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Fill in the Blanks:

●​ The boiling point of water (sea water) is greater than that of distilled water.
●​ Temperature and pressure are intensive properties.
●​ Among transition elements, the element having the lowest melting point is mercury (Hg).
●​ In acidic medium, CrO_{4}^{-2} is reduced to Cr^{+3}.
●​ CrO_{4}^{-2} ion has tetrahedral geometry.
●​ The most common oxidation state of lanthanoids is +3 and for actinoids is +3.
●​ The metal having the highest melting point is tungsten (W).

Assertion-Reason:
1.​ Assertion: The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxoanions of a metal. Reason: This
is due to the combination of the metal with oxygen, which is a highly electronegative and
oxidizing agent.
○​ Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
2.​ Assertion: Transition metals have low melting points. Reason: The involvement of a
greater number of (n-1)d and ns electrons in interatomic metallic bonding.
○​ Answer: (d) A is false but R is true. (Assertion is false as transition metals generally
have high melting points due to strong metallic bonding).
3.​ Assertion: MnO_{4} and Ce(SO_{4})_{2} are coloured. Reason: They are coloured due
to the presence of an unpaired electron in the metal ion.
○​ Answer: (d) A is false but R is true. (The compounds are coloured, but not due to
unpaired electrons. MnO_{4} is coloured due to charge transfer, and
Ce(SO_{4})_{2} is yellow due to charge transfer, as Ce^{4+} has a 4f^{0}
configuration with no unpaired electrons.)
4.​ Assertion: MnI_{4} is not known. Reason: Mn^{+4} oxidizes I^{-} to iodine.
○​ Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
5.​ Assertion: Low spin tetrahedral complexes are rarely observed. Reason: Crystal field
splitting energy is less than pairing energy for tetrahedral complexes.
○​ Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

Match the Following:

●​ A | B
○​ i) Five unpaired electrons | e) Scandium (Sc^{3+}) - The question appears to be
mismatched. A more fitting match for "Five unpaired electrons" would be Mn^{2+} or
Fe^{3+}. The provided options are confusing. Let's assume the question meant a
transition element with an electron configuration that has five unpaired electrons
and "Scandium" is an option to be matched.
○​ ii) First Lanthanoid element | d) Lanthanum (La)
○​ iii) Cu(I) salts | a) Diamagnetic
○​ iv) ZnO | b) Amphoteric oxide
○​ v) Colourless | c) Sc^{+3}
 ●​ A | B
○​ i) Lanthanoid oxides | Production of iron alloy
○​ ii) Lanthanoid | Television screen
○​ iii) Misch metal | Lanthanoid metal + iron
○​ iv) Magnetic-based alloy | Petroleum cracking
○​ v) Mixed oxide of Lanthanoids | Bullets

Multiple Choice Questions:

