[Link] mineral. Enlist the types of minerals with examples.

Describe the effect of mining on the environment

: A mineral is a pure inorganic substance that occurs
naturally in the earth‘s crust.
All of the Earth‘s crust, except the rather small proportion of
the crust that contains organic
material, is made up of minerals. Some minerals consist of a
single element such as gold,
silver, diamond (carbon), and sulphur.
Definition : A 'Mineral Resource' is a concentration or
occurrence of material of intrinsic economic
interest in or on the earth's crust in such form, quality and
quantity that there are reasonable
prospects for eventual economic extraction

Environmental effects
¬ The mining, processing, and use of resources require
enormous amounts of energy and often cause land
disturbance.
¬ Mineral industry is a major contributor to air and water
pollution and to emissions of greenhouse gases.
¬ The grade of an ore – its percentage of metal content – has
an impact on metal mining; it takes more money, energy
and water to exploit lower grade ores. ¬ Exploring the
minerals involve geophysical surveys, drilling and trenching
lead to camp garbage, road erosion,
habitat disruption, and noise pollution .
¬ Mining and milling operations lead to wildlife and fisheries
changes in local water balance, sedimentation, and heavy
metal leaching from acid mine drainage.
¬ Smelting and refining activities lead to sulphur dioxide
emissions contribute to even mine closure activities would be
causing vegetation failure, wind borne dust, seepage of toxic
solutions into ground and surface water contamination from
acid mine drainage.
Roads and unlimited access to mines have a negative impact
on wilderness areas in 4 ways:
¬ Habitat fragmentations as roads disrupt movement and
migratory routes.
¬ Collisions between vehicles and wildlife occur. Roads allow
uncontrolled hunting and increased
wildlife mortality
¬ Degradation and sedimentation of streams and river beds.
¬ Pollutants in pristine areas.
Use and Exploitation
• The use of minerals varies greatly between countries. The
greatest use of minerals occurs in
developed countries.
• Like other natural resources, mineral deposits are unevenly
distributed around on the earth. Some
countries are rich in mineral deposits and other countries
have no deposits.
• The use of the mineral depends on its properties. For
example aluminum is light but strong and
durable so it is used for aircraft, shipping and car industries.
• Recovery of mineral resources has been with us for a long
time. Early Paleolithic man found flint
for arrowheads and clay for pottery before developing codes
for warfare. And this was done
without geologists for exploration, mining engineers for
recovery or chemists for extraction
techniques. • Tin and copper mines were necessary for a
Bronze Age; gold, silver and gemstones adorned the
wealthy of early civilizations; and iron mining introduced a
new age of man.
• Human wealth basically comes from agriculture,
manufacturing, and mineral resources. Our
complex modern society is built around the exploitation and
use of mineral resources.
• Since the future of humanity depends on mineral resources,
we must understand that these resources have limits; our
known supply of minerals will be used up early in the third
millennium of our calendar
• Modern agriculture and the ability to feed an
overpopulated world is dependent on mineral resources to
construct the machines that till the soil, enrich it with mineral
fertilizers, and to transport the products.
• We are now reaching limits of reserves for many minerals.
Human population growth and increased modern industry
are depleting our available resources at increasing rates.
• The pressure of human growth upon the planet‘s resources
is a very real problem.
• The consumption of natural resources proceeded at a
phenomenal rate during the past hundred years and
population and production increases cannot continue
without increasing pollution and depletion of mineral
resources.
• In a world that has finite mineral resources, exponential
growth and expanding consumption is impossible.
Fundamental adjustments must be made to the present
growth culture to a steady-state system. This will pose
problems in that industrialized nations are already feeling a
loss in their standard of living and in non-industrialized
nations that feel they have a right to achieve higher standards
of living created by industrialization.
• The population growth continues upward and the supply of
resources continues to diminish. With the increasing
shortages of many miy minerals, we have been driven to
search for new sources.
[Link] food security. What are the conditions to achieve
food security and write the options to achieve food security.
Food security: It is the ability of all people at all times to
access enough food for an active and healthy life. It is
estimated that 18 million people worldwide, most of whom
are children, die each year due to starvation or malnutrition,
and many others suffer a variety of dietary
deficiencies. The earth can only supply a limited amount of
food. If the world’s carrying capacity to produce food cannot
meet the needs of a growing population, anarchy and conflict
will follow.
The following 3 conditions must be fulfilled to ensure food
security
- Food must be available
- Each person must have access to it.
- The food utilized must fulfill nutritional requirements
Options to Achieve Food Security
Food security is closely linked with population control
through the family welfare program. It is also linked to the
availability of water for farming. Food security is only possible
if food is equitably distributed to all. Many of us waste a large
amount of food carelessly. This eventually places great stress
on our environmental resources.
1) Institutional support for small farmers: A major concern is
the support needed for small farmers so that they remain
farmers rather than shifting to urban centers as unskilled
industrial workers.
2) Trade related issues: International trade policies in regard
to an improved flow of food across national borders from
those who have surplus to those who have a deficit in the
developing world is another issue that is a concern for
planners who deal with International trade concerns.
‘Dumping’ of under priced foodstuffs produced in the
developed world, onto markets in undeveloped countries
undermines prices and forces farmers there to adopt
unsustainable practices to compete.
3) Protecting genetic diversity: The most economical way to
prevent loss of genetic diversity is by expanding the network
and coverage of our Protected Areas. Collections in
germplasm, seed banks and tissue culture facilities, are other
possible ways to prevent extinction but are extremely
expensive. The most effective method to introduce desirable
traits into crops is by using characteristics found in the wild
relatives of crop plants. As the wilderness shrinks, these
varieties are rapidly disappearing. Once they are lost, their
desirable characteristics cannot be introduced when found
necessary in future.
4) Ensuring long-term food security may depend on
conserving wild relatives of crop plants in National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries. If plant genetic losses worldwide are not
slowed down, some estimates show that as many as 60,000
plant species, which accountsfor 25% of the world’s total, will
be lost by the year 2025. Scientists now believe that the
world will soon need a second green revolution to meet our
future demands of food based on a new ethic of land and
water management that must be based on values which
include environmental sensitivity, equity, biodiversity
conservation of cultivars and in-situ preservation of wild
relatives of crop plants.
5) Environmental friendly farming methods: Shift from
chemical agriculture to organic farming, practicing integrated
nutrient management (INM), integrated pest management
(IPM).
6) Several crops can be grown in urban settings, including
vegetables and fruit which can be
grown on waste household water and fertilizers from
vermi-composting pits.
7) Prevention of water and land degradation: Pollution of
water sources, land degradation and
desertification must be rapidly reversed. Adopting soil
conservation measures, using appropriate farming
techniques, especially on hill slopes, enhancing the soil with
organic matter, rotating crops and managing watersheds at
the micro level are a key to agricultural production to meet
future needs.
8) Population control: Most importantly food supply is
closely linked to the effectiveness of population control
programs worldwide.
9) Education: Educating women about nutrition, who are
more closely involved with feeding the family, is an important
aspect of supporting the food needs/security of many
developing countries.
10) Changing food habits : Today the world is seeing a
