Engineering Drawing

Engineering Drawing
 CONTENTS

SL NO NAME OF THE TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION & DEMONSTRATION 1 – 13

2 TYPES OF LINES, LETTERING & DIMENSIONING 14 – 26

3 SCALES 27 – 35

4 CURVES 36 – 47

5 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 48 – 74

6 SECTION AND DEVELOPMENTS 75 – 85

7 ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS 86 – 98

8 BUILDING DRAWING 99 – 109

9 PRACTICES ON AUTOCAD 110 – 161

 SYLLABUS
on
Engineering Drawing

(All drawings are to be made in First Angle Projection)

1. INTRODUCTION & DEMONSTRATION
1.1 Identify various sizes of drawing boards, drawing sheets as pr BIS.
1.2 List the types of pencils, instruments, and scales (RF).
1.3 Demonstrate lying of drawing sheet, margin, standard layout and title block as per BIS, folding
principle of drawings (blue prints, print outs etc).
2. TYPES OF LINES, LETTERING & DIMENSIONING
2.1 Demonstrate and explain the use of various types of lines.
2.2 Demonstrate the principle of single stroke, gothic lettering & numerals as per BIS.
3. SCALES
3.1 Significance of scales in drawing; different scales.
3.2 Define and draw plain sale and diagonal sale.
4. CURVES
4.1 Explain Conic sections with illustration, Explain terms like focus, vertex, directrix and eccentricity.
4.2 Draw conics sections by eccentricity method – Ellipse, Parabola and Hyperbola.
4.3 Draw Ellipse by concentric circle method sand arc of cicle method.
4.4 Draw parabola by Rectangle Method and Tangent Method.
5. OTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
5.1 Demonstrate the principles of 1st angle and 3rd angle projections with the help of models and draw
symbols.
5.2 Draw projection of points.
5.3 Draw projection of straight line (parallel to both planes, parallel to one and perpendicular to other,
parallel to one and inclined to other and inclined to both reference planes).
5.4 Draw plane figure such as squares, rectangles, triangles, circle, Pentagon and hexagon
(perpendicular to one plane and inclined to other).
5.5 Draw projections of solids such as prism, cylinder, cone, tetrahedron and pyramid in simple position
(with axis parallel to one reference plane and perpendicular to other reference plane).
6. SECTION & DEVELOPMENTS
6.1 Draw the sectional projection & development of prism, cylinder, cone and pyramid in simple position
by a cutting plane perpendicular to one reference plane and inclined to other reference plane.
6.2 Draw true shape of the cutting sections.
7. ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS
Draw isometric view & Isometric projection of prism, pyramid, cone & cylinder with axis horizontal and
vertical with construction of isometric scales.

Note : Focus should be on Hands on Practice of student using AutoCAD software

Books Recommended
1. Machine Drawing by Basudeb Bhattacharya, Oxford University Press.
2. A Text Book of Engineering Drawing by Dr. R.K. Dhawan.
3. A Text Book of Engineering Graphics & Auto CAD by K Venugopal.
4. A Text book of Engineering Drawing by N.D. Bhatt.
5. Engineering Drawing by P.S. Gill.
6. A Introduction to Auto CAD – 2012 by George Omura, Willey India Publishers.
 CHAPTER – 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION & DEMONSTRATION
Engineering drawing is a two dimensional representation of three dimensional objects. In
general, it provides necessary information about the shape, size, surface quality, material,
manufacturing process, etc. of the object. It is the graphic language from which a trained person can
visualize objects.
1.2 LIST OF INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING:-
The Instruments and other aids used in drafting work are listed below:
1. Pencil
2. Drawing board
3. Setsquare
4. Mini drafter
5. Instrument box
6. Protractor
7. Measurement Scale
8. Drawing sheet
9. Drawing clips or Drawing pins

1. Pencils :
Pencils with leads of different degrees of hardness or grades are available in the market.
The hardness or softness of the lead is indicated by 3H, 2H, H, HB, B, 2B, 3B, etc. The grade
HB denotes medium hardness of lead used for general purpose. The hardness increases as the
value of the numeral before the letter H increases. The lead becomes softer, as the value of the
numeral before B increases.
 HB Soft grade for Border lines, lettering and free sketching
 H Medium grade for Visible outlines, visible edges and boundary lines
 2H Hard grade for construction lines, Dimension lines, Leader lines, Extension lines, Centre
lines, Hatching lines and Hidden lines.

Fig 1.1 Pencil

2. Drawing Board :
Drawing board (Fig 1.1) is one of the main equipment of Draughtsman. It is used for
supporting the drawing paper/tracing paper for making drawings. It is made of well seasoned
wood strips of about 25 mm thick, free from knots and warping. It should be softer enough to
allow insertion and removal of drawing pins. Two battens are fastened to the board by screws,
in slotted joints. They prevent warping and at the same time permit expansion and contraction of
the strips due to the change of moisture in the atmosphere.

Fig 1.2 Drawing Board

One of the shorter edges of the drawing board is provided with an “ebony edge” (hard
wood) fitted perfectly straight.
Standard drawing boards are designated as follows in Table 1.1 as per IS: 1444-1989.

Sl. No. Designation Size (mm)

1 D0 1500 x 1000 x 25
2 D1 1000 x 700 x 25
3 D2 700 x 500 x 15
4 D3 500 x 350 x 15
Table 1.1 Different sizes of Drawing Boards
The working edge (ebony) must be straight. Now-a-days the drawing boards are
available with laminated surfaces. The flatness can be checked by placing a straight edge on its
surface. If no light passes between them, the surface is perfectly flat.
3. Set Square :
They are used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 300, 450 and 600) in technical
drawings. The 450 x 450 and 300 x 600 triangles are the most commonly used for ordinary work.
They are shown in the fig. 1.3 below.

450x450 Set Square 300x600 Set Square

Fig 1.3 Set Squares

4. Mini-Drafter :
Mini-drafter consists of an angle formed by two arms with scales marked and rigidly
hinged to each other. It combines the functions of T-square, set-squares, scales and protractor.
It is used for drawing horizontal, vertical and inclined lines, parallel and perpendicular lines and
for measuring lines and angles.
 Fig 1.4Mini Drafter Fig 1.5 Drawing Board and Mini Drafter Assembly

5. Instrument Box:
Instrument box contains
i. Compasses,
ii. Dividers and
iii. Inking pens.
The important point is the position of the pencil lead with respect to the tip of the
compass. It should be at least 1 mm above as shown in the Fig 1.7. Because the tip goes into
the board for grip by 1mm.

Fig 1.6 Instrument Box

 Fig 1.7 Compass
6. Protractor:
Protractors are used for constructing and measuring angles. Protractors are generally
semicircular in shape. The base diameter of the semicircle serves as the straight edge. A
semicircular protractor can measure and angles of any measure between 00 to 1800. Least
count of the protractor is generally 10. Like set square protractor is also made of transparent
celluloid or plastic material.

Fig 1.8 Protractor

7. Measurement Scale:
A number of kinds of scales are available for varied types of engineering design. Scales
with beveled edges graduated in mm are usually used. Least count of such scale is generally 1
mm.
 Fig 1.9 Measurement Scale

8. Drawing Sheet:
These are of two types:
 Hand-made paper
 Mill-made paper
Hand-made papers have rough surfaces, pale in colour and not used for regular work,
but meant for charts. Mill-made papers are most commonly used for regular work, and are
available in different sizes and rolls. They are specified by their weight in kg per ream or density
in grams per square meter.

