duration Vehicles using a space per hour

Index (%) = 100 × (Volume / Capacity) Utilization indicator

Standard bay sizes Car 2.5×5.0 m; 2W 1.0×2.0 m; Bus 3.75×12 m

Problem 1. Block with 60 spaces, 360 cars in 8 h, load 240 veh·h. Find turnover and avg
duration.
Step 1: Turnover = 360/8 = 45 veh/h
Step 2: Avg duration = 240/360 = 0.667 h = 40 min
Result: Turnover 45 veh/h; Avg stay 40 min

Problem 2. Parking Index at peak with 54 of 60 spaces occupied.

[FORMULA] Index = 100 × (Occ / Capacity)
Step 1: Index = (54/60)×100 = 90%
Result: 90%

Problem 3. Parallel parking on 120 m curb with 2.5 m end clearances and 6.0 m per car.
Step 1: Usable = 120 − 5 = 115 m
Step 2: Bays = ■115/6■ = 19
Result: 19 cars

Problem 4. 45° angle parking; effective curb pitch ~3.6 m. Bays on 90 m?

Step 1: Bays = ■90/3.6■ = 25
Result: ≈ 25 bays

Problem 5. Lot needs 120 car bays; add 25% circulation and 10% landscaping. Area/bay =
12.5 m².
Step 1: Bay carpet = 120×12.5 = 1500 m²
Step 2: With circulation = 1875 m²; with landscaping = 2062.5 m²
Result: ≈ 2065 m² land

Problem 6. Revenue: 48 average occupied (of 60) for 10 h at ■30/h.

Step 1: Veh·h = 48×10 = 480
Step 2: Revenue = 480×30 = ■14,400
Result: ■14,400/day

Problem 7. Peak accumulation from arrivals [15,18,12,10] and departures [5,8,12,6] every 15
min; initial 20.
Step 1: Net changes: +10, +10, 0, +4 → cumulative +24
Step 2: Occupancy: 20→30→40→40→44
Result: Peak = 44 vehicles

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Problem 8. Curb redesign: length per car reduces 6.0→5.5 m on 115 m usable.
Step 1: Old bays = 19; New bays = ■115/5.5■ = 20
Result: Gain = 1 car

Problem 9. Two-wheeler zone capacity 200 bikes; 30% aisles; bay 1.0×2.0 m.
Step 1: Carpet = 200×2 = 400 m²; with aisles = ×1.30 = 520 m²
Result: ≈ 520 m²

Problem 10. Shared parking: office 100 (day), cinema 120 (evening), 30% overlap 6–7 pm. Max
combined demand?
Step 1: Overlap hour demand ≈ 0.7×100 + 0.7×120 + 0.3×(100+120) = 70+84+66 = 220
Result: ≈ 220 spaces at peak overlap

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Unit IV – Street Lighting and Arboriculture

Key Formulas & Values
Key Formula / Value Meaning / Notes

E_av = (Φ · UF · MF) / (S · W) Average illuminance (lux); Φ in lumens, W in m

S = (Φ · UF · MF) / (E_av · W) Spacing; check S ≤ 3H (mounting height)

Typical UF≈0.4, MF≈0.75, E_main≈30 lux, E_res≈10–15 lux

Problem 1. Spacing for 12 m wide road; Φ=20,000 lm, UF=0.40, MF=0.75, E_av=30 lux (single
side).
[FORMULA] S = (Φ·UF·MF)/(E·W)
Φ lumens, UF utilization, MF maintenance, E target lux, W width.

Step 1: S = (20000×0.40×0.75)/(30×12) = 6000/360 = 16.7 m

Step 2: 3H check: if H≈9 m, 3H=27 m → OK
Result: Provide spacing ≈ 16–17 m

Problem 2. If mounting height increases to 12 m, what is 3H spacing limit?

Step 1: 3H = 36 m
Result: S ≤ 36 m

Problem 3. Opposite-side lighting on 14 m road; same lamps; target E_av=25 lux. Spacing per
side?
[FORMULA] S = (Φ·UF·MF)/(E·W_eff)
Use W_eff ≈ W/2 = 7 m when two rows share.

Step 1: S = (20000×0.40×0.75)/(25×7) = 6000/175 = 34.3 m

Result: ≈ 34 m per side

Problem 4. Energy for 50 poles, 120 W each, 11 h/night, 30 days.

