Physics – UFP Engineering
Lab Report 1
Name: Gustavo Batista Bexiga
Student ID: 27858
Work Count: 2130
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Physics Lab Report 1
Contents Page
Title - Sections Page No
Section 1 – Aim, introduction and hypothesis. 3
Section 2 – Method
2a – Apparatus list and diagram. 3
2b– Procedure. 4
2c – Variables. 4
2d – Safety. 5
Section 3 – Results
3a – Table and Calculations 5
3b – Graph and Gradient. 6
Section 4 – Discussion
4a – Analysis of results. 6
4b – Anomalies and comparison to theory 7
4c – Evaluating errors and improvements. 8
Section 5 – Conclusion and Further Work. 8
Section 6 – References. 10
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Lab Report 1
1a. Aim, introduction, and hypothesis
The aim of the experiment described below was to calculate the acceleration due to gravity (g),
by measuring the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum. This topic is related to the topics
of mechanical physics and simple harmonic motion. Part of the former is the topic of free fall,
introduced by Galileo Galilei, who noticed that when two objects of different masses were
dropped from the same height, they reached the ground simultaneously (Erclichson, 1994, pp.
263-264). Years later, Issac Newton state (Newton, 1833, p. 34) “this force, or attracting,
gravitating power resided in every, the least particle, but that, in spherical masses, it operated
as if confined to their centres so that, one sphere or body will act upon another sphere or body,
with a force directly proportional to the quantity of matter, and inversely as the square of the
𝐺∗𝑀∗𝑚
distance between their centres”. Newton defined this force as 𝐹 = 𝑟2 , where F is the Force,
measured in Newtons (N), G is the universal gravitational constant, M and m are masses of the
𝐺∗𝑀
bodies and r is the distance between the objects. Considering that, 𝑔 = 𝑟2 , where g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Therefore the force acting on the object would be 𝑊 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔,
where W is the weight acting on the object and m is the mass of the object. By analysing the
oscillatory motion of a pendulum, it is possible to determine a quantitative measure of the
acceleration due to gravity (g). Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is the study of movement that
goes back and forth in sinusoidal form, for instance, a pendulum. A pendulum is composed by
a mass suspended from a fixed point in order to swing back and forth under the influence of
the acceleration due to gravity (Gergersen, 2025). The formula for the period of a pendulum is
𝐿
given by: 𝑇 = 2𝜋 ∗ √𝑔, where T is the time period of oscillation, measured in seconds (s), L is
the length of the string, measured in meters (m), g is the acceleration due to gravity, measured
in (m/s2). This equation could be rearranged in order to make g the subject. To do that, it is
𝐿 𝐿
necessary to square both sides of the equation: 𝑇 2 = (2𝜋 ∗ √𝑔)2 → 𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 ∗ 𝑔 → 𝑔 =
𝐿
4𝜋 2 ∗ 𝑇2.
Consequentially, if the length of the pendulum is varied and measured T for each length. It is
possible to use T2 to plot a graph against the length of the pendulum, using the gradient of the
graph is possible to calculate the acceleration due to gravity by multiplying it by 4π2.
Comparing the calculated g with the theoretical g, which is 9.81 m/s2, is possible to calculate
the percentage difference to verify the accuracy of the experiment.
2a. Method – Apparatus and diagram
Table 1
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Figure 1
Figure 2
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2b. Methods – Procedure
First, the string was attached to the bob, next the string was placed inside the folded sheets.
After that, the folded sheets were fixed in the resort stand, then the distance of the center of the
bob to the fixed point was adjusted to 0.30m, following this the bob was released from an angle
of 10˚ with the vertical, for this three time measurements were taken for 10 swings. After
recording those three measurements, the length of the string was adjusted to 0.25m, then further
reduced constantly until reaching 0.10m. After collecting all measurements, a table was created
to organise the three different time measurements for each length. Finally, the squared time
period (T2) was plotted against the length of the string (L) to calculate the acceleration due to
gravity through the gradient of the graph.
2c. Methods – Variables
For this experiment it was seen some variables throughout the process. For example, the length
of the string (L), measured in meters (m), was an independent variable, which means that the
length can be changed by the scientist that is conducted to determine the dependent variable.
In the other hand, the time period (T), measured in seconds (s), is the dependent variable
because it changes as the length was changed. In order to determine the time period of the
pendulum, it was necessary to calculate the average time for the time of 10 swings of the
pendulum, then divide by 10 to get the period of the pendulum.
Throughout the experiment, there are some variables that is taken into accounts, although they
are not inside of the calculations. For instance, in this experiment, the same bob was used in
the whole experiment, so it could be avoided difference of masses of different bobs, in this
case, the mass of the bob was 10.9g. Furthermore, it was used another control variable, which
was the angle, it should be released with 10˚ with the vertical every time that a measurement
were taken.