Size of drawing sheets (in mm):

While working or handling, the papers are liable to tear on the edges. So slightly large
size (untrimmed) sheets are preferred. They are trimmed afterwards. IS: 10811:1983 lays down
such as designation of preferred trimmed and untrimmed sizes. The basic principle involved in
arriving at the sizes of the drawing paper is as under. The area of the biggest size (A0) is 1m 2
and its length and breadth are in the ratio 1:2 = (1/2).
Designation of sheets :
The drawing sheets are designated by symbols such as A0, A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5. A0
being the largest. Table 1.2 below gives the length and breadth of the above sizes of sheets.
For class work use of A2 size drawing sheet is preferred.
 Designation Dimension in mm (Trimmed Size)

A0 841 X 1189

A1 594 X 841

A2 420 X 594

A3 297 X 420

A4 210 X 297

Table. 1.2 Different size of Drawing Sheets

Fig 1.10 Standard size of drawing sheets according to I.S.I(All dimensions are in mm)
9. Drawing Clips or Drawing Pins :
They are used to fix the drawing sheet firmly in position to the drawing board as one
construct the drawing. Both drawing clips and drawing pins serve the same purpose.
They are generally made up of steel or plastic.
 Fig 1.11 Drawing Clips Fig 1.12 Drawing Pins

1.3 SCALE (R.F) :

Dimensions of large objects must be reduced to accommodate on standard size drawing
sheet. This reduction creates a scale of that reduction ratio, which is generally a fraction & such a
scale is called Reducing Scale and the ratio is called Representative Factor.
RF = Dimension of drawing = Length of object in drawing
Dimension of object Actual length
Note : For computing R.F, the numerator and denominator should be in same units.
1.4 STANDARD LAYOUT OF DRAWING SHEET:
The layout of a drawing sheet used on the shop floor is shown in Fig.1.13, The layout
suggested to students is shown in Fig.1.14.
 Fig 1.13 General features of a drawing sheet

Figure.1.14Layout of sheet for class work

All dimensions are in mm
1.5 FOLDING PRINCIPLE OF DRAWINGS
Method of folding of printed drawing sheets as per BIS SP: 46-2003:
When drawing sheets are in more numbers, they have to be folded and kept in order to save
the trace required for preserving them (Fig1.15).
Requirement
While folding the drawings following care to be taken.
1. It is required to fold the drawing sheets such that, they should not get defaced or damaged.
2. Drawing sheet to be folded such that the title block is easily visible to retrieve it and keeping
 it back.
The following is the method of folding printed drawing sheets for Drawing Sheet of size A1, A2 and
A3 as recommended by BIS SP 46-2003.

Fig 1.15 : Method of folding drawing sheet

1.6 TITLEBLOCK :
The title block should lie within the drawing space at the bottom right hand comer of the sheet.
The title block can have a maximum length of 185 mm and width of 65 mm providing the following
information.
 Title of the drawing.
 Drawing number.
 Scale.
 Symbol denoting the method of projection.
 Name of the firm, and
 Initials of staff, who have designed, checked and approved.
The title block suggested for students class work is shown in Fig.1.16.

Fig 1.16: Title block for class work

All dimension are in mm
Another title block according to B.I.S. specification is given in Fig 1.17.
Fig 1.17 : Title block as per B.I.S specifications
All dimension are in mm
 EXERCISES
1. What is Engineering Drawing?
2. What are the standard sizes of drawing boards and drawing sheets as suggested by BIS?
3. Draw a title block for your drawing sheets prepared in class room?
4. Mention the use of mini drafter?
5. How to fold drawing sheets as per BIS?
 CHAPTER – 2

TYPES OF LINES, LETTERING AND DIMENSIONING

2. TYPES OF LINES,LETTERING & DIMENSIONING
Line is one important aspect of technical drawing. Lines are always used to construct
meaningful drawings. Various types of lines are used to construct drawing, each line used in some
specific sense. Lines are drawn following standard conventions mentioned in BIS (SP46:2003). A line
may be curved, straight, continuous, segmented. It may be drawn as thin or thick.
 Fig 2.1

Line Strokes
Line strokes refer to the directions of drawing straight and curved lines. Vertical and inclined
lines are drawn from top to bottom, horizontal lines are drawn from left to right. Curved lines are drawn
from left to right or top to bottom.

Fig 2.2
2.2 Demonstrate the principle of single stroke, gothic lettering & numerals as per BIS.
Single Stroke Letters
The word single-stroke should not be taken to mean that the lettering should be made in
one stroke without lifting the pencil. It means that the thickness of the letter should be uniform as if
it is obtained in one stroke of the pencil.
Single-stroke letters are of two types:
i. Vertical
ii. Inclined. (Inclined letters lean to the right, the slope being 75° with the horizontal)
According to the height of letters, they are classified as:
i. Lettering 'A'
ii. Lettering 'B'
In lettering 'A' type, the height of the capital letter is divided into 14 parts, while in lettering
'B' type it is divided into 10 parts. The height of the letters and numerals for engineering drawing
can be selected from 2.5, 3.5, 5, 7, 10, 14 and 20 mm according to the size of drawing. The ratio
of height to width varies but in case of most of the letters it is 6 : 5.
Fig 2.4
 Fig 2.5 Single-stroke vertical capital letters and figures :

Fig 2.6 Single-stroke inclined capital letters and figures:

 Fig 2.7 Single-stroke vertical & inclined lower case letters and figures :

Fig 2.8
Gothic letters:
Stems of single-stroke letters, if given more thickness, form what are known as gothic
letters. The thickness of the stem may vary from 1/5 to 1/10 of the height of the letters.
 Here stem thickness is taken as 1/7 times height.

Dimensioning
Dimensioning is the process of specifying part‟s information by use of lines, numbers, symbols
and notes.
The general principle of dimensioning :
 As far as possible, it should be placed outside the view.
 It should be taken from a visible line rather than hidden lines.
 Dimensioning of a centre line should be avoided except when the centre line passes through the
centre of a-holes.
 The dimension should be placed on the view or section which is most clear to the corresponding
features.
 Each dimension should be dimensioned once on a drawing.
 Each drawing should have the same dimensional unit.
 More than one dimension should not be used for features of the same parts.
Elements of Dimensioning
Dimension Line: Dimension line is a continuous thin line. It is indicated by arrowheads, it is
drawn parallel to the surface whose length must be indicated.
 Fig 2.10

Projection or Extension Line : A projection line or extension line, it is a thin line. It is drawn
perpendicular to the surface which is to be dimensioned. The projection line slightly extends
than the dimension line.

Fig 2.11

Constructions line: A construction line is a thin line drawn to indicate the dimension line. The
construction line is extended slightly beyond the point intersection.
Arrowheads: Arrowheads are used to indicate the dimension line. Usually, the arrowhead must
include angles of a minimum of 15°. The Arrowhead may be open or close or closed and filled.
 Fig 2.12

Leader or Pointer Lines: These are thin continuous lines drawn from a dimension figure to the
feature to which it refers. Leader line is drawn may be 30° or 60° to the bottom of dimensions.
Dimension Figure: These are drawn may be vertical or inclined to indicate the height of the
dimension figure.
Units of Dimensions
The dimension unit is millimetre. The unit of the dimension is omitted while writing the dimension fig.
and a footnote stating “ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM” is written at the prominent place on the
drawing sheet.
Dimensioning common features
Dimensioning diameters :

Fig 2.13
Dimensioning Radius :

Fig 2.14

Dimensioning Arcs :

Fig 2.15

Dimensioning Chords :
It is a linear distance between any two points of an arc.
 Fig 2.16

Dimensioning Angles :

Fig 2.17

Types of Dimensioning systems:

Aligned System :
In this type of dimensioning systems, Dimensions are placed above the dimension lines which
are drawn without any break and written parallel to them.

Fig 2.18

Unidirectional System:
Dimensions are inserts by breaking the dimension lines at the middle.
Fig 2.19

Fig 2.20
 EXERCISES

1. What is the purpose of sectioning of an object?

2. How hidden lines are represented?
3. Show different method of indicating diameters?
4. What do you mean by lettering?
5. What do you mean by single stroke letters?
6. What is the slope of inclined letters?
7. Write down CIVIL in single stroke vertical letter.
8. Write down ENGINEERING in single stroke inclined letter.
9. Draw the different types of lines and name them.
 CHAPTER-3
SCALE
3.1 Introduction
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing to
the actual dimensions of the same.
It is not possible always to make drawings of an object to its actual size. If the actual linear
dimensions of an object are shown in its drawing, the scale used is said to be a full size scale.
Wherever possible, it is desirable to make drawings to full size.
3.2 Purpose of Scale
Scales are used for the following purposes :
1. To prepare a drawing on a reduced scale so that large object can be accommodated on the
limited size of drawing sheet.
e.g. building, machine parts etc.
2. To prepare the drawing of a very small objects.
e.g. parts of wrist watches, measuring instruments etc. on enlarged scale in order to give better
understanding and to study the details of the minor parts of the objects.
3. To measure linear measurements of the object under measurement directly without involving any
calculations.
4. To measure and set off dimensions as per scales decided upon or given before starting the
drawing.
3.3 Types of scale :
3.3.1 Reducing Scale :
It is the scale in which the actual measurements of objects are reduced and represented on
the drawing sheet.
Generally the drawings are very big objects like buildings, machine parts; town plans etc are
prepared in reduced scale. The standard proportions are :
1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:5000, 1:10000
for this scale, RF < 1
Example-If the actual size of the object is 100cm then using R.F. of 1:10, the size of the
object would be 100 x (1/10)= 10cm in drawing.
3.3.2 Full Size Scale :
In this scale the actual measurements of the objects are represented on the drawing. In this
scale the usual proportion is 1:[Link] this scale R.F. = 1
 Example- If the actual size of the object is 150cm then using R.F. of 1:1, the size of the object
would be 150 x (1/1 )= 150 cm in drawing.