changing trend in dietary habits. As living standards are
improving, people are eating more non-vegetarian food. As
people change from eating grain to meat, the world’s
demand for feed for livestock based on agriculture increases
as well. This uses more land per unit of food produced and
the result is that the world’s poor do not get enough to eat.
11) Women play an extremely vital role in food production as
well as cooking the meal and feeding children. In most rural
communities they have the least exposure to technical
training and to health workers trained in teaching/learning on
issues related to nutritional aspects. Women and girls
frequently receive less food than the men. These disparities
need to be corrected.
12) Alternate Food Source: Food can be innovatively
produced if we break out of the current
agricultural patterns.
[Link] deforestation. Write down its causes and
effects.
Deforestation:
Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover; land that is
permanently converted from forest to agricultural land, golf
courses, cattle pasture, home, lakes or desert. The FAO ( Food
and Agriculture Organization of the UN) defines tropical
deforestation as “ change of forest with depletion of tree
crown cover more than 90%” depletion of forest tree crown
cover less than 90% is considered forest degradation
Causes for Deforestation:
1. Agriculture: Conversion of forests to agricultural land to
feed growing numbers of people
2. Commercial logging: (which supplies the world market with
woods such as meranti, teak, mahogany and ebony) destroys
trees as well as opening up forest for agriculture.
Cutting of trees for fire wood and building material, the
heavy lopping of foliage for fodder and heavy grazing of
saplings by domestic animals like goals.
3. The cash crop economy: Raising cash crops for increased
economy
. 4. Mining
5. Increase in population: The needs also increase and utilize
forests resources.
6. Urbanization & industrialization
7. Mineral exploration
8. Construction of dam reservoirs
9. Infrastructure development
10. Forest fires
11. Human encroachment & exploitation
12. Pollution due to acid rain
Environmental effects /Consequences of deforestation
1. Food problems
2. Ecological imbalance
3. Increasing CO2
4. Floods leading to soil erosion
5. Destruction of resources
6. Heavy siltation of dams
7. Changes in the microclimate
8. Loss of biodiversity
9. Dessication of previously moist forest soil
10. Where forests are replanted, their replacement can mean
a loss of quality
11. Loss of future markets for ecotourism. The value of a
forest is often higher when it is left standing than it could be
worth when it is harvested.
12. Some indigenous peoples’ way of life and survival are
threatened by the loss of forests. Fewer trees results an
insecure future for forest workers
13. Deforestation can cause the climate to become extreme
in nature. The occurrence and strength of floods and
droughts affecting the economy.
14. Most humid regions changes to desert
15. Environmental pollution
16. Global warming
[Link] the impact of modern agriculture on food resources
Effects of Modern Agriculture
1.) Impacts related to high yielding varieties (HYVs):
• The uses of HYVs encourages monoculture i.e. the same
genotype is grown over vast areas.
• Attack of pathogens, leads to total devastation of crop due
to uniform condition which results in rapid spread of disease.
2.) Use of genetically modified Crops:
• Disturbs the ecological balance of the ecosystem
• Only particular disease or pest can be controlled-minor pest
became the major pest 3.) Over use of fertilizers, pesticides
and insecticides
• Excess fertilizers that are not taken-up by plants, leech into
sub-soil water sources and contaminate them.
• Non-biodegradable and thus accumulate to reach
objectionable levels in food chain.
4.) Loss in genetic diversity
• The conversion of diverse natural ecosystems to new
agricultural lands and the narrowing of the genetic diversity
of crops contribute to this erosion
5.) Environmental impact: Machineries and industries
• Agriculture increases carbon dioxide levels making it one of
the main sources of carbon dioxide
emissions for decades. This in-turn aggravates the problem of
global warming and consequent sea level rise.
• Fuel demand and high cost, increased input cost for
agricultural production
6.)Loss of soil quality and fertility
• In addition to adding pollutants to water, soil and air,
modern agriculture practices can cause soil
disturbance by using heavy machines and tilling equipment.
This, in turn, creates soil erosion and
degrades the quality of surrounding farmland
7.) Depletion of Microorganism
• Over use of chemicals to the field results in the loss of
beneficial microbial population
• Decreased organic matter in the soil
8.) Mono cropping
• Exhaust the specific nutrient in the soil
9.) Use of same pesticide and insecticide helps in
development of resistance to that chemicals
• Increased insect attack
[Link] the functions of forest resources
A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant
of trees, shrubs or any other woody vegetation usually in a
closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means
‘outside’. India’s Forest Cover is 6,76,000 [Link] (20.55% of
geographic area). Scientists estimate that India should ideally
have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have about
12% thus we need not only to protect our existing forests but
also to increase our forest cover.
Forest Functions :
I. Protective and ameliorative functions.
II. Productive functions
III. Recreational and educational functions
IV. Development functions
. IProtective and ameliorative functions
A. Watershed protection
Reducing the rate of surface run-off of water Preventing flash
floods and soil erosion Producing prolonged gradual run-off
and thus safeguarding against drought.
B. Erosion control
Holding soil (by preventing rain from from directly washing
soil away)
C. Land bank
Maintaining soil nutrients and structure.
D. Atmospheric regulation
Absorption of solar heat during evapotranspiration
Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth
Maintaining the local climatic conditions
II. Productive Functions
∙ Local use – Consumption of forest produce by local people
who collect it for sustenance
∙ Food: (consumptive use) gathering plants, fishing, hunting
from the forest. Fodder for cattle
∙ Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking and heating
∙ Poles for building homes in rural and wilderness areas
Timber for house hold articles and construction ∙ Fiber for
weaving baskets, ropes, nets, strings, etc., Sericulture for silk
∙ Apiculture for rearing bees for honey (bees as pollinators)
∙ Medicinal plants for traditional medicines, investigating
them as potential source for new modern drugs
∙ Market use (productive use) Most of the products used for
consumptive purposes and good source of income for
supporting their livelihood of forest dwelling people.
∙ Minor forest products (Non-Timber Forest Products NTFPs):
Fuel wood, fruits, gum, fiber, etc which are collected and
solid in local markets as a source of income for forest
dwellers
∙ Major timber extraction for construction, industrial uses,
paper pulp etc. Timber
extraction is done in India by the forest department, but
illegal logging continues in many
of the forests of India and the world.
III. Recreational And Educational Functions: Eco tourism
IV. Developmental Functions Employment functions Revenue
Ecological significance of forests:
i. Balances CO2 and O2 levels in atmosphere.
ii. Regulates earth temperature and hydrological cycle
iii. Encourage seepage and reduces runoff losses, prevents
drought
iv. Reduces soil erosion (roots binding), prevents siltation and
landslides thereby floods
v. Litter helps in maintaining soil fertility
vi. Safe habitat for birds, wild animals and organisms against
wind, solar radiation and rain
[Link] in detail the role of individual in conserving natural
resources
Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources
Conservation of energy:
1. Switch off light, fan and other appliances when not in use.
2. Use solar heater for cooking.
3. Dry the cloth in the sun light instead of driers.
4. Use always pressure cookers
5. Grow trees near the house to get cool breeze instead of
using AC and ai cooler.
6. Ride bicycle or just walk instead of using scooter for a short
distance
Conservation of soil:
1. Grow different type plants i.e trees, herbs and shrubs.
2. In the irrigation process, using strong flow of water should
be avoided.
3. Soil erosion can be prevented by sprinkling irrigation.
Conservation of water:
1. Use minimum water for all domestic purposes.
2. check the water leaks in pipes and repair them properly.
3. Reuse the soapy water, after washing clothes for washing
courtyard, carpets etc.
4. Use drip irrigation.