Step 1: Daily kWh = 50×0.12×11 = 66 kWh
Step 2: Monthly ≈ 66×30 = 1980 kWh
Result: ≈ 1980 kWh/month

Problem 5. Visual angle to luminaire: h=9 m, d=30 m ahead (θ≈arctan(h/d)).

Step 1: θ ≈ arctan(9/30) ≈ 16.7°
Step 2: Angles >15° risk discomfort glare.
Result: θ ≈ 16.7°

Problem 6. Tree spacing with 6 m canopy diameter for near-continuous shade.

Step 1: Use 0.8–1.0× canopy for spacing → 5–6 m
Result: Adopt ≈ 5–6 m

Problem 7. Setback: keep trunk ≥1.0 m from curb; sidewalk width 2.0 m; shy distance 0.5 m.
Step 1: Provide ≥1.0 m from curb within sidewalk band; maintain pedestrian clear zone.
Result: Setback ≥ 1.0 m

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Problem 8. Maintained illuminance if initial 32 lux and MF=0.75.

[FORMULA] E_maint = E_initial × MF
Step 1: E_maint = 32×0.75 = 24 lux
Result: 24 lux

Problem 9. Poles needed on 1.2 km with S=30 m (staggered).

Step 1: N ≈ 1200/30 = 40; allow end effects → 40–42
Result: ≈ 40–42 poles

Problem 10. MF planning: if MF degrades 0.8→0.6 in 4 years, what MF at mid-life?

Step 1: Use average or design to worst; midpoint ~ (0.8+0.6)/2 = 0.7
Result: Use MF ≈ 0.7

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Road Traffic Engineering – Numerical & Design (Blue Theme)

Unit V – Road Accident Studies

Key Formulas & Values
Key Formula / Value Meaning / Notes

Rate (per MVkm) = (Crashes × 10^6)/(AADT × 365 × L_km) Exposure-based comparison

% change = (After−Before)/Before ×100 Before–After analysis

DSD ≈ 2.5 × SSD Rule-of-thumb for complex decisions

Problem 1. Accident rate for 24 crashes/year on 2 km link, AADT=18,000 veh/day.

[FORMULA] Rate = (Crashes × 10^6) / (AADT×365×L)
Step 1: Exposure = 18000×365×2 = 13.14×10^6 veh·km
Step 2: Rate = 24 / 13.14 ≈ 1.83 crashes/MVkm
Result: ≈ 1.8 crashes per MVkm

Problem 2. Out of 120 crashes: 6 fatal, 18 grievous, 36 minor, 60 PDO. Find fatality share &
severity index.
Step 1: Fatality share = 6/120 = 5%
Step 2: Severity index = (6/120)×100 = 5
Result: 5% share; 5 fatalities per 100 crashes

Problem 3. Identify black spot if µ=2.2, σ=0.6 with site rates: 3.2, 1.5, 2.0.
Step 1: Threshold = µ+σ = 2.8
Step 2: Only 3.2 exceeds → flagged
Result: Site with 3.2 is black spot

Problem 4. Before–After: 30→21 crashes.

[FORMULA] %∆ = (After−Before)/Before ×100
Step 1: %∆ = (21−30)/30 ×100 = −30%
Result: 30% reduction

Problem 5. Pedestrian conflicts double with doubled p-volume from 12/h.

Step 1: Conflicts ≈ 24/h (linear approximation)
Result: ≈ 24 conflicts/h

Problem 6. Wet braking distance from 60 km/h with f=0.30.

[FORMULA] BD = V²/(2·g·f)
Step 1: V=16.67 m/s; BD = 16.67²/(2×9.81×0.30) ≈ 47.2 m
Result: ≈ 47 m

Problem 7. If SSD at 70 km/h ≈ 95 m, advise DSD.

Step 1: DSD ≈ 2.5×SSD ≈ 2.5×95 = 238 m
Result: ≈ 240 m

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Problem 8. Survival probability drops 5% per minute after 10 min; at 20 min vs 10 min?
Step 1: Relative survival ≈ 50% of the 10-min level
Result: ≈ 50%

Problem 9. Head-on between identical cars at 50 km/h each; energy per car if m=1200 kg.
[FORMULA] KE = 0.5·m·v² (per car)
Step 1: v=13.89 m/s; KE ≈ 0.5×1200×13.89² ≈ 1.16×10^5 J
Result: ≈ 1.16×10^5 J per car

Problem 10. Share of crossing conflicts given: LT 8, RT 12, Crossing 20, Rear-end 15.
Step 1: Total = 55; Crossing% = 20/55 ≈ 36.4%
Result: ≈ 36%

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