3.3.3 Enlarging Scale :

It is the scale in which the actual measurements of the objects are increased in some
proportion to accommodate object details on the drawing sheet.
Generally the drawings of very small objects like watches, electronic devices, precision
instruments etc. are prepared in enlarging scale. The standard enlarging scales are :
50:1, 20:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1 for this scale, R.F.>1
Example- If the actual size of the object is 2cm then using R.F. of 50:1, the size of the object
would be 2 x (50/1)= 100cm in drawing.
3.4 Representative Fraction (R.F.)
The ratio of the dimension of the object shown on the drawing to its actual size is called the
Representative Fraction (R.F.).
Mathematically S.F or R.F = Distance of the object on drawing Both in
same units
Actual distance of the object

NOTE :
The dimensions in both numerator and denominator of the fraction must be in the same units.
Since it is a ratio it has no units.
example : If 1cm length of drawing represents 5m length of the object then
RF= 1cm/5m =1cm/500cm =1/500
3.5 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
Metric measures :
i. Linear Measures
1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 HECTOMETRE = 10 DECAMETRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 METRES
1 METRE = 10 DECIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE = 10 MILIMETRES

Classification of Scales

The scales used in engineering drawing are classified as follows:

i. Plain scale or simple scale

Fig 3.1

ii. Diagonal scale

Fig 3.2
iii. Comparative or Corresponding Scale

Fig 3.3
iv. Vernier Scale

Fig 3.4
v. Scale of chords

Fig 3.5

Here in this chapter we will discuss about the plain scale and diagonal scale only.
3.5 Plain Scale
This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it‟s sub-division.
Q. No. 1.
Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m. Show on it a
distance of 4 m and 6 dm
CONSTRUCTION :
a. Calculate R.F.= (DIMENSION OF DRAWING /DIMENSION OF OBJECT)
R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100
Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance = (1/100) X 600 cm = 6 cm
b. Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c. Sub-divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d. Place (0) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions on left-
hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e. After construction of scale mention it‟s RF and name of scale as shown.
f. Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown Fig. 3.6.
 Fig 3.6

Q. No. 2.
In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct a plain
scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.
CONSTRUCTION :
a. Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/( 36 x 1000 x 100) = 1/ 80,000.
Length of scale = R.F x max. distance = 1/ 80000 x 12 km = 15 cm
b. Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c. Sub-divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d. Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions on left-
hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e. After construction of scale mention it‟s RF and name of scale as shown.
f. Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown in Fig 3.7.
 Fig 3.7

Q. No. 3.
The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km. In a railway map it is represented by a line 5
cm long. Find it‟s R.F. Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km. Indicate on it
following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km
SOLUTION STEPS :
RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = ( 1 / 40, 00, 000) X 600 X 105 = 15 cm
a. Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.
b. Divide it in six equal parts. Each will represent 100 km.
c. Divide first division in ten equal parts. Each will represent 10 km.
d. Draw a line upward from left end and mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
e. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown in Fig 3.8.
f. Join 9th sub-division of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.
Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and complete diagonal scale.
 (Fig 3 .8)
Q. No. 4.
Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters and millimeters and long enough to
measure up to 20 centimeters. Show the distance of 13.4 cm in it.
SOLUTION STEPS:
R.F. = 1 / 2.5
Length of scale = (1 / 2.5) X 20 cm = 8 cm.
1. Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts. (Each part will represent a length of 5cm.)
2. Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions. (Each will show 1 cm).
3. At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any
length.
4. Complete the scale as explained in previous problems. Show the distance 13.4 cm on it in Fig3.9.
(Fig 3.9)
 EXERCISES

1. Construct a diagonal scale to measure kilometers, hectometers, and decameters and long enough to
measure 4Km, when a distance of 0.25km is represented by one centimeter on map. Find RF of the
scale and also the length of the diagonal scale. Indicate on the scale a distance of RF of the scale and
also the length of the diagonal scale. Indicate on the scale a distance of
a. 3 KM, 6 hectometer and 3 decameter.
b. 2 KM, 3 hectometers and 8 decameters
2. Construct a diagonal scale of R.F.= 1/6250 to read up to 1km and to read meters on it. Show a length
of 653m on it.
3. If the distances between two towns is 600km and it is represented on map by 12cm. Construct a
diagonal scale to measure up to a single kilometers. Measure a distance of 349km, 417km and 495km
on the map. Also find the R.F.
4. The distance between Kolkata to Puri is 560 Km which is represented by 14 cm on a map. Find the
R.F. of the scale used for drawing the map. Construct a diagonal scale to show distance up to 800 Km
and show a distance of 666 Km on it.
5. Construct a diagonal scale to read kilometres and decametres, given that 1 Km is represented by 5 cm
on the drawing. Mark a distance of 3.47 Km on the scale.
6. Construct a diagonal scale to read metre ,decimeter and centimeter and long enough to measure up to
5 metres, when 1 metre is represented by 3c.m. Find the R.F and indicate on the scale distance of
4metre 7decimeter 6centimetre and 2metre 4decimetre 8 centimetre.
7. Draw a plane scale to show metre and decimeters when 1 metre is represented by 2.5cm on the scale.
The scale should be long enough to measure up to 6m . Mark a distance of 4metre and 6decimetre on
the scale.
 CHAPTER – 4
CURVES
4.1 CONIC SECTIONS
Cone is formed when a right angled triangle with an apex and angle 𝜃 is rotated about its
altitude as the axis. The length or height of the cone is equal to the altitude of the triangle and the
radius of the base of the cone is equal to the base of the triangle. The apex angle of the cone is 2𝜃.
When a cone is cut by a plane, the curve formed along the section is known as a conic section.

Fig 4.1
Following are some important conic sections.
1. Circle
2. Ellipse
3. Parabola
4. Hyperbola
4.1.1 CIRCLE :
When a cone is cut by a section plane A-A making an angle 𝛼= 90° with the axis, the
section obtained is a circle.
4.1.2 ELLIPSE :
When a cone is cut by a section plane B-B at an angle, 𝛼more than half of the apex
angle i.e., 𝜃 and less than 90°, the curve of the section is an ellipse. Its size depends on the
angle 𝛼 and the distance of the section plane from the apex of the cone.
4.1.3 PARABOLA :
If the angle 𝛼 is equal to 𝜃 i.e., when the section plane C-C is parallel to the slant side
of the cone the curve at the section is a parabola. This is not a closed figure like circle or
ellipse. The size of the parabola depends upon the distance of the section plane from the slant
 side of the cone.

4.1.4 HYPERBOLA:
If the angle 𝛼 is less than 𝜃 (section plane D-D), the curve at the section is hyperbola.
The curve of intersection is hyperbola, even if 𝛼 = 𝜃, provided the section plane is not passing
through the apex of the cone. However if the section plane passes through the apex, the
section produced is an isosceles triangle.

Fig 4.2

Fig 4.3
4.2 SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
4.2.1 Major axis : It is the longest distance which passes through the centre, at right angle to the
fixed lines called the directrix. AB is the major axis.
4.2.2 Minor axis : It is the maximum distance which bisects the major axis at right angle. It will be
parallel to the directrix. CD is the minor axis.

SCTE&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing” Page 37

4.2.3 Directrix : It is a straight line perpendicular to the major axis.
4.2.4 Focus: When an arc is drawn with C or D as centre and radius equal to half of the major axis
i.e. AB/2 it is cut at two points F1and F2on the major axis. F1and F2are the focal points of an
ellipse F1 or F2 is the focus. The sum of the distances from F1, F2 to any point on the curve i.e.,
F1P+ F2P is always constant and equal to the major axis.

4.2.5 Focal radii : The distances from point P on the curve to the focal points F1and F2 are called
focal radii. Sum of the focal radii is equal to the major axis.
4.2.6 Eccentricity: The ratio between the distances from the vertex to focus and vertex to the
directrix is called the eccentricity.
a. If e=1, it is parabola
b. If e>1, it is hyperbola
c. If e<1, it is an ellipse
4.2.7 Vertex : The end points of the major axis on the curve are called vertex. (A, B)
4.2.8 Tangent and normal to an ellipse : Normal is the line bisecting the angle F1 P F2 in Fig 4.

Tangent is a line at 90° to the normal and touching the ellipse.

Directrix, axis, focus, vertex and tangent are the elements common to ellipse, parabola and
hyperbola.