5. Rain water harvesting system should be installed in all the
houses.
6. Sewage treatment plant may be installed in all industries
and institution.
7. Continuous running of water taps should be avoided.
8. Watering of plants should be done in the evening.
Conservation of food resources:
1. Cook required amount of food.
2. Don‘t waste the food, give it to some one before spoiling.
3. Don‘t store large amount of food grains and protect them
from damaging insects. Conservation of forest:
1. Use non timber product.
2. Plant more trees.
3. Grassing must be controlled
4. Minimise the use of paper and fuel.
5. Avoid the construction of dam, road in the forest area
Energy conservation
o Turn off lights and fans as soon as you leave the room.
♣ Use tube lights and energy efficient bulbs that save energy
rather than bulbs. A 40- watt tube light gives as much light as
a 100 watt bulb.
o Keep the bulbs and tubes clean. Dust on tubes and bulbs
decreases lighting levels by 20 to 30 percent.
o Switch off the television or radio as soon as the program of
interest is over.
o A pressure cooker can save up to 75 percent of energy
required for cooking. It is also faster.
o Keeping the vessel covered with a lid during cooking, helps
to cook faster, thus saving energy.
Water conservation:
∙ Keep taps closed when brushing teeth and taking a bath
∙ Use drip and sprinkler type of irrigation in agricultural fields
∙ Practice rain water harvesting techniques
∙ Reuse the waste water from kitchens and bath for garden
use
Soil conservation:
∙ Do not cut trees and induce soil erosion
∙ Practice contour farming, agro forestry and strip cropping
∙ Practice no till farming for less soil disturbance
∙ Avoid over use of fertilizers, pesticides and water logged
conditions
∙ Use organic fertilizers and vermicompost
∙ Practice integrated pest management practices
[Link] short note on
[Link] erosion
[Link]
Land degradation: It is the decline in land quality or
reduction in its productivity or production potential caused
by human activities. World wide 5 -7 m ha farm land is being
degraded annually.
Mechanisms that initiate land degradation include
Physical processes: decline in soil structure leading to
crusting, compaction, erosion, decertification, Ana vision,
environmental pollution and unsustainable use of natural
resources.
Chemical processes: Acidification, leaching, decrease in
caitions retention capacity and loss of nutrients.
Biological processes: Reduction in total and biomass carbon
and decline in land biodiversity.
Causes for land degradation:
i. Intensive irrigation leads to water logging and salinisation,
on which crops cannot grow.
ii. The use of more and more chemical fertilizers poisons the
soil so that eventually the land becomes unproductive.
iii. The roots of trees and grasses bind the soil. If forests are
depleted, or grasslands overgrazed, the land becomes
unproductive and wasteland is formed. iv. Land is also
converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic
industrial and nuclear wastes are dumped on it.
v. As urban centers grow and industrial expansion occurs, the
agricultural land and forests shrink. This is a serious loss and
has long term ill effects on human civilization.
vi. Land degradation/soil erosion due to deforestation is more
evident on steep hill slopes in the Himalayas and in the
Western Ghats. These areas are called ‘ecologically sensitive
areas’ or ESAs. To prevent the loss of millions of tons of
valuable soil every year, it is essential to preserve what
remains of our natural forest cover. It is equally important to
reforest denuded areas.
vii. The linkage between the existence of forests and the
presence of soil is greater than the forest’s physical soil
binding function alone. The soil is enriched by the leaf litter
of the forest. It is broken down by soil micro-organisms, fungi,
worms and insects, which help to recycle nutrients in the
system. Further losses of our soil wealth will impoverish our
country and reduce its capacity to grow enough food in
future.
viii. The rate of mangrove loss is significantly higher than the
loss of any other types of forests. If deforestation of
mangroves continues, it can lead to severe losses of
biodiversity and livelihoods, in addition to salt intrusion in
coastal areas and siltation of coral reefs, ports and shipping
lanes.
Impact of land degradation
• Loss of soil organic matter and nutrients.
• Loss of soil structure.
• Loss of soil biodiversity.
• Loss of water holding capacity and water infiltration.
• Soil pollution.
• Reduced yields of crops.
• Reduced land value and resilience to future events.
• Impact on food security.
• Reduces ability to adapt to climate change
Desertification: It is land degradation occurring in arid,
semiarid and dry subhumid areas of the world. It is a process
where in fertile lands become arid through land
mismanagement or climate changes. Many deserts in the
world are man- made. Desertification is taking place much
faster worldwide than historically and usually arises from the
demands of increased populations that settle on the land in
order to grow crops and graze animals. These susceptible dry
lands cover 40 percent of the earth’s surface and puts at risk
more than 1 billion people who are dependent on these lands
for survival. Around 80 % of the productive land in the arid
and semi-arid regions of the world is estimated to be
converting into deserts and around 600 million people are
threatened by desertification (according to UN EP). Globally
around 2 billion acres of land have become deserts in the
past 50 years. The current rate of desertification is around 15
million acres per year, the worst being in sub-saharan Africa.
Thar desert in Rajasthan covers about 12,000 hectares of
land.
Causes of desertification:
Desertification is caused by two main categories of factors:
• natural factors
• human activities
The natural factors causing desertification include the
following
1. The climate has a major influence through rainfall, solar
radiation and wind, which affect the rates of physical and
mechanical erosion as well as chemical and biological
degradation of soil.
2. The relief of a land affects the rate of soil erosion by water.
3. The textile, structure, and chemical and biological status of
soil are predominant factors determining the soil properties
in dry sub-humid zones.
Human activities play a crucial role in the vulnerability of
land to desertification. The reasons behind these activities
are the increasing demand for food due to the rapid
population growth, and inappropriate agricultural practices.
The following are some of the human activities that cause
desertification:
1. Uncontrolled use of fire for regenerating pasture, for
hunting or for agricultural clearing
2. Over-exploitation of woody resources, particularly for fuel
wood and timber.
3. Over-grazing of selective vegetation
4. Removal of hedges, which can act as wind breaks, on soil
so that the soil is more
susceptible to erosion by wind
5. Over-harvesting which results in abandoned fields
6. Agricultural practices that destroy the soil structure such as
intensive ploughing
7. Agricultural practices that result in continuous removal of
soil nutrients
8. Monoculture of cash crops, leading to severe reduction in
soil fertility
9. Inappropriate irrigation of soil, leading to salinization,
waterlogging and abandoned
fields eventually. Based on the above factors, we can see that
soil erosion is in fact a process of desertification. It usually
involves the removal of nutrient-rich topsoil, leaving coarse,
sandy particles with poor water-retaining ability. As a result,
the soil becomes unsuitable for vegetation growth and is
turned eventually into a desert .Desertification also has
serious impact on the natural environment. It breaks down
the fragile balance that allows plant and animal life to
develop in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones. This
breakdown of the equilibrium represents the start of a
process that destroys the natural and stable ecosystem
Ecological implications of desertification
• Drifting of sand and its accumulation on fertile agricultural
land.
• Excessive soil erosion by wind and to some extent by water.
• Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes and other water bodies
thereby decreasing their water containing capacity.
• Lowering of water table leading to acute water shortage.
• Increase in area under wastelands.
• Decrease in agricultural production.
• Increase in frequency and intensity of droughts.
Measures of Controlling Desertification
• Intensive tree plantation in the transition zones.
• Mulching shifting sand dunes in deserts with different plant
species. Mulches serve as an effective physical barrier to the
moving sand. Grazing should be controlled and new
• pastures should be developed.
• Indiscriminate felling of trees should be banned.
[Link] the differences between the following