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2d. Method – Safety
In every experiment it is necessary to follow rules concerning safety. Some of them are general
measures to make a safer environment, however, for each case it has specific precautions.
Similarly, in the pendulum experiments safety googles were used throughout the analysis, to
protect they analyst’s eyes in case the pendulum hit it. Another precaution that was followed it
was using specific clothes in the lab, this includes lab coat, close shoes, in case that something
drops of the table and hit the scientist’s foot. Additionally, general rules, such as not having
food and drinks on the laboratory environment, because it can spill water on the table, it could
become slippery. Moreover, keeping the station organised and far away from the edges, to
avoid to drop apparatus equipment in the floor.
To sum up this matter, following both general and specific safety precautions is essential for
diminishing risks and ensuring a controlled environment. Such as, wearing protective gear,
manipulating equipment carefully, and keeping clear the workspace to prevent accidents.
Hazard Risk Precautions
Object hitting the eyes Physical injury (low) Wear safety googles
Apparatus equipment Physical injury (low) Wear close shoes
dropping in the scientist feet
Having water and beverage Makes the surface slippery Do not allow food and drink
in the laboratory (medium) in the laboratory
Physical injury (low) Do not assemble the
Dropping the equipment apparatus close in the edge
of the station
Entangle hair in the Physical injury (low) Work with tied hair
equipment
3a. Results - Table and Calculations
Table 2
For every length of the pendulum, it was taken 3 different measurements for time of 10 swings,
then the average was calculated, in order to get the time period (T), it was necessary to divide
the average time per 10, then to plot the graph was necessary to get T2, so it time period was
squared.
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 1 + 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 2 + 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
3
As an example, it will be demonstrated a calculation for 0.10m:
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6.10+5.91+6.00
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (0.10𝑚) = = 6.00𝑠
3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 6.00
𝛵= → 𝑇= = 0.60𝑠
10 10
𝑇 2 → (0.60)2 = 0.36𝑠 2
3b. Results - Graph and Gradient
Graph 1
∆𝐿
To calculate the graph gradient is used the following mathematical equation: 𝑚 = 𝛥𝑇2
Figure 2
However, the gradient of the graph does not directly provide the acceleration due to gravity,
𝑇 2 ∗𝑔
since the graph is plotted from the equation, 𝐿 = , and since in the Y-axis is the length of
4𝜋2
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the pendulum (L) and in the X-axis is the time period squared (T2), the gradient (m) is equal
𝑔
to: 𝑚 = 4𝜋2 .
Therefore, in order to calculate the acceleration due to gravity, is necessary to manipulate the
equation to, 𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 ∗ 𝑚. After, substituting values into the equation, the gravity will be
𝑚
calculated to be: 𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 ∗ 0.31 → 𝑔 = 12.3370055 𝑠2 , 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑔 =
𝑚
12.34 𝑠2 .
4a. Discussion: Analysis of Results
A pendulum consists of an object of mass (m), attached to a string of mass that can be ignored,
of length L fixed in a point. Pendulums can be used to determine the acceleration due to gravity,
𝐿
which can be expressed by 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔. This formula can be demonstrated by using simple
harmonic motion and analysing the forces acting on the bob. According to Young and
Freedman (2012, page, 439) “The simplest kind of oscillation occurs when the restoring force
is directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium x.” Understand this and other key
points of SHM is essential, in order to determine g, which was the aim of the experiment.
Additionally, is fundamental that the concepts of frequency and period is known, In a
frictionless environment, the time to complete a cycle remains constant, this is called time
period (T), measured in seconds, the frequency (f), measured in Hertz (Hz) is the number of
cycles per unit time, thus the frequency is the inverse of the period, expressing mathematically
𝑓 = 𝑇 −1, according to Ling et al. (2018, page 724).
Figure 3
The diagram shown previously, demonstrates all forces act on a pendulum, which are the
Traction (T), due to the string, and the Weight, due to gravity, the Weight was decomposed in
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two components, they are Wx and Wy, which Wx = 𝑚𝑔 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
Combining this with the SHM theory the restoring force would be the Wx, therefore Fθ=
−𝑚𝑔 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Using trigonometry concepts, it is possible to apply rules on a right-angle
𝑥 𝑥
triangle, therefore, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐿 , 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝜃 = −𝑚𝑔 ∗ 𝐿 .
𝑘
The angular frequency in SHM, is given by 𝜔 = √𝑚, where k is the constant of proportionally
𝑚𝑔
of the restoring force, in this case 𝑘 = , substituting back on the angular frequency, it would
𝐿
𝑚𝑔
𝑔
be 𝜔 = √ 𝐿
, manipulating this equation is possible to achieve that 𝜔 = √ . The angular
𝑚 𝐿
𝑟𝑎𝑑
frequency (ω) is the rate that oscillations are occurred, it measured in radians per second ( ),
𝑠
2𝜋 𝑔 2𝜋
Therefore the 𝜔 = , finally combining every equation, it would give √ = , solving for T,
𝑇 𝐿 𝑇
𝐿
it would give 𝑇 = 2𝜋 ∗ √𝑔.