Fig 4.4
Q. No. 1.
To draw a parabola with the distance of the focus from the directrix at 60mm (Eccentricity method)
Construction :
Draw the directrix AB and the axis CC‟ at right angles to it:
Mark the focus F on the axis at 60 mm.
Locate the vertex V on CC‟ such that CV = VF
Draw a line VB perpendicular to CC‟ such that VB = VF
Join C, B and extend. Now, VF / VC = 1, the eccentricity.
Locate number of points 1, 2, 3, ….., on VC‟ and erect perpendiculars through them meeting
CB produced at 1',2',3'…..
With F as a centre and radius equal to 1-1‟ cut two arcs on the perpendicular through 1 to
locate P1 and P1‟. Similarly with F as center and radius 2-2‟, 3-3‟ etc cut arcs on the
corresponding perpendiculars to locate P2 and P2‟, P3 and P3‟ etc.
Draw a smooth curve passing through V,P1, P2, P3….P3‟,P2‟,P1‟.

Fig 4.5
All dimensions are in mm
 To draw a normal and tangent through a point 40mm from the directrix.
To draw a tangent and normal to the parabola. locate the point P which is at 40 mm from the
directrix. Then join P to F and draw a line through F, perpendicular to PF to meet the directrix at T.
The line joining T and P and extended is the tangent and a line NN, through P and perpendicular to
TP is the normal to the curve.
Q. No. 2.
To draw an ellipse with the distance of the focus from the directrix at 50mm and eccentricity = 2/3
(Eccentricity method).
Construction :
1. Draw any vertical line AB as directrix and mark appoint C on it.
2. Draw a horizontal line CD of any length from point C as axis.
3. Mark a point F on line CD at 50mm from C.
4. Divide CF in 5 equal divisions.
5. Mark V on 2nd division from F.
6. Draw a perpendicular on V and mark a point E on it at a distance equal to VF.
7. Join CE and extend it.
8. Mark points 1,2,3…..on CF beyond V at uniform distance and draw perpendiculars on each of them
so as to intersect extended CE at 1‟,2‟,3‟………..
 Fig 4.6
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 3.
To draw a hyperbola with the distance of the focus from the directrix at 50mm and e=3/2
(Eccentricity method).
Construction :
1. Draw the directrix AB and the axis CC‟.
2. Mark the focus F on CC‟ and 50mm from C.
3. Divide CF into 5 equal divisions and mark V the vertex, on the second division from C.
4. Draw a line VE perpendicular to CC‟ such that VE=VF. Join C and E.
5. Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw a perpendicular to meet CE produced at1'.
6. With centre F and radius equal to 1-1', draw arcs intersecting the perpendicular through 1 at P1 and
P1'.
Similarly mark a number of points 2, 3 etc and obtain points P2 and P2',etc.

Fig 4.7 All dimensions are in mm

Q. No. 4.
Construct an ellipse by concentric circle method. Major axis 80 mm. Minor axis 40 mm.
Construction :
1. Draw the major axis AB(80mm) and minor ax is CD (60mm),bisecting at right angle at 0.
2. CD (60mm), bisecting at right angle at 0.
3. '0' as centre OA and OC as radius, draw two concentric circles.
4. Draw a number of radial lines through '0' (say12) cutting the two circles.
5. Mark the points on the outer circle as a, b, c.
6. Similarly mark the corresponding intersecting points on inner circle as a', b', c'.
7. From points such as a, b, c...draw lines parallel to minor axis.
8. From points such as a', b', c' draw lines parallel to the major axis to intersect with the corresponding
vertical lines at points P1,P2,P3 etc.
9. Join all these points with a smooth curve by free hand or using "French curve" and form the
ellipse.

Fig 4.8
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 5.
The foci of an ellipse are 90 mm apart and its minor axis is 65 mm. Find major axis and construct
ellipse by arcs of circle method.
Construction :

Fig 4.9

All dimensions are in mm

1. Draw a horizontal line. Mark FI and F2 such that distance between F1 and F2 is 90 mm (Focal
distance). Mark midpoint of F1-F2 as „O‟.
2. Draw vertical line through „O‟ and mark MN (minor axis = 65mm) such that OM = ON = 32.5 mm.
3. We know MF1 = OV1 = OV2. Take distance in compass equal to MF1 and mark points V1 and V2
by taking center as „O‟. V1-V2 is major axis.
4. Mark 4 to 5 points randomly between F1 and O. Name the points as 1, 2, 3, 4.
5. Take distance in compass equal to V1-1 and by taking center F1 mark arcs above and below the
major axis. With same distance and taking center F2 mark arcs above and below the major axis.
6. Take distance in compass equal to V2-1 and by taking center F1 mark arcs to cut previous arcs.
With same distance and taking center F2 mark arcs to cut previous arcs.
7. Repeat the procedure for all remaining points 2, 3, 4 and also for „O‟.
8. Draw a smooth curve passing through all points and end of major axis.
Q. No. 6.
Draw a parabolic arc with a span of 1000 mm and a rise of 800 mm. Use the rectangular method.
Construction :
1. Draw an enclosing rectangle ABCD with base AB = 1000 mm and height BC = 800 mm using a
suitable scale;
2. At its mid-point E, draw the axis EF at right angle to AB;
3. Divide AE and AD into the same of equal parts and label them, say 1, 2, 3 and 1‟, 2‟, 3‟ etc;
4. Draw lines joining F with points 1, 2 and 3. Through 1‟, 2‟, and 3‟, draw perpendiculars to AB
intersecting F1, F2 and F3 at points P1, P2 and P3 respectively;
5. Draw a curve through A, P1, P2 etc. It will be a half parabola.
Repeat the same construction in the other half of the rectangle to complete the parabola. Or, locate
the points by drawing lines through the points P1, P2 etc. parallel to the base and making each of them of
equal length on both the sides of EF, e.g. P1O = O P1‟. AB and EF are called the base and the axis
respectively of the parabola. See Fig. given below.

Fig 4.10
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 7.
To draw a parabola using the tangent method with 70 mm as base and 30 mm as the length of the
axis.
Construction :
1. Draw the base AB and locate its mid-point C.
2. Through C, draw CD perpendicular to AB forming the axis
3. Produce CD to E such that DE = CD
4. Join E-A and E-B. These are the tangents to the parabola at A and B.
5. Divide AE and BE into the same number of equal parts and number the points as shown.
6. Join 1-1', 2-2', 3-3', etc., forming the tangents to the required parabola.
7. A smooth curve passing through A, D and B and tangential to the above lines is the required
parabola.

Fig 4.11
All dimensions are in mm
 EXERCISES

1. Construct a conic when the distance of its focus from the directrix is equal to 50 mm and its eccentricity
is 3/4. Measure its major and minor axes. Draw a tangent at any point on the curve. What is the
distance between the foci.
2. The major and minor axes of an ellipse are 8O mm and 50 mm respectively. Construct the curve.
3. Draw an ellipse whose major and minor diameters are 150 mm and 100 mm respectively. Use
concentric circle method.
4. Draw a parabola whose focus is at a distance of 50 mm from the directrix. Draw a tangent and normal
at any point on it.
5. Construct a parabola if the distance between its focus and directrix is 60 mm. Also draw a tangent to
the curve.
6. Construct an ellipse with major axis and minor axis measuring 120 mm & 70 mm respectively by
rectangular or box method.
7. Construct an ellipse, with a distance of the focus from the directrix as 60 mm and eccentricity as 2/3.
Also draw normal and tangent to the curve at a point 40 mm from the directrix.
8. Construct a parabola whose base is 90 mm and axis is 80 mm using the following methods:
a. Rectangular method
b. Tangent method
 CHAPTER – 5
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

5.1 PRINCIPLES OF FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION AND THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