a)​Renewable and non-renewable resources

b)​Primary and secondary ecological succession
Renewable resources: Natural resources which can be
used but can be regenerated by natural processes
provided if there is no intervention in natural
regeneration cycle.
Ex: water, wood
Non Renewable Resources: Those which will be
exhausted in the future if we continue to extract
these without a thought for subsequent generations.
Example: minerals, fossil fuels. Different types of
resources viz., forest, water, food, energy and land
resources are detailed below.
Table
B)
[Link] is land degradation. Enlist and describe the
mechanisms that initiate land degradation. Write on land
use planning.
Already there in previous question
Land use planning :
Land use planning is an iterative process based on the
dialogue amongst all state holders aiming at the negotiation
and decision for a sustainable form of land use. Land use
planning creates the prerequisite required to achieve a type
of land use, which is sustainable, socially and environmentally
compatible, socially desirable and economically sound.
Planning approaches often fail because global models and
implementation strategies are applied and taken over
automatically and uncritically. Land use planning is not a
standardized which is uniform in its application world wide its
content is based on an initial regional or local situation
analysis. Land use planning should consider following
principles.
1. It should take into account traditional strategies and local
environmental knowledge.
2. Differentiation of state holders and the gender approach
are core principles in land use planning.
3. The ecological, economic technical financial, social and
cultural dimension of land use makes it necessary to work
with inter disciplinary approach.
4. It should aim at finding solutions for present problems (soil
erosion, low yield, and low income in rural house holds) with
the planning towards long conservations and sustainable use
of land resources.
[Link] and explain the types of energy with examples.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of various
energy types.
[Link] the types of aquatic ecosystem and describe
the marine ecosystem with examples.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystems are classified as natural ecosystems (E.g. a
pond, a lake, a river, a stream, a forest or a coral reef) and
Artificial or man engineered ecosystems (E.g. crop
ecosystems of maize, wheat,
sugarcane, groundnut etc.). Another way of classification
of ecosystems is as follows
ECOSYSTEMS
Aquatic ecosystems: The water ecosystems on the earth
are mainly of two types (a) Fresh water and (b) Marine
ecosystems
FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM: A pond is a good example of
fresh water ecosystem. This is a self sufficient and self
regulating system containing plants, animals and
favorable, physicochemical environment. Various
components of a pond ecosystem are as follows.
Abiotic environment: It consists of heat, light, basic
organic and inorganic compounds like water,
CO2 gas, calcium, nitrogen, phosphorus, amino acids,
humic acid etc.
Biotic environment: Various biotic components are as
follows:
Producers: These are autotrophic green plants and some
photosynthetic bacteria. These producers
fix radiant energy with the help of minerals derived from
water and mud. Producers in a fresh water ecosystem are
of two types:
a) Macrophytes: these are mainly rooted large plants.
They are submerged or Free floating or emergent
hydrophytes.
Terrestrial ecosystems
Forest ecosystem
Desert ecosystem
Crop ecosystem
Grass land ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystems
Fresh water ecosystem
Marine ecosystemE.g. Typha Nymphia, Chara, Hydrilla,
Salvenia, Eichhornia, Lemna etc.
b) Phytoplanktons: These are minute, Suspended or
floating lower plants. [Link],
Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Volvox, diatoms, chlamydomonas
etc.
2) Consumers: These are heterotrophs which may be
herbivores or carnivores. Consumers are
further divided into 3 groups:
a) Primary consumers (herbivores): These are
herbivores feeding on living plants or plant remnants.
These herbivores are further differentiated as (i) Benthos
and (ii) Zooplanktons.
(i) Benthos: These are the animals associated with living
plants. They are also called as detrivores,
which feeds on plant remains lying upon the bottom of the
pond. E.g. fish, insect larvae, beetles, mites, mollusks and
crustaceans.
(i) Zooplanktons: which are chiefly rotifers, such as
Brachionus, Asplanchna or Lecane. They feed chiefly on
phytoplanktons
b) Secondary consumers (carnivores): They feed on
primary consumers (herbivores). They are mainly insects
and fish which feed uponzooplanktons.
c) Tertiary consumers (carnivores): They are large fish
such as game fish which feed upon small fish and thus
become tertiary (top) consumers.
NOTE: In a pond, fish may occupy more than one tropic
levels.
3) Decomposers: They bring about decomposition of
plants and animals to simple form. They
play an important role in returning of mineral elements
back to the medium of pond.
E.g. bacteria, actinomyces and fungi.
MARINE OR OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
Oceans cover approximately 70% of earth’s surface. Each
ocean is a large and stable ecosystem. The biotic
components of ocean ecosystem are:
1) Producers: Producers in marine ecosystem are mainly
phytoplanktons, diatoms, dinoflagellates [Link] sea
weeds like Sargassam and Rhododendran etc.
2) Consumers: They depend for their nutrition on
primary producers.
a) Primary consumers: These are herbivores that directly
feed on Producers
E.g. Crustaceans, mollusks and fish.b) Secondary
consumers: These are carnivores like big sized fish
feeding on herbivores
E.g. Herring, Shad, and Mackerel
c) Tertiary consumers: They are the consumers of higher
order (carnivorous) that feed on carnivores of Secondary
consumerlevel.
E.g. Fishes like Cod, Haddock, and Halibut etc.
3) Decomposers: They are chiefly bacteria and some
fungi .These microbes are active in decay of dead organic
matter of Producers and macroconsumers.
[Link] about the components and structure of
Ecosystem.
Thus ecosystem becomes the basic functional unit of
ecology”
An ecosystem may be as small as a drop of water from a pond
(Micro ecosystems) or as large as an ocean (Mega
ecosystem). The ecosystem can be of temporary ([Link]
ecosystem) or permanent (eg. Forests and Oceans) in its
nature. It may be of natural (e.g. forest, grassland, desert,
lake, ocean ecosystem etc.) or artificial (Man engineered
croplands of rice, sorghum, groundnut etc.) in its operation.
Components and structure of Ecosystem:
In general, any ecosystem has two basic components
1) Abiotic or non-living component
2) Biotic or living component
1) Abiotic or non-living component: It includes
(a) Inorganic substances such as N, P, K etc.
(b) Organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
etc. and
(c) Climatic factors such as light, temperature, precipitation,
wind etc.
2) Biotic or living component: The biotic components of the
ecosystem can be divided into 3
groups:
(a) Producers: Green plants and Photosynthetic bacteria (eg.
Chlorobium Chromatium,Rhodospirillum etc.) They convert
light energy of sun into potential chemical energy (in the
form of organic compounds). Thus, producers are autotrophs
in any ecosystem. The animals which are heterotrophs
depend upon plant products for their food. But after
digestion, the animals are capable of re synthesizing organic
compounds like carbohydrates, proteins and fats. They could
become food material for some other animals. Thus, the
green plants are
Primary producers and animals (heterotrophs) are known as
Secondary producers.
(b) Consumers: These are heterotrophs, mainly animals
including human-beings, which are incapable of synthesizing
food material on their own and simply depend on green
plants for food. Further consumers may be classified into 3
types1) Primary consumers: All the heterotrophs which live
directly upon plant food are called as primary consumers.
These are herbivores like, Grasshopper, Goat, Cow, Deer,
Rabbit, Elephant etc.
2) Secondary consumers: They are heterotrophs and derive
their food requirement from herbivores. These secondary
consumers are carnivores
E.g. Frog, Tiger, Lion etc.
3) Tertiary consumers: These are carnivores which feed on
other carnivores (mostly Secondary consumers) e.g. snake.
c) Decomposers: They are also heterotrophic organisms
which break down complex organic compounds of dead
plants and animals and release inorganic substances which
are made available to autotrophs. Since they consume some
chemical substances for their own growth and reproduction
they are also called as microconsumers. These decomposers
play a very special and important role in the ecosystem
E.g. Bacteria, Actinomyces and Fungi.
[Link] a short note on

[Link] Succession

[Link] pyramid

Ecological Pyramids

⚫ Ecological pyramids are the graphic representations of

trophic levels in an ecosystem. The producers make the

base of the pyramid and the subsequent tiers of the
pyramid represent herbivore, carnivore and top carnivore
levels.