Finally, with both time period and the length of the wire acknowledged, a graph (T2 vs L) was
𝑔
plotted and its gradient is the 4𝜋2. This equation represents a directly proportional between the
independent variable (L) and the dependable variable (T), the gradient was calculated to be as
0.31 m/s2 and then this value multiplied by 4π2, gives the acceleration due to gravity, which
was calculated to be 12.34 m/s2. By analysing the graph, it can be seen that the graph has a
strong positive linear correlation and the graph does not show no anomalous result, however
the accuracy of the experiment was considered to be 20.056% off the theoretical value of the
acceleration due to gravity.
4b. Discussion: Anomalies and Comparison to Theory
𝑚
The hypothetical acceleration due to gravity is known to be as 9.81 𝑠2 , however g was
𝑚
calculated to be 11.45 𝑠2 . In order to confirm the accuracy of this experiment is calculated the
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑔 – 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑔
percentage error, which is given by the formula: ∗ 100, after
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑔
9.81−12.34 2.53
substituting the values, it will be ∗ 100 → − ∗ 100 → −0.2050243112 ∗
12.34 12.34
100 = −20.50243112%, 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 − 20.50%.
Consequently, if consider the percentage errors as an absolute value of 20.50%, the experiment
should be considered inaccurate, because the percentage errors is above 5%.
4c. Discussion: Evaluating Errors and Improvements
Once the percentage difference is calculated, the analysis of the errors may start. The simple
pendulum experiment can be affected by systematic errors or random errors. The first one
causes a constant deviation in measurements and the second one does not causes a constant
deviation in measurements, which makes harder to solve this mistake (Matrix Education,
2024).
In this experiment several mistakes were made, one of them is that instead of realising the
pendulum with 10˚ with the vertical. In some attempts it would be released with an angle bigger
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than 10˚, which would cause the time period to be greater than it should, additionally, in other
attempts would be released with an angle smaller than 10˚, which would result in the time
period to be smaller than it should. This mistake is considered to be a systematic error.
Moreover, another problem that led to an inaccurate experiment, is the fact of instead of
counting 10 swings, would be counted a larger or smaller number of swings. In the case of
counting a larger number of swings, would result in a smaller time period (T). Meanwhile, if
the number of swings, is smaller than 10, would result in a greater time period (T). If the time
period is affect, as a result, will affect the acceleration due to gravity, since would interfere the
gradient of the plotted (T2 vs L). This is a human error, that cannot occur, because it makes
the result inaccurate, however, it can be solved by counting more carefully, or otherwise could
be added some automated sensors.
In addition, the last mistake consists in a reaction time of stopping the stopwatch at the same
time that the 10th swing went through the starting point. This is a random error, which makes
more difficult to solve this mistake, however, one way to solve that is using automated systems
that would controlled it.
5. Conclusion and Further Work
To sum all up, the simple pendulum experiment consists in a suspended mass attached to a
spring fixed in a point. The aim was to calculate the acceleration due to gravity (g), using
𝐿
concepts of forces and SHM and the mathematical expression to calculate is 𝑇 = 2𝜋 ∗ √𝑔.
Once, the length of the string was set to 0.30m and then the bob of mass 10.9g was released of
an angle of 10˚ with the vertical, time measurements were taken three times. After, those
measurements, an average time for 10 swings was calculated, for every length until 0.10m,
diminishing every three measurements by 0.05m. With the average time acknowledged, the
time period (T) was calculated, dividing it by the number of swings, then the time period was
squared (T2). Next, the squared time period was plotted against the length of the string,
therefore the graph was (T2 vs L), the relationship between the variable is directly proportional
with a strong positive linear correlation. Moreover, the gradient of this graph multiplied by 4π2,
𝑚
gives the gravity (g). Therefore, the aim was achieved, and it was calculated to be 12.34 𝑠2 ,
𝑚
inaccurate comparing to the hypothesis of 9.81 𝑠2 , because the percentage error was calculated
as 20.05%.
Alternatively, it is possible to calculate the value the gravity using concepts of kinematics. An
object when is drop off a known height, it is possible to determine the acceleration due to
1
gravity (g), using the following equation, 𝑠 = 𝑢 ∗ 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 , where s is the height, measured in
𝑚
meters (m), u is the initial velocity, measured in meters per second ( 𝑠 ), t is the time, measured
𝑚
in meters (m), and a is the acceleration that the object experiences, measured in ( 𝑠2 ), was
suggested by Jewett and Serway (2008, page 34) Since, the object was dropped from a known
height, the initial velocity is 0, then if substituting the values in the equation, it will have ∆𝑠 =
1 2∆𝑠 2∆𝑠
0 ∗ 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2, isolating a, it will be 𝑎 = , and therefore, 𝑔 = .
𝑡2 𝑡2
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