5.1.1 INTRODUCTION
A projection may be defined as a representation of an object on a two dimensional plane. It is
obtained by drawing straight lines from various on the contour of an object is said to be projected on
that plane. The figure formed by joining in correct sequence, the points at which these lines meet the
plane is called the projection of the object. The lines which are drawn from the object to the plane are
called projectors. Following are the elements to be considered while obtaining a projection.
a. Object
b. Plane of projection
c. Point of sight
d. Rays of sight
5.1.2 TYPES OF PROJECTION
Following are the methods of projection are commonly used in engineering practice.
a. Orthographic projection
b. Isometric projection
c. Oblique projection
d. Perspective projection
5.1.3 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Orthographic Projections is a technical drawing in which different views of an object
are projected on different reference planes observing perpendicular to respective reference
plane.
5.1.4 DEFINITION OF SOME TERMS IN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
i. Horizontal Plane (H.P) : It is the plane which is horizontal and at right angle to the vertical
plane. The top view or plan of the object is projected on this plane. It is generally denoted
in short form as H.P.
ii. Vertical plane (V.P): It is the plane which is perpendicular to the horizontal plane and is
also known as frontal plane because the front view or elevation of the object is projected
on this plane. It is generally denoted by V.P. The V.P and H.P. are called principal planes.
iii. Auxiliary plane (A.P) : Any other plane which is placed at any angles to te principal plane
i.e. H.P. and V.P. is called auxiliary plane.
iv. Reference line: The line of intersection of two principal planes of projection i.e. V.P and
H.P. is called reference or ground or intersection line. It is generally denoted by X-Y line.
 v. Elevation : The projection of the object on the vertical plane (V.P) is called elevation or
Front View (F.V). Front View of the object is taken while looking at the object from its front.
vi. Plan : Plan or top view (T.V) of the object is taken while looking at the object from it‟s top.
The plan or top view is projected on the horizontal Plane (H.P).
vii. Side view or End View : Projection of the object on an auxiliary plane (A.P) or auxiliary
vertical plane (AVP) is known as side view or end view or profile view or side elevation.
viii. Auxiliary View : The projection of the object on an auxiliary plane is known as auxiliary
view (A.V).
5.1.5 FOUR QUADRANTS
The object may be situated in any of the four quadrants , its position relative to the
planes being described as above or below the H.P and in front of or behind the V.P. In INDIA
generally the first angle projection is adopted for drawing works but in countries like U.S.A,
Canada, U.K etc third angle projection is adopted for normal drawing work .
The position of the object placed in any of the
quadrant is described as under in Fig 5.1
Object placed in 1st Quadrant: Above H.P and in front of V.P.
Object placed in 2nd Quadrant: Above H.P and behind V.P.
Object placed in 3rd Quadrant: Below H.P and behind V.P.
Object placed in 4th Quadrant : Below H.P and infront of V.P. Fig 5.1
5.1.6 FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION :
If the object is situated in the first quadrant i.e above H.P and in front of V.P. , the projection of
the object so obtained is known as First Angle projection. Symbol of the First Angle projection
is denoted by Fig 5.2.

Fig 5.2
5.1.7 THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION :
If the object is situated in the third quadrant i.e below H.P and in behind V.P. The projection of
the object so obtained is known as third Angle projection. Symbol of the Third Angle projection
is denoted by Fig 5.3

Fig 5.3
5.2 PROJECTION OF POINTS :
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION
A point may be defined as a line having zero length or it also may be defined as a
circle having zero diameter. It has no size and dimensions.
5.2.2 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Q. No. 1.
Draw the orthographic projections of the Point P which is 30 mm above H.P and 40 mm in front of
V.P.
Solution :
i. As the point is above H.P. and in front of V.P.; so it is in 1st quadrant.
ii. Draw a line XY (Reference Line) which is the intersection line of HP and VP.
iii. As „P‟ is 30mm above H.P.‟, its front view “p” is 30 mm XY.
iv. „P‟ is 40 mm in front of VP , its top view „p‟ is 40 mm from XY.
v. Draw the projector pp‟ as shown in figure.

Fig 5.4
All dimensions are in mm

NOTE : Front view of the points are denoted by small letters with an apostrophic symbol and top views are
specified by small letters only. For e.g. for a point A in space the front view and top view are represented
by a‟ and a respectively.
Q. No. 2.
Draw the orthographic projections of the Point Q which is 25 mm above H.P and 35 mm behind VP
Solution :
i. As the point is above H.P. and behind V.P.; so it is in 2nd quadrant.
ii. Here both the views ( top and front) will be obtained above the reference line XY, Hence the H.P.
will coincide with V.P.
iii. Draw a reference line XY. Mark a point „q‟ 25mm above XY which is the front view and another
point „q‟ 35mm from XY which is the top view as shown in figure.

Fig 5.5
All dimensions are in mm

Q. No. 3.
Draw the orthographic projections of the Point R is 32 mm. below H.P and 45 mm behind VP
Solution :
i. As the point is below H.P. and behind V.P.; so it is in 3rd quadrant.
ii. Here the front and top view will be obtained on VP and HP assuming VP is transparent.
iii. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the front view at a distance 32 mm below XY and top view at a
distance 45 mm above XY as shown.

Fig 5.6 All dimensions are in mm

Q. No. 4.
Draw the orthographic projections of the Point S is 35 mm. below H.P and 42 mm in front of VP
Solution :
i. As the point is below H.P. and in front of V.P.; so it is in 4th quadrant.
ii. Here both the views will be lie below the reference line as the H.P. coincides with V.P as shown.
iii. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the front view and top view at a distance of 20mm and 30 mm
respectively from XY on the same projector.

Fig 5.7
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 5.
Draw the orthographic projections of the Point T is in H.P and 30 mm behind VP

Solution :
i. As the point is in H.P. and behind V.P.; so it is in H.P.
ii. Here side view will be on VP and top view 30mm behind VP.
iii. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the front view at any point on XY and top view at a distance of 30
mm from XY on the same projector.

Fig 5.8
All dimensions are in mm
[Link]. 6.
Draw the orthographic projections of the Point U is in V.P and 40 mm. below HP
Solution :
i. As the point is in V.P. and below H.P.; so it is in V.P.
ii. Here side view will be on VP and top view 40 mm. below HP.
iii. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the top view at any point on XY and side view at a distance of 40
mm from XY on the same projector.

Fig 5.9
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 7.
Draw the orthographic projections of the Point V is in V.P and 35 mm. above H.P
Solution :
i. As the point is in V.P. and above H.P.; so it is in V.P.
ii. Here side view will be on VP and top view on HP.
iii. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the top view at any point on XY and side view at a distance of 35
mm from XY as shown in fig 5.10.

Fig 5.10
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 8.
Draw the orthographic projections of the Point W is in H.P and 48 mm. in front of VP
Solution :
i. As the point is in H.P. and 48mm in front of V.P.; so it is in H.P.
ii. Here side view will be on VP and top view on HP.
iii. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the side view at any point on XY and top view at a distance of 48
mm from XY as shown in fig 5.11.

Fig 5.11
All dimensions are in mm
5.3 PROJECTION OF LINES :
5.3.1 INTRODUCTION
A straight line may be defined as the shortest distance between any two points. It may
be generated by a point moving in one direction.

5.3.2 SOLVED PROBLEMS

Q. No. 1.
A 50mm long line AB is parallel to both H.P and V.P. The line is 25mm in front of V.P and 60mm
above H.P, draw the projections of the line.
Solution :
i. Draw reference axis XY.
ii. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e a‟ at a distance of 60mm above XY and “a” at
25mm below XY.
iii. Through a‟ and a draw lines a‟b‟ and ab parallel to XY of its true length 50mm.
iv. a‟b‟ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively.

60

25

Fig 5.12
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 2.
A 60mm long line AB has its end A at a distance of 20mm above the H.P. The line is perpendicular
to the H.P and 40mm in front of V.P, draw the projections of the line.
Solution :
i. Draw reference axis XY.
ii. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e a‟ at a distance of 20mm above XY and top view
“a” at 40 mm below XY.
iii. Through a‟ and a draw lines a‟b‟ of its true length 60mm. Point “a” will coincide with point “b” in its
top view.
iv. a‟b‟ and (a)b are the front view and top view of line AB respectively. Since point “a” is hidden, it is
represented in brackets.

20

40

Fig 5.13
All dimensions are in mm

Q. No. 3.
A 60mm long line AB, has its end A at a distance of 20mm in front of the V.P. the line is
perpendicular to V.P and 40mm above H.P, draw the projection of the line.
Solution :
i. Draw reference axis XY.
ii. Mark the side view of the point B of the line AB i.e b‟ at a distance of 40mm above XY and top view
“a” at 20mm below XY.
iii. Through “a” draw line ab of its true length 60mm in the direction perpendicular to XY. Point a‟ will
coincide with point b‟ in its side view.
iv. (a‟)b‟ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively. Since point a‟ is hidden, it is
represented in brackets.
 40

20

Fig 5.14
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 4.
A 80 mm long line AB has the end A at a distance of 20 mm above HP and 40mm in front of V.P. The line
is inclined at 300 to H.P and parallel to V.P, draw the projection of the line.
Solution :
i. Draw reference axis XY.
ii. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e. a‟ at a distance of 20mm above XY and top view
“a” at 40 mm below XY.
iii. Through “a” draw line ab of its true length 80mm parallel to XY and through a‟ draw line a‟b‟ at an
inclination of 300 to XY.
iv. a‟b‟ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively.
 20

40

Fig 5.15
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 5.
A 80mm long line AB is inclined at 300 to V.P and is parallel to H.P. The end A is 20mm
above the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P, draw the projection of the line.
Solution :
i. Draw reference axis XY.
ii. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e a‟ at a distance of 20mm above XY and top view
“a” at 20 mm below XY.
iii. Through “a” draw line ab of its true length 80mm at an inclination of 30 0 to XY and through a‟ draw
line a‟b‟ parallel to XY.
iv. a‟b‟ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively.