⚫ They are pyramidal in shape and they are of three types.

⚫ Pyramid of number: This represents the number of

organisms at each trophic level.

⚫ Pyramid of biomass: This represents the total standing

crop biomass at each trophic level.

⚫ Pyramid of energy: This pyramid represents the total

amount of energy at each trophic level

⚫ In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of

energy and biomass are upright, i.e., producers are more in

number and biomass than the herbivores, and herbivores
are more in number and biomass than the carnivores.

⚫ Energy at a lower trophic level is always more than at a

higher level

⚫ Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be

inverted, because when energy flows from a particular

trophic level to the next trophic level, some energy is
always lost as heat at each step.

⚫ The ecological pyramid is built on the interaction

between food producers and consumers.

⚫ If the order of the food chain is demolished, the

biological pyramid will be destroyed and the entire

ecosystem will be severely damaged.

⚫ It aids in maintaining balance and assessing the overall

state of a biological environment

Limitations of ecological pyramids such as

• It does not take into account the same species belonging

to two or more trophic levels.

• It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost

never exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food
web.

• Moreover, saprophytes are not given any place in

ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in
the ecosystem

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION• An important characteristic

of all communities is that their composition and structure

constantly change in response to the changing

environmental conditions.
• This change is orderly and sequential, parallel with the
changes in the physical environment.

• These changes lead finally to a community that is in near

equilibrium with the environment and that is called a
climax community.

• The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species

composition of a given area is called ecological succession.

• During succession some species colonise an area and

their population become more numerous whereas
populations of other species decline and even disappear.

• The individual transitional communities are termed seral

stages or seral communities.

• In the successive seral stages there is a change in the

diversity of species of organisms, increase in the number
of species and organisms as well as an increase in the total
biomass.

• The present day communities in the world have come to

be because of succession that has occurred over millions of
years since life started on earth. Actually succession and
evolution would have been parallel processes at that time.
• Succession is hence a process that starts in an area
where no living organisms are there – these could be areas
where no living organisms ever existed, say bare rock; or
in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that
existed there. The former is called primary succession,
while the latter is termed secondary succession.

• Examples of areas where primary succession occurs are

newly cooled lava, bare rock, newly created pond or
reservoir. The establishment of a new biotic community is
generally slow. Before a biotic community of diverse
organisms can become established, there must be soil.
Depending mostly on the climate, it takes natural
processes several hundred to several thousand years to
produce fertile soil on bare rock.

• Description of ecological succession usually focuses on

changes in vegetation. However, these vegetational
changes in turn affect food and shelter for various types of
animals.

• Thus, as succession proceeds, the numbers and types of

animals and decomposers also change. At any time during
primary or secondary succession, natural or human
induced disturbances (fire, deforestation, etc.), can convert
a particular seral stage of succession to an earlier stage.
Also such disturbances create new conditions that
encourage some species and discourage or eliminate other
species.

[Link] ecosystem. Write the types of ecosystem.

Describe any two ecosystem with examples.
The term ‘ecosystem’ was first proposed in 1935 by the
British ecologist A.G. Tansley. In the term ecosystem ‘eco’
implies the environment and ‘system’ implies an
interacting and interdependent complex. The whole
‘biosphere’ or ‘giant ecosystem’ may be viewed as
comprising of many small units of ecosystems. Since it is
difficult to study and understand the whole biosphere at a
stroke, it is convenient to undertake a detailed study of
small units of biosphere (ecosystems) and understand the
manifestations of the larger unit (biosphere).
“Thus ecosystem becomes the basic functional unit of
ecology”
An ecosystem may be as small as a drop of water from a
pond (Micro ecosystems) or as large as an ocean (Mega
ecosystem). The ecosystem can be of temporary ([Link]
ecosystem) or permanent (eg. Forests and Oceans) in its
nature. It may be of natural (e.g. forest, grassland, desert,
lake, ocean ecosystem etc.) or artificial (Man engineered
croplands of rice, sorghum, groundnut etc.) in its
operation

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

The ecosystem may be large, as large as the world or small,

as small as a cowdung ecosystem. The biosphere (the total
life content of the world) is the major ecosystem. It
comprises all other ecosystems.

1. Mega Ecosystem :

The biosphere is formed of four mega ecosystems. They

are as follows:

a. Marine Ecosystem : It includes saline-water

ecosystems like oceans, seas, estuaries, brackish waters,
etc.

b. Limnic Ecosystem : It includes all fresh water

ecosystems like ponds, pools, lakes, rivers, streams etc.

c. Terrestrial Ecosystem : It includes the ecosystems of

air, forests, grasslands, deserts, etc.
d. Industrial Ecosystems : These are manmade
ecosystems. Eg. Crop land, city, town, etc.

2. Macro Ecosystems :

The megaesystem is further divided into sub units called

macroecosystems. Eg. Forests. The terrestrial
macroecosystem is formed of many forest ecosystems.

3. Meso Ecosystems :

The macro ecosystem is further divided into

mesoecosystems. For example, the forest ecosystem

is formed of many mesoecosystems like deciduous forest,

coniferous forests, etc.

4. Micro Ecosystems

The mesoecosystem is further divided into

microecosystems. Eg. A low land in a forest, a mountain

in a forest, etc. All ecosystems in the world are further

divided into natural and artificial ecosystems.

5. Natural Ecosystems
These are self-regulating systems without much direct
human interference and manipulations. Eg. Ponds, lakers,
rivers, seas, oceans, grasslands, deserts, etc.

6. Artificial Ecosystems

These are man made ecosystems. Eg. Crop lands, cities,

towns, villages etc

[Link] a short note on

[Link] flow

ENERGY FLOW

• Starting from the plants (or producers) food chains or

rather webs are formed such that an animal feeds on a
plant or on another animal and in turn is food for another.

• The chain or web is formed because of this

interdependency. No energy that is trapped into an
organism remains in it for ever.

• The energy trapped by the producer, hence, is either

passed on to a consumer or the organism dies. Death of
organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain/web.
• The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic
matter. It is made up of decomposers which are
heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria.

• They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by

degrading dead organic matter or detritus.

• These are also known as saprotrophs (sapro: to

decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that
breakdown dead and waste materials into simple,
inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed by
them. Thus nutrient cycle in balanced through the action
of decomposers.

[Link] cycle

Nutrient cycling The movement of nutrient elements

through the various components of an ecosystem is called
nutrient cycling. Another name of nutrient cycling is
biogeochemical cycles (bio: living organism, geo: rocks,
air,water).Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous
and (b) sedimentary. reservoir for gaseous type of
nutrient cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle) exists in the
atmosphere and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur
and phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is located in Earth’s
crust. Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH,
temperature, etc., regulate the rate of release of nutrients
into the atmosphere

[Link] the biogeochemical cycles with types and

examples.

15th answerof food web

17. Define food chain and food web with examples and
write the types of food chain and significance of food
web.

FOOD CHAIN

⚫ The biotic factors of the ecosystem are linked together

by food. For example, the producers from the food for the
herbivores. The herbivores form the food for the
carnivores. The sequence of the eaters being eaten is
called food chain.

⚫ The various steps in a food chain are called trophic

levels . Owing to repeated eating being eaten, the energy is

transferred from one trophic level. This transfer of energy
from one trophic level to another is called energy flow.

TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS :

The food chains are of two types, namely 1. grazing food

chain

2. detritus food chain.

1. Grazing Food Chain :

This food chain start from plants, goes through herbivores

and ends in carnivores. This type of food chain depends on
the autotrophs which capture the energy from solar
radiation. A few chains are given below:

2. Predator Chain :

In predator food chain one animal captures and devours

another animal. The animal which is eaten is called prey
and the animal which eats other animals is called Predator.
The predator food chain is formed of plants, herbivores,
primary carnivores, secondary carnivores and so on.

3. Parasitic food chain :

The plants and animals of the grazing food chain are
infected by parasites. The parasites derive their energy
from their hosts. Thus the Parasitic chain within the
grazing food chain is formed.

Detritus food chain :

• It starts from dead organic matter and ends in inorganic

compounds. There are certain groups of organisms, which
feed exclusively on the dead bodies of animals and plants.
These organisms are called detritivores.

• The detritivores include algae, bacteria, fungi,

protozoans, insects, millipdes, centipeds, crustaceans,
mussels, clams, annelid worms, nematodes, ducks, etc.
These organism ingest and digest the dead organic
materials.

• Some amount of energy if trapped and the remainder is

excreted in the form of simple organic compounds. These
are again used by another set of detritivores until the
organic compounds are converted into CO2 and water.

Food web :
In an ecosystem the various food chains areinterconnected
with each other to form a net work called food web. The
interlocking of many food chains is called food web. Simple
food chains are vary rare in nature. This is because each
organism may obtain food from more than one tropic level.
In other words, one organism forms food for more than
one organisms of the higher trophic level.

Examples :

In a grassland ecosystem, grass is eaten by grasshopper,

rabbit and mouse. Grasshopper is eaten by lizard which is
eaten by hawk. Rabbit is eaten by hawk. Mouse is eaten by
snake which is eaten by hawk. In addition hawk also
directly eats grasshopper and mouse. Thus there are five
linear food chains which are inter connected to form a
food web. This is very simple food web. But in any
ecosystem the food web is more complex. For example, in
the grassland itself, in addition to hawk, there are many
other carnivores such as vulture, crow, wolf, fox, man, etc.

Significance of Food web :• Food webs are very

important in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem.
For example, the deleterious growth of grasses is
controlled by the herbivores. When one type of herbivore
becomes extinct ,the other type of herbivoresincrease in
number and control the vegetation. Similarly, when one
type of herbivorous animal becomes extinct, the carnivore
predating on this type may eat another type of herbivore

18. Write the differences between the following

[Link] and sedimentary nutrient cycles
[Link] and secondary ecological succession
19. Write in detail the components and structure of
cropland ecosystem with examples
CROP ECOSYSTEM

The crop ecosystems are artificial or man – engineered. In

this, man makes much planned manipulations, in the
physical and chemical environment of crop fields in order
to obtain more
yield. These manipulations include addition of fertilizers,
use of pesticides, irrigation
practices .The following are the chief components of crop
ecosystem
A) Abiotic environment: It includes climatic conditions
where the crop is grown and various minerals
(particularly C, H, O, N, P, K) present in soil and
atmosphere. Besides, Chemical fertilizers are also added to
the soil.
1. Biotic Structure:
Most of the crops are seasonal, some are annuals and
biannuals. The crops are maintained as pure population,
though some weeds grow along with the crops. The biotic
component of Agroecosystem is represented by producers,
consumers and decomposers.
a. Producers:
Crops and weeds constitute the producers. The weed
seeds are already present in the field or they are
introduced along with the grain seeds at the time of
sowing and also through irrigationwater and animal
agencies. For example in a maize crop the dominant
species would be Zea mays. Besides, certain weeds like
Cynodon dactylon, Euphorbia hirta, Cyperus rotundus,
Digitaria sp. also appear. They also contribute to primary
production of the field.
b. Consumers:
The homogenous stretch of producers in cropland
ecosystem permits only a few animal representatives
(consumers) to thrive and become part of the ecosystem.
The crop provides shelter, site for laying eggs, protection
from enemies and predators. Management practices like
ploughing, irrigation, weeding etc, change the fauna of the
soil and sometimes affect it drastically
in maize crop ecosystem consumers are classified as
follows.
a) Primary consumers (Herbivores): These are small
animals mainly aphids, thrips, beetles etc. which feed and
lay eggs on maize leaves. Larger animals include rabbits,
rats and birds feeding on leaves and cobs ofmaize.
b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores like frogs
and some birds that eat insects.
c) Tertiary consumers: These are carnivores like snakes
and hawks. Theyfeed on secondary consumers like. frogs
and small birds.
c. Decomposers
Ploughing , application of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides, and the organic matter in the soil subsystem
are some of the factors which influence the decomposer
activity in the cropland ecosystem. Bacteria, actinomyces
and fungi, are the chief decomposers responsible for decay,
and humification. This process makes minerals available to
producers.
[Link] the functions of ecosystem.
Functions of an Ecosystem
• Ecosystem function is the capacity of natural processes
and components to provide goods and services that satisfy
human needs, either directly or indirectly.
• Ecosystem functions are subset of ecological processes
and ecosystem structures. Each function is the result of the
natural processes of the total ecological sub-system of
which it is a par
• Natural processes, in turn, are the result of complex
interactions between biotic (living organisms) and abiotic
(chemical and physical) components of ecosystems
through the universal driving forces of matter and energy.
There are four primary groups of ecosystem functions

⚫ regulatory functions,

⚫ habitat functions,

⚫ production functions and

⚫ information functions. This grouping concerns all

ecosystems, not only for forests.