20

20

Fig 5.16 All dimensions are in mm

Q. No. 6.
A 70mm long line AB has an end A at 20 mm above H.P and 30 mm in front of V.P. The line
is inclined at 450 to the H.P and 300 to V.P, draw the projections.
Solution :
i. Draw reference axis XY.
ii. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e a‟ at a distance of 20mm above XY and top view
“a” at 30 mm below XY.
iii. Through “a” draw line ab of its true length 70mm at an inclination of 300 to XY and through a‟ draw
line a‟b‟ of it‟s true length 70mm at an inclination of 450 to XY.
iv. a‟b‟ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively

20

30

Fig 5.17
All dimensions are in mm
5.4 PROJECTION OF PLANES:
5.4.1 INTRODUCTION
A plane is at two dimensional object having length and breadth only. Its thickness is
always neglected; various shapes of plane figures are considered such as square, rectangle,
circle, pentagon, hexagon etc.

Fig 5.18

5.4.2 TYPES OF PLANES :

1. Perpendicular planes which have their surface perpendicular to anyone of the
reference planes and parallel or inclined to the other reference plane.
2. Oblique planes which have their surface inclined to both the reference planes.
5.4.3 TRACE OF PLANE :
The trace of a plane is the line of intersection or meeting of the plane surface with the
reference plane; if necessary the plane surface is extended to intersect the reference plane.
The intersection line of the plane surface with HP is called the Horizontal Trace (HT) and that
of VP is called the Vertical Trace (VT).
A plane figure is positioned with reference to the reference planes by referring its
surface in the following possible position.
5.4.4 PROBLEMS :
Q. No. 1 : A Square plane with a 40mm side has its surface parallel to and 20mm above the HP. Draw its
Projections, when (a) A side is parallel to VP (b) A side is inclined at 300 to VP
Solution :
Visualized position of surface plane Picture:

Fig 5.19
i. Draw a square abcd of side 40mm such that one of its sides say ad is parallel to XY.
ii. Draw projectors from the points a & d.
iii. Locate the points a‟b‟ at 20mm above XY.
iv. Draw a line through a‟ and parallel to XY intercepting the projector through d at c‟d‟. a‟b‟c‟d‟ & abcd
are the required projections.
v. Similarly draw the projection of the point abcd when two of it‟s sides are inclined at 300 to VP.

Fig 5.20 All dimensions are in mm

Q. No. 2. A Hexagonal plane with a 30mm side has an edge on the HP, the surface of the Plane is
inclined at 450 to the HP. Draw it‟s Projections.
Solution : Visualized position of surface plane Picture:

Fig 5.21
i. Draw the reference axis XY and then draw the regular hexagon a‟b‟c‟d‟e‟f‟ in elevation such that
one of its side a‟b‟ is perpendicular to the reference axis.
ii. Draw the top view abcdef below XY and parallel to it.
iii. Draw the plan in changed position a1(b1) f1 (c1) e1 (d1) so that it makes 450 with XY line and has the
point a1 15mm away from XY.
iv. Complete the corresponding new elevation a1‟b1‟c1‟d1‟e1‟f1‟ by projecting from this plane and
projecting horizontally from the previous elevation.

Fig 5.22 All dimensions are in mm

Q. No. 3. A Circular plane with a 60mm Diameter is resting on a point it‟s circumference on the VP. The
center is 50 mm above the HP , and The surface is inclined at 450 to the VP. And perpendicular to the HP
Draw It‟s Projections.
Solution :
i. Draw the projection of the circle assuming it to be lying on VP and it‟s centre is 50mm above HP.
ii. Divide the circumference of the circle into 12 equal parts and name them as shown and transfer the
division points on the top view.
iii. Redraw the Top view such that it makes an angle of 450 with XY and one end of it lies on XY
forming the final Top view.
iv. Obtain the final front view by projection.

Fig 5.23
All dimensions are in mm

SCTE&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing” Page 63

Q. No. 4. A regular pentagon ABCDE, of side 25 mm side has its side BC on ground. Its plane is
perpendicular to H.P and inclined at 45° to the V.P. Draw the projections of the pentagon and show its
traces when its corner nearest to VP is 15 mm from it.
Solution :
i. As the plane makes an angle 450 to VP , so let‟s assume that the plane parallel to VP with one of its
side say d‟c‟ on HP.
ii. The true shape of pentagon having side 25mm will be seen in the front view with one side on HP.
a‟b‟c‟d‟e‟ the required pentagon.
iii. The top view of the pentagon will be a line. Project the points. Draw the line eb at a distance 15mm
from XY below it.
iv. Shift the top view eb to e1b1 of equal length making at an angle of 450 to VP as shown.
v. Project the final front view a1‟b1‟c1‟d1‟e1‟as shown.

Fig 5.24
All dimensions are in mm
5.5 PROJECTION OF SOLIDS
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION :
A solid has three dimensions, the length, breadth and thickness or height. A solid may be represented
by orthographic views, the number of which depends on the type of solid and its orientation with respect to
the planes of projection. Solids are classified into two major groups.
i. Polyhedral
ii. Solids of revolution
Polyhedral
A polyhedral is defined as a solid bounded by plane surfaces called faces. They are:
a. Regular polyhedral
b. Prisms
c. Pyramids
Regular Polyhedral
A polyhedron is said to be regular if its surfaces are regular polygons. The following are some
of the regular polyhedral.
5.5.2 SOLIDS
Prisms : A prism is a polyhedron having two equal ends called the bases parallel to each other. The
two bases are joined by faces, which are rectangular in shape. The imaginary line passing through
the centers of the bases is called the axis of the prism.
A prism is named after the shape of its base. For example, a prism with square base is called
a square prism, the one with a pentagonal base is called a pentagonal prism, and so on. The
nomenclature of the prism is given in Fig 5.25.
a. Tetrahedron: It consists of four equal faces, each one being a equilateral triangle.
b. Hexahedron (cube): It consists of six equal faces, each as square.
c. Octahedron: It has eight equal faces, each an equilateral triangle.
d. Dodecahedron: It has twelve regular and equal pentagonal faces.
e. Icosahedrons: It has twenty equal, equilateral triangular faces.
Pyramids : A pyramid is a polyhedron having one base, with a number of isosceles triangular
faces, meeting at a point called the apex. The imaginary line passing through the centre of the
base and the apex is called the axis of the pyramid.
The pyramid is named after the shape of the base. Thus, a square pyramid has a square base and
pentagonal pyramid has pentagonal base and so on. The nomenclature of a pyramid is shown in Fig 5.26.
Types of Pyramids :
There are many types of Pyramids, and they are named after the shape of their base. These are Triangular
Pyramid, Square Pyramid, Pentagonal pyramid, hexagonal pyramid and tetrahedron.
Solids of Revolution : If a plane surface is revolved about one of its edges, the solid generated is
called a solid of revolution. The examples are (i) Cylinder, (ii) Cone, (iii) Sphere.
Frustums and Truncated Solids : If a cone or pyramid is cut by a section plane parallel to its base and
the portion containing the apex or vertex is removed, the remaining portion is called frustum of a cone or
pyramid.
 5.5.3 PROBLEMS
Q. No 1. Draw the projections of a cube of 35mm side, resting on one of its faces (bases) on HP., such
that one of its vertical faces is parallel to and 10mm in front of VP.
Solution :
1. Draw the top view such that one of its edges is 10mm below XY.
2. Obtain the front view by projection, keeping one of its bases on XY.

Fig 5.27
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 2. A triangular prism with side of base 35mm and axis 50mm long is resting on its base on HP.
Draw the projections of the prism when one of its rectangular faces is perpendicular to VP and the nearest
edge parallel to VP is 10mm from it.
Solution :
Draw the top view keeping one edge perpendicular to XY and one corner at 10mm from XY.
Obtain the front view by projection, keeping the height equal to 50mm.

Fig 5.28
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 3. A pentagonal prism with side of base 30mm and axis 60mm long is resting on its base on HP
such that one of its rectangular faces is parallel to VP and 15mm away from it. Draw the projections of the
prism.
1. Draw the top view keeping one edge of the base parallel to XY and 15mm away from it.
2. Obtain the front view by projection keeping the height equal to 60mm.