• Regulatory functions
This group of functions relates to the capacity of natural
and semi-natural ecosystems to regulate essential
ecological processes and life support systems through bio-
geochemical cycles and other biospheric processes.
•In addition to maintaining the ecosystem (and biosphere
health), these regulatory functions provide many services
that have direct and indirectbenefits to humans (i.e., clean
air, water and soil, and biological control services).
• Habitat functions:
Natural ecosystems provide refuge and a reproduction
habitat to wild plants and animals and thereby contribute
to the (in situ) conservation of biological and genetic
diversity and the evolutionary process.
Production functions: Photosynthesis and nutrient
uptake by autotrophs converts energy, carbon dioxide,
water and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate
structures which are then used by secondary producers to
create an even larger variety of living biomass. This broad
diversity in carbohydrate structures provides many
ecosystem goods for human consumption, ranging from
food and raw materials to energy resources and genetic
material.
• Information functions: Since most of human evolution
took place within the context of an undomesticated
habitat, natural ecosystems contribute to the maintenance
of human health by providing opportunities for reflection,
spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation
and aesthetic experience.
Other functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports
life systems and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between
biotic and abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels
in the ecosystem.4. It cycles the minerals through the
biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic
components that involves the exchange of energy
[Link] biodiversity? Write types of biodiversity?
Explain methods of measuring biodiversity?
The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms (flora and fauna). Biodiversity or Biological
diversity is defined as the variability among all living
organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine
and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of
which they are part. Wilson, 1988 defined ‘Biological
diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature which
includes the differences in genes among the individuals of
a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and
animal species at different scales in space i.e. local,
regional, country wise and global, and various types of
ecosystems- both terrestrial and aquatic-within a defined
area.
Types of Biodiversity:
Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s
variety in the biosphere. This variety can be observed at
three levels i.e., genetic, species and ecosystem.
Genetic diversity:
Genetic diversity refers to the variation at the level of
individual genes. Tremendous amount of genetic diversity
exists within individual species. This genetic variability is
responsible for the different characters in species. Genetic
diversity is the raw material from which new species arise
through evolution. Today, the genetic diversity is made use
to breed new crop varieties, disease resistant crops.
Species diversity
The number of species of plants and animals that are
present in a region constitutes its species diversity. This
diversity is seen both in natural ecosystem and in
agricultural ecosystem. Some areas are richer in species
than others. For example, natural undisturbed tropical
forests have much greater species richness than mono
culture plantations developed by the forest department for
timber products. A natural forest ecosystem provides large
number of non-timber forest products that local people
depend on such as fruits, fuel, wood, fodder, fiber, gum,
resin and medicines.
Ecosystem diversity:
There are a large variety of different ecosystem on earth,
each having their own complement of distinctive inter
linked species based on differences in the habitat.
Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific
geographical region or a political entity such as a country,
a state or a taluk. Distinctive ecosystems include
landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains etc
as well as aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes and seas.
Each region also has man- modified areas such as
farmland or grazing pastures. It refers to the variation in
the structure and functions of the ecosystem. It describes
the number of niches, trophic levels and various ecological
processes that sustain energy flow, flood webs and the
recycling of nutrients. It has focus on various biotic
interactions and the role and functions of keystone species
(species determining the ability of large number of other
species to persist in the community).
Methods of measuring Biodiversity:
There are three perspectives measuring of diversity at the
level of community. These are (i) Alpha diversity, (ii) beta
diversity and (iii) gamma diversity. Community diversity
refers to the variations in the biological communities in
which species live.
(i) Alpha diversity indicates diversity within the
community. It refers to the diversity of organisms sharing
the same community or habitat. A combination of species
richness and equitability / evenness is used to represent
diversity within a community or habitat.
(ii) Beta diversity indicates diversity between
communities. Species frequently change when habitat or
community changes. There are differences in species
composition of communities along environmental
gradients, e.g, altitudinal gradient, moisture gradient, etc.
the higher heterogeneity in the habitats in a region or
greater dissimilarity between communities exhibit higher
beta diversity.
(iii) Gamma diversity refers to the diversity of the
habitats over the total land scope or geographical area.
The sum of alpha and beta diversities of the ecosystems is
an expression of the biodiversity of landscape, which is
considered as Gamma Diversity.
[Link] short notes on endangered and endemic
species and conservation of biodiversity.
Endangered and Endemic species in India
An endangered species is a species which has been categorized as likely to
become extinct. Endangered (EN), as categorized by the International Union for
Conservationof Nature (IUCN) Red List, is the second most severe conservation status
for wild populations in the IUCN's schema after Critically Endangered (CR). The IUCN
categories, with examplesof animals classified by them, include:
Extinct (EX): Completely vanished from the world. Examples: dodo, western black
rhinoceros.
Extinct in the wild (EW): Captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living,
natural population. Examples: Barbary lion, Hawaiian crow, Père David's deer.
Critically endangered (CR): Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the
immediate future. African wild ass, Arabian leopard, black rhino, Florida
panther, mountain gorilla, Northwest African cheetah, Malayan tiger, South China
tiger, Sumatran elephant, Sumatran orangutan, Sumatran rhinoceros, Sumatran
tiger, northern white rhinoceros, West African lion
Endangered (EN): Faces a high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples:African
penguin, African wild dog, Amur tiger, Asian elephant, Asiatic lion,
blue whale, snow leopard, Sri Lankan elephant
Vulnerable (VU): Faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term. African
grey parrot, African leopard, African lion, clouded leopard, cheetah, gaur,
giraffe, hippopotamus, Indian rhinoceros, polar bear, sloth bear, yak, great
white shark, king cobra
Near-threatened (NT): May be considered threatened in the near future. Examples:
Americanbison, jaguar, white rhinoceros
Least concern (LC): No immediate threat to species' survival. Examples: American
alligator, American crow, bald eagle
Biodiversity and its conservation
India has 89,451 animal species accounting for 7.31% of the global faunal species.
Theflora accounts for 10.8% of the world flora. To conserve biodiversity there are two
strategies.
(1) Ex-situ conservation: It means that the flora and fauna on preserved outside natural
habitats. Flora and fauna are preserved as herbarium specimens, sea storage at low
temperatures, as botanical gardens, zoos, deer parks, aquaria etc. Microbes are
preserved as cultures. Central and State Governments together run and manage 33
botanical gardens.
(2) In-situ conservation: Conservation or protection of flora and fauna within natural
habitat is called in-situ preservation. Around 4.2% of the total geographical area
of thecounts has been earmarked for extensive in-situ conservation of habitats and
ecosystem. Protected area net works of 85 national parts and 448 wild life
sanctuarieshave been created. Around 12 biodiversity rich areas have been
designed (Nilgiri, Nanda devi, Norkerk, Mans, Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar, Great
Nicobar, Similpal, Dibru-Saikhowa, Dehang-Debang, Pachmarhi, Kanchan Janga),
21 wet lands, 15 mangrove areas and 4 coral reef are being protected.
The following are the world heritage sites declared in India. 1. Sanctuaries of
Rhododendrons and Orchids. 2. Project tiger. 3. Project elephant.