Fig 5.29
All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 4.
A cylinder of base 60mm diameter and axis 100 mm long is resting on its base on the HP. The axis
of the cylinder is 40mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections of the cylinder.
Solution :
i. As the axis of the cylinder perpendicular to H.P, the top view must drawn first and then the front
view will be projected from it.
ii. Draw a circle of diameter 60mm, representing the top view of the cylinder from a distance of 40mm
from the XY.
iii. From top view project the front view which is a rectangle of height 100mm, its base coincide with
XY as shown.

Fig 5.30
 All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 5. Draw the projection of the right circular cone of base 80mm diameter and height 90mm resting
with it‟s base on H.P. and 50mm in front of V.P.
Solution :
i. The top view gives the true size of the base, so the top view is draw first.
ii. Draw the circle of about 80mm dia in a such a way that its axis is 50 below XY.
iii. Project the front view from top view as shown.

Fig 5.31
 All dimensions are in mm
Q. No. 6.
Draw the projection of a right regular pentagonal pyramid of 30mm base and axis 70mm long is
50mm in front of V.P. The pyramid is resting on the H.P with one edge of the base perpendicular to the
V.P.
Solution :
i. As the pyramid is resting with base on H.P having axis perpendicular to the H.P, draw the top view
of the pyramid keeping the axis 50mm in front of V.P. and edge perpendicular to the V.P.
ii. Draw the pentagon 12345 of side 30mm.
iii. Project the front view having height of the axis 70mm as shown.

Fig 5.32
 All dimensions are in mm
EXERCISES

1. A line PS 65mm has its end P 15mm above the HP and 15mm in front of the VP. It is inclined at 550 to
the HP and 350 to the VP. Draw its projections.
2. A line CD, inclined at 250 to the HP, measures 80mm in top view. The end C is in the first quadrant
and 25mm and 15mm from the HP and the VP respectively. The end D is at equal distance from
the both the reference planes. Draw the projections, fine true length and true inclination with the VP.
3. A straight line ST has its end S, 10mm in front of the VP and nearer to it. The mid-point M line is 50mm
in front of the VP and 40mm above HP. The front and top view measure 90mm and 120mm
respectively. Draw the projection of the line. Also find its true length and true inclinations with the HP
and VP.
4. A line PQ has its end P, 10mm above the HP and 20mm in front of the VP. The end Q is 85mm in front
of the VP. The front view of the line measures 75mm. the distance between the end projectors is
50mm. Draw the projections of the line and find its true length and its true inclinations with the VP and
HP.
5. The plan of straight line PQ 85 mm long measures 70 mm while its elevation measures 55 mm. Its end
P is in the HP and 20 mm in front of VP. Draw its projections and find the angle of inclination of the line
with HP & VP.
6. A regular hexagonal plate of side 45mm lies on H.P with one of its side perpendicular to V.P . The plate
is lying 25mm in front of V.P and inclined 45° to H.P. Draw the projections of the plate .
7. A regular pentagonal lamina ABCDE of 25 mm side has one side on the HP. Its surface is inclined at
450 to the HP and perpendicular to VP. Draw its projections.
8. A pentagon of sides 30mm rests on the ground on one of its corners with the sides containing the
corners being equally inclined to the ground. The side opposite to the corner on which it rests is inclined
at 300 to the VP and is parallel to the HP. The surface of the pentagon makes 10 0 with the ground.
Draw the top and front views of the pentagon.
9. A regular pentagon of 30mm side is resting on one of its edges on HP which is inclined at 450 to VP. Its
surface is inclined at 300 to HP. Draw its projections.
10. Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25mm side, having one of its sides in the H.P. and
inclined at 600 to the V.P., and its surface making an angle of 450 with H.P.
11. A thin circular plate of 40mm diameter having its plane vertical and inclined at 400. Its center is 30mm
above H.P. and 35mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections.
12. A cone of base diameter 40 mm and axis height 60 mm rests on the ground on a point of its base circle
such that the axis of the cone is inclined at 400 to the HP and 300 to the VP. Draw its front and top
views.
 CHAPTER-6
SECTION & DEVELOPMENTS
6.1 SECTIONING & DEVELOPMENT OF SOLID :
 An object (solid) is cut by some imaginary cutting plane to understand internal details of that
object. The action of cutting is called sectioning a solid & the plane of cutting is called section
plane.
 The development of surface of an object means the unrolling and unfolding of all surfaces of the
object on a plane. If the surface of a solid is laid out on a plain surface, the shape thus obtained is
called the development of that solid.
6.1.1 SECTION PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE V.P. AND INCLINED TO THE H.P. :

Fig 6.1
6.1.2 SECTION PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE H.P. AND INCLINED TO THE V.P. :

VP = VERTICAL PLANE HP = HORIZONTAL PLANE

 Fig 6.2

(TV=TOP VIEW, FV=FRONT VIEW)

Fig 6.3
 Fig 6.4
6.2 SHAPE OF THE CUTTING SECTIONS
6.2.1 SECTIONAL PROJECTION OF PRISM
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Q. No. 1. Draw the front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section of a hexagonal prism of
side 40 mm and 80 mm high lying on HP with a nearest side parallel to VP and 30 mm in front of it. It is cut
by a plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP at an angle 450 passing through a point on the axis 50
mm above the base.
Solution :
i. Draw the top view and front view of the hexagonal prism of base 40mm and axis 80mm.
ii. Mark the point on the axis 50mm above the base and draw a cutting plane line through this point
inclined at an angle 450 to HP.
iii. Mark the numbering and point of intersection in front view and top view and transfer these points in
the section plan and draw section lines in the cut portion in the top view.
iv. Project the projection at right angle to the cutting plane line from the interacting points and complete
the true shape. Take distances equal to the corresponding distances on the plan and join the point
and complete the true shape by drawing section lines.

Fig 6.5
 6.2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF PRISM
Q. No. 2. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the hexagonal cut prism of base 40 mm and axis
80 mm is resting on HP in such a way that a rectangular face is parallel to VP. The section plane is
perpendicular to VP and inclined at 300 to HP and passing through the top end of an extreme lateral edge
of the prism.
Solution :
1. Draw the top and front view of prism from given data.
2. Draw the full stretched portion of length 240 mm. (6 x 40 mm).
3. Draw the section plane as per condition provided and do the proper nomenclature.
4. Project the points from front view to the full stretched portion and draw the development of the
section.

Fig 6.6
 6.2.3 SECTIONAL PROJECTION OF CYLINDER
Q. No. 3. A cylinder 80 mm diameter and 90 mm long is resting on its base on ground. It is cut by a
section perpendicular to VP. The VP of which cuts the axis at a point 45 mm from the base and makes an
angle 450 to HP. Draw the sectional front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
Solution :
1. Draw the top view and front view of the cylinder with 80 mm diameter and 90 mm long.
2. Draw a section plane in such a way that it cuts the axis of the cylinder in front view at a distance 45
mm base and makes 450 to HP.
3. Draw the projection for sectional top view and true sectional view as shown below.

Fig 6.7
 6.2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF CYLINDER
Q. No. 4. A right cylinder of 50mm diameter and 65 mm height is resting on its base on HP. It is cut by a
section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 450 to HP in such a way that it passes through the top
end of an extreme generator of the cylinder. Draw the development of the truncated cylinder.
Solution :
i. Draw the top view and front view of the cylinder.
ii. Divide the circumference into 12 equal parts and locate the corresponding generators in the front
view.
iii. Draw the stretch out of the cylinder length and height.
iv. Now the front view is cut by a section plane as per the given condition in the question as shown.
v. Divide the stretch out and project the lines from the front view and complete the development as
shown.

Fig 6.8
 6.2.5 SECTIONAL PROJECTION OF CONE :
Q. No. 5. A right circular cone of base diameter 60 mm and axis 70 mm is resting on H.P. Itis cut by
section plane which makes an angle 600 to V.P. and passing through the point 15 mm from axis. Draw
sectional front view, top view, and true shape of section.