23. Define biodiversity, types of biodiversity and

Values of biodiversity.
The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms (flora and fauna).
Biodiversity or Biological diversity is defined as the variability among all living
organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems
and ecological complexes of which they are part. Wilson, 1988 defined ‘Biological
diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature which includes the differences in genes
among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal
species at different scales in space i.e. local,regional, country wise and global, and
various types of ecosystems- both terrestrial and aquatic-within a defined area.
Types of Biodiversity:
Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This
variety can be observed at three levels i.e., genetic, species and ecosystem.
Genetic diversity:
Genetic diversity refers to the variation at the level of individual genes. Tremendous
amount of genetic diversity exists within individual species. This genetic variability is
responsible for the different characters in species. Genetic diversity is the raw material
from which new species arise through evolution. Today, the genetic diversity is made
use to breed new crop varieties, disease resistant crops.
Species diversity
The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes its
species diversity. This diversity is seen both in natural ecosystem and in agricultural
ecosystem. Some areas are richer in species than others. For example, natural
undisturbed tropical forests have much greater species richness than mono
culture plantations developed by the forest department for timber products. A natural
forest ecosystem provides large number of non-timber forest products that local people
depend on such as fruits, fuel, wood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin and medicines.
Ecosystem diversity:
There are a large variety of different ecosystem on earth, each having their own
complement of distinctive inter linked species based on differences in the habitat.
Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region or a political
entity such as a country, a state or a taluk. Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes
like forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains etc as well as aquatic ecosystems like rivers,
lakes and seas. Each region also has man- modified areas such as farmland or grazing
pastures. It refers to the variation in the structure and functions of the ecosystem. It
describes the number of niches, trophic levels and various ecological processes that
sustain energy flow, flood webs and the recycling of nutrients. It has focus on various
biotic interactions and the role and functions of keystone species (species determining
the ability of large number of other species to persist in the community).
Value of biodiversity
✓ Environmental services from species and eco- systems are essential at global,
regional and local levels. Production of oxygen, reducing carbon dioxide, maintaining the
water cycle, protecting soil are important services. The world now acknowledges that
the loss of biodiversity con- tributes to global climatic changes. Forests are the main
mechanism for the conversion of car- bon dioxide into carbon and oxygen. The loss of
forest cover, coupled with the increasing release of carbon dioxide and other gases
through industrialization contributes to the ‘greenhouse effect’. Global warming is
melting ice caps, resulting in a rise in the sea level which will sub-merge the low lying
areas in the world. It is causing major atmospheric changes, leading to increased
temperatures, serious droughts in some areas and unexpected floods in other areas.
✓ Biological diversity is also essential for preserving ecological processes, such as fixing
and re- cycling of nutrients, soil formation, circulation and cleansing of air and water,
global life sup- port (plants absorb CO2, give out O2), maintaining the water balance
within ecosystems, watershed protection, maintaining stream and river flows
throughout the year, erosion control and local flood reduction.
✓ Food, clothing, housing, energy, medicines, are all resources that are directly or
indirectly linked to the biological variety present in the biosphere. This is most obvious
in the tribal communities who gather resources from the forest, or fisher folk who catch
fish in marine or freshwater ecosystems. For others, such as agricultural communities,
biodiversity is used to grow their crops to suit the environment. Urban communities
generally use the greatest amount of goods and services, which are all indirectly drawn
from natural ecosystems.
✓ It has become obvious that the preservation of biological resources is essential for
the
well-being and the long-term survival of mankind. This diversity of living organisms
which is present in the wilderness, as well as in our crops and live- stock, plays a major
role in human ‘development’. The preservation of ‘biodiversity’ is therefore integral to
any strategy that aims at improving the quality of human life.

24. Detail about biogeographical regions of India.

India is one of the twelve mega diversity nations of the
world due to the followingreasons
i. It has 7.3% of the global fauna and 10.88% of global flora
as per the data collected by Ministry of Environment and
forest.
ii. It has 350 different mammals, 1200 species of birds-
453 different reptiles, 182 amphibians and 45,000 plants
spices.
iii. It has 50,000 known species of insects which include
13,000 butterflies and moths.
iv. It has 10 different biogeographical regions and 25 biotic
provinces having varieties oflands and species.
v. In addition to geographical distribution, geological
events in the land mass provide high level of biological
diversity.
vi. Several crops arose in the country and spread
throughout the world.
vii. There is wide variety of domestic animals like cows,
buffaloes, goats, sheep,pigs,horses etc.
viii. The marine biota includes sea weeds, fishes,
crustaceans, molluses, corals, reptiles etc.
ix. There are a number of hot spots (namely Eastern Ghats,
Western Ghats, North Easternhills etc.).
Ten Biogeographical Zones of India
| Zone | Description | States/Regions Covered |
| 1. Trans-Himalayan Region | Cold, mountainous,
snow-covered terrain | Ladakh |
| 2. Himalayan Region | High-altitude ranges and valleys |
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam, NE
States |
| 3. Indian Desert | Arid zone with sparse vegetation |
Rajasthan (Thar Desert) |
| 4. Semi-Arid Zone | Grasslands and scrub forests |
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu |
| 5. Western Ghats | Tropical evergreen forests, high
endemism | Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala |
| 6. Deccan Plateau | Dry deciduous forests and scrublands
| Central and Southern India |
| 7. Gangetic Plains | Fertile alluvial plains | Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal |
| 8. Coastal Zone | Sandy beaches, mangroves, estuaries |
Eastern and Western coastal belts |
| 9. North-East India | Dense forests, rich biodiversity |
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, etc. |
| 10. Islands | Coral reefs, tropical forests | Andaman &
Nicobar Islands |
25. Write short note on
[Link] Region
Hot Spots
Hot spots are the richest (high density of biodiversity or
mega diversity) and most threatened reservoirs of plant
and animal life of the earth. They have maximum number
of endemic species. An area is designated as a hot spot
when it contains at least 0.5% of plant species as endemic.
There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global
level, out of whichthree are present in India.
To qualify as a hot spot, a region must meet two strict
criteria:
1. Species endemism: the region must contain at least
1,500 species of vascular plants(> 0.5% of the world‘s
total) as endemics, and
2. Degree of threat: the region has to have lost at least
70% of its original habitat.
✓ Each biodiversity hot spot represents a remarkable
universe of extraordinary floral and faunal endemism
struggling to survive in rapidly shrinking ecosystems.
✓ Over 50 percent of the world‘s plant species and 42
percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to
the 25 biodiversity hot spots.
✓ Some hot spots are much richer than others in terms of
their numbers of endemics.
Five key factors have been taken into consideration and
those biodiversity hot spot that tops the list with respect
to these five factors are considered as hottest hot spots.
Factors
1. Endemic plants,
2. Endemic vertebrates,
3. Endemic plants/area ratio (species per 100km2),
4. Endemic vertebrates/area ratio (species per 100km2)
and
5. Remaining primary vegetation as % of original extent.
Biodiversity Hotspots across the World
The eight hottest hot spots in terms of the above five
factors are:
1. Madagascar
2. Philippines
3. Sundaland [South East Asia]
4. Brazil‘s Atlantic Forest
5. Caribbean
6. Indo-Burma
7. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
8. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya
These eight ‗hottest hot spots‘, appear at least three times
in the top ten listings for each factor.
Indian Biodiversity Hot Spots
There are 3 biodiversity hot spots present in India. They
are:
1. The Eastern Himalayas (Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan,
Eastern Nepal)
2. Indo-Burma and (Purvanchal Hills, Arakan Yoma,
Eastern Bangladesh)
3. The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
These hot spots covering less than 2% of the world‘s land
area are found to have about50% of the terrestrial
biodiversity.
[Link]
Defination:-
The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms (flora and fauna). Biodiversity or Biological
diversity is defined as the variability among all living
organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine
and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of
which they are part. Wilson, 1988 defined ‘Biological
diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature which
includes the differences in genes among the individuals of
a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and
animal species at different scales in space [Link],regional,
country wise and global, and various types of ecosystems-
both terrestrial and aquatic-within a defined area.

Measuring Biodiversity
- Alpha Diversity: Diversity within a single habitat or
community.
- Beta Diversity: Diversity between different habitats or
communities.
- Gamma Diversity: Overall diversity across a large
landscape or region.
India as a Mega-Diversity Nation
India is one of the 12 mega-diverse countries due to:
- 7.3% of global fauna and 10.88% of global flora
- 45,000 plant species and 89,451 animal species
- Rich diversity in insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, and
amphibians
- 10 biogeographic zones and 25 biotic provinces
- High endemism and traditional conservation practices
Different factors responsible for causing threat to
biodiversity
[Link] Loss & Degradation :- Conversion of forests,
wetlands, and grasslands into urban or agricultural land
reduces species habitats.
[Link] Change:- Alters species distribution, breeding
cycles, and ecosystem functions; leads to extinction.
[Link]:- Air, water, and soil pollution harm species
directly and degrade ecosystems.
[Link]:- Unsustainable hunting, fishing, and
harvesting reduce populations of plants and animals.
5. Invasive Species:- Non-native species outcompete or
prey on native species, disrupting ecological balance.
[Link] & Diseases:- Emerging diseases can wipe
out vulnerable species, especially in fragmented habitats.