Fig 6.9
 6.2.6 DEVELOPMENT OF CONE
Q. No. 6. A cone of base 60 mm dia. And height 70mm rests with its base on HP. A section plane
perpendicular to VP and inclined at 300 to HP bisects the axis of the cone. Draw the development of the
lateral surface of the truncated cone.
Solution :
i. Draw the front view and top view of the cone of dia 60mm and height 70mm.
ii. Now divide the top view i.e a circle into 12 equal no. of parts and name it.
iii. Development of the cone is a sector of a circle of radius equal to the true length of slant height. The
length of the arc is equal to the circumference of the base circle πD and the angle subtended at the
centre (ϴ).
ϴ= 3600 x Radius of base circle i.e. ϴ = 3600 x (r/l)
Slant height
iv. Divide the arc in 12 parts and name accordingly.
v. Draw the section plane at 30o to XY in such a way that bisecting the axis in front view.
vi. Project the cutting plane as shown and complete the development.

Fig 6.10
 6.2.7 SECTIONAL PROJECTION OF PYRAMID
Q. No. 7. A hexagonal pyramid of side of base 40 mm and axis 75 mm long is resting on its base at HP
with two edges parallel to the VP. It is cut by a section plane inclined at 450 to HP and passing through the
axis at 30 mm from the base. Draw the projections of solid and show the true shape of the section.
Solution :
i. Draw the top view and front view of hexagonal pyramid of base 40 mm and axis 75 mm long resting
on its base on HP.
ii. Draw the section plane inclined at 450 to XY and passing through a point on the axis in such a way
that it passes 30mm from the base.
iii. Locate the points of intersection between the section plane and edges of the pyramid.
iv. Project and locate these points on the corresponding edges in the top view. Join the points in the
order by straight lines and complete the sectional top view.
v. To obtain the true shape of the section draw the reference line X‟Y‟ (auxiliary axis) parallel to the
section plane.
vi. Project the points through X‟Y‟ and obtain the true shape of the section as shown.

Fig 6.11
 6.2.8 DEVELOPMENT OF PYRAMID :
Q. No. 8. A right regular pentagonal pyramid, edge of base 30 mm and height 60 mm is resting on its base
in HP with axis parallel to VP. Two of its base edges are equally inclined to the VP. The pyramid is cut by a
section plane at an angle of 450 to HP and 10 mm away from base on the edge of the corner. Draw the
development of the surface.
Solution :
i. Draw the top view and front view as per given condition.
ii. Draw a section plane inclined 450 to HP, leaving a vertical distance of 10mm from its base and
name the parts.
iii. Draw the development of lateral surfaces.
iv. Draw an arc with radius equal to the true length of the edge in the front view.
v. In the front view project the points on the true length and name the points and make the distance
from the apex and transfer the distances on the development surface as shown.

Fig 6.12
 EXERCISES

1. A hexagonal prism of base of side 40 mm and axis length 80 mm rests on one of its base edges
on the HP. The end containing that edge is inclined at 300 to the HP and the axis is parallel to
VP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the VP and parallel to the HP. The cutting plane bisects
the axis. Draw its front and the sectional top views.
2. A square pyramid of base side 30 mm and altitude 50 mm lies on one of its triangular faces on
the HP with its axis parallel to the VP. It is cut by a vertical plane inclined at 300 to the VP and
meeting the axis at 40 mm from the vertex measured in the plan. Draw the top view, sectional
front view and the true shape of the section.
3. A Hexagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and height 60 mm rests vertically on its base on the
ground with two of its base sides parallel to VP. It is cut by a sectional plane inclined at 30° to
HP and perpendicular to VP and meeting the axis at the midpoint. Draw the development of the
lateral surfaces of a truncated pyramid.
4. Draw the development of the lateral surfaces of the hexagonal cut Prism of base 40mm axis 80
mm is resting on H.P in such a way that a rectangular face is parallel to V.P. The section plane
is perpendicular to VP and inclined at 30° to H.P and passes through the top end of an extreme
lateral edge of the prism.
5. A right regular pentagonal pyramid of base 40mm and axis 80 mm is resting with its base on
H.P and one of the base of the edges of its base perpendicular to V.P. The section plane is
parallel to H.P and passing through the axis at a point 50mm above the base. Draw the front
view and sectional top view.
6. A right regular hexagonal pyramid, edge of base 30 mm and height 50 mm, rests on its base on
ground plane with one of its base edge parallel to VP. A section plane parallel to HP cuts the
pyramid bisecting its axis. Draw its front view and sectional top view.
7. A cylinder 60 mm in diameter and 70 mm long is resting on its base on ground. It is cut by a
section plane perpendicular to VP and cuts the axis at a point 45 mm from the base making an
angle of 400 to HP. Draw the sectional front view and true shape of the section.
 CHAPTER – 7

ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION :
 Isometric projection is a method for visually representing three-dimensional objects in two
dimensions.
 It is an axonometric projection in which the three coordinate axes appear equally foreshortened and
the angle between any two of them is 120°.
CONSTRUCTION OF ISOMETRIC SCALE
METHOD 1 :

Fig 7.1 (a)

 Draw a horizontal base line OC.
 Draw OB & OA which make 30 º and 45º with OM respectively.
 On line OA mark the division points as 1,2,3,4,5.... with each division as 10 mm.
 From each division points draw perpendicular to OC ,intersecting the line OB at 1‟,2‟,3‟,4‟ and so
on.
 Mark the corresponding points on OB obtaining the isometric scale.
METHOD 2 :

Fig 7.1( b)

 Draw a horizontal base line AB.

 Draw AC which make an angle 15º with base AB and draw BC which make an angle 45º with AB
respectively.
 On line AB mark the division points as 0,1,2,3,.... with each division as 10 mm.
 Draw parallel lines with BC from the points 0,1,2,3, .. , intersecting the line AC at 0‟,1‟,2‟,3‟ and so
on.
 Measure the isometric lengths on the isometric scale on the line AC.

NOTE :
ISOMETRIC VIEW : It is drawn by using full/true scale.
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION : It is drawn by using isometric scale.
ISOMETRIC VIEW & ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF PRISM WITH CONSTRUCTION OF
ISOMETRIC SCALES :
Q. No.1. A hexagonal prism having the side of base 30 mm and the height of 60 mm is resting on HP and
with an edge of the base parallel to VP. Draw its projections and also prepare the isometric view of the
prism with axis in vertical position.

STEPS :
 Draw the true scale and isometric scale as explained to represent the distance.
 Draw the top view of hexagon (a1,b2,c3,d4,e5,f6) with base 30 mm and box it by a rectangle
PQRS.
 Draw the front view of the prism with height taken as 60 mm.
 Draw the isometric view of the hexagonal prism with axis in vertical position as shown.
 For the isometric projection take base and height dimension from isometric scale.
 ISOMETRIC VIEW

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
Fig 7.2
ISOMETRIC VIEW & ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF PYRAMID WITH CONSTRUCTION OF
ISOMETRIC SCALES :
Q. No. 2. A hexagonal pyramid having the side of base 30 mm and the height of 60 mm is resting on HP
and with an edge of the base parallel to VP. Draw its projections and also prepare the isometric view of the
pyramid with axis in vertical position.
STEPS :
 Draw the true scale and isometric scale as explained to represent the distance.
 Draw the top view of hexagon (PQRSTU) with base 30 mm and box it by a rectangle ABCD.
 Draw the front view of the pyramid with height taken as 60 mm.
 Draw the isometric view of the hexagonal pyramid with axis in vertical position as shown.
 For the isometric projection take base and height dimension from isometric scale.

SCALE
Fig 7.3
ISOMETRIC VIEW & ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF CONE WITH CONSTRUCTION OF
ISOMETRIC SCALES :
[Link]. 3. A cone having the side of base 60 mm and the height of 80 mm is resting on HP. Draw its
projections and also prepare the isometric view of the cone with axis in horizontal position.
STEPS :
 Draw the true scale and isometric scale as explained to represent the distance.
 Draw the top view of cone (ABCD) with base 60 mm and box it by a rectangle PQRS.
 Draw the front view of the cone with height taken as 80 mm.
 Draw the isometric view of the cone with axis in horizontal position as shown. Use four point
method to draw circle in isometric view.
For the isometric projection take diameter and height dimension from isometric scale.
Fig 7.4
ISOMETRIC VIEW & ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF CYLINDER WITH CONSTRUCTION OF
ISOMETRIC SCALES :
[Link]. 4. A cylinder having the side of base 40 mm and the height of 70 mm is resting on HP. Draw its
projections and also prepare the isometric view of the cylinder with axis in vertical position.
STEPS :
 Draw the true scale and isometric scale as explained to represent the distance.
 Draw the top view of cylinder (PQRS) with base 40 mm and box it by a rectangle ABCD.
 Draw the front view of the cylinder with height taken as 70 mm.
 Draw the isometric view of the cylinder with axis in vertical position as shown. Use four point
method to draw circle in isometric view.
 For the isometric projection take diameter and height dimension from isometric scale.
Fig 7.5