1.​ Which transition metal has the highest tendency? (The question is incomplete, but based
on the options, it likely refers to highest oxidation state or some other property. Let's
assume highest oxidation state)
○​ Os
○​ Sc
○​ Zn
○​ La
○​ Answer: Osmium (Os) has the highest oxidation state of +8.
2.​ Which transition metal shows the highest oxidation state?
○​ Sc
○​ Os
○​ Ti
○​ La
3.​ Which ion gives a coloured solution?
○​ Cu^{+}
○​ Ag^{+}
○​ Zn^{+2}
○​ Co^{+2} (Co^{+2} has 7 d-electrons, so it has unpaired electrons and forms
coloured compounds. Cu^{+}, Ag^{+}, and Zn^{+2} all have completely filled
d-orbitals and are colorless.)
4.​ Which of the following oxides of chromium is amphoteric in nature?
○​ CrO_{3}
○​ Cr_{2}O_{3}
○​ Cr_{5}O_{5}
○​ CrO_{5}
5.​ Number of moles of Fe^{+2} reduced by one mole of MnO_{4}^{-} in acidic medium.
○​ 2MnO_{4}^{-} + 16H^{+} + 10Fe^{+2} \longrightarrow 2Mn^{+2} + 10Fe^{+3} +
8H_{2}O
○​ Based on the balanced equation, 1 mole of MnO_{4}^{-} reduces 5 moles of
Fe^{+2}. (The question asks for Fe^{+2} reduced by MnO_{4}^{-}, which is a correct
question, but the provided options are 3, 4, 5, 6. The answer is 5).
○​ Answer: 5
6.​ Which of the following elements belongs to the actinoid series?
○​ La
○​ Lu
○​ Gd
○​ Th
Reasoning Based Questions:
1.​ Why do transition metal ions possess a great tendency to form complexes?
○​ Transition metal ions form complexes due to their small size, high ionic charge, and
the availability of vacant d-orbitals to accept lone pairs of electrons from ligands.
2.​ The paramagnetic character in 3d-transition series elements increases up to Mn
and then decreases. Why?
○​ Paramagnetic character depends on the number of unpaired electrons. In the 3d
series, the number of unpaired electrons increases from Sc to Mn (3d^{5}), which
has the maximum number of unpaired electrons (5). After Mn, electron pairing
begins in the d-orbitals, which leads to a decrease in the number of unpaired
electrons and, consequently, a decrease in paramagnetic character.
3.​ Why do transition elements form coloured compounds?
○​ Transition elements form coloured compounds because of the presence of unpaired
d-electrons. When white light falls on a transition metal ion, it absorbs a part of it,
which corresponds to an energy that causes the electron to jump from one d-orbital
to another d-orbital within the same subshell (d-d transition). The remaining light is
transmitted, which is what we perceive as the colour of the compound.
4.​ Iron is ferromagnetic in nature. Why?
○​ Ferromagnetism arises from the strong alignment of magnetic moments of
individual atoms in the same direction, which results in the formation of permanent
magnetic domains. Iron, cobalt, and nickel are ferromagnetic because their
unpaired electrons are strongly coupled in a way that aligns their magnetic
moments even in the absence of an external magnetic field.
5.​ Why are Cu(I) salts white?
○​ Cu^{+} ions have a 3d^{10} configuration, which means their d-orbitals are
completely filled. There are no vacant d-orbitals for d-d transitions to occur, so they
cannot absorb light from the visible region. As a result, they appear white or
colourless.
6.​ Why is tungsten used as a filament?
○​ Tungsten is used as a filament in incandescent light bulbs because it has the
highest melting point among all metals and a high tensile strength. This allows it to
be heated to a very high temperature (~3,422°C) without melting, emitting a bright
white light.
7.​ Why is KMnO_{4} generally preferred in volumetric analysis?
○​ KMnO_{4} is a very strong oxidizing agent and is used as a self-indicator in
titrations. This eliminates the need to add an external indicator, making the analysis
simpler and more accurate. A single drop of excess KMnO_{4} produces a pale
pink colour, indicating the endpoint of the titration.
8.​ Why are transition metals and their compounds used as catalysts?
○​ Transition metals and their compounds are used as catalysts because of their ability
to exist in multiple oxidation states and their large surface area, which provides a
suitable medium for reactants to adsorb. They can also form intermediate
complexes with reactants, which lowers the activation energy of the reaction.
9.​ Explain why zinc, cadmium, and mercury are generally not considered as transition
metals.
○​ Zinc, cadmium, and mercury are not considered true transition metals because they
 have completely filled d-orbitals (nd^{10}) in their ground state as well as in their
common oxidation states. The definition of a transition metal requires the presence
of partially filled d-orbitals.
10.​Explain why Ti^{+3} salts are coloured while Ti^{+4} salts are white.
○​ Ti^{+3} has an electronic configuration of 3d^{1}, meaning it has one unpaired
d-electron. This allows for d-d transitions, so its salts are coloured (purple). In
contrast, Ti^{+4} has a 3d^{0} configuration with no d-electrons, so d-d transitions
are not possible, and its salts are white or colourless.
11.​Why do Zr and Hf have almost similar properties?
○​ Zirconium (Zr) and Hafnium (Hf) have very similar properties because of the
lanthanoid contraction. This effect causes the elements following the lanthanoid
series to have a similar atomic radius and ionic radius to the elements in the
preceding period. Therefore, Zr and Hf have very similar sizes, which leads to their
similar chemical properties.
12.​The E^{o}_{M^{+2}/M} value of copper is positive (+0.34 V). What is the possible
reason for this?
○​ The positive standard electrode potential of copper is due to its high enthalpy of
atomization and a relatively low enthalpy of hydration. To oxidize solid copper to
Cu^{+2} ions in an aqueous solution, a large amount of energy is required to break
the strong metallic bonds, which isn't fully compensated by the energy released
during the hydration of the ions. The overall energy change is positive, hence the
positive E^{o} value.
13.​Explain why transition elements form alloys.
○​ Transition elements form alloys readily because of their similar atomic sizes and
other characteristics. This allows the atoms of one metal to be easily substituted
into the crystal lattice of the other, forming a homogeneous mixture.
14.​Give a reason: the first ionization enthalpy of Cr is lower than that of Zn.
○​ The first ionization enthalpy of Chromium (Cr) is lower than that of Zinc (Zn). This is
because Cr has a stable half-filled d-orbital configuration (3d^{5}), from which it is
relatively easy to remove one electron to achieve the 3d^{4} state. In contrast, Zinc
has a completely filled d-orbital configuration (3d^{10}), which is highly stable, and a
higher amount of energy is required to remove an electron from it.
15.​Why do the 4d series have almost a similar size to the 5d series except for La?
○​ The elements of the 4d and 5d series have similar atomic radii due to lanthanoid
contraction. The filling of the 4f orbitals in the lanthanoids before the 5d series
leads to a poor shielding effect. This results in an increased effective nuclear
charge, which pulls the outermost electrons closer to the nucleus, causing the
elements of the 5d series to have a similar size to the 4d series.

Qus 7:
●​ Balance the chemical equation:
○​ 2MnO_{4}^{-} + 5S^{-2} + 16H^{+} \rightarrow 2Mn^{+2} + 5S + 8H_{2}O
○​ C_{2}O_{4}^{-2} + 2H^{+} \rightarrow H_{2}C_{2}O_{4} (This is not a redox reaction;
it's a simple protonation)
●​ How will you obtain pure Potassium Permanganate (KMnO_{4}) crystal from its ore,
pyrolusite?
1.​ Fusion: Powdered pyrolusite ore (MnO_{2}) is fused with an alkali (like KOH) and
 an oxidizing agent (like KNO_{3}) to form potassium manganate (K_{2}MnO_{4}).
2MnO_{2} + 4KOH + O_{2} \rightarrow 2K_{2}MnO_{4} + 2H_{2}O
2.​ Electrolytic Oxidation: Potassium manganate is then electrolytically oxidized in an
alkaline solution to form potassium permanganate (KMnO_{4}). 2K_{2}MnO_{4} +
H_{2}O \xrightarrow{electrolysis} 2KMnO_{4} + 2KOH + H_{2}
●​ Complete the following reaction:
○​ 2KMnO_{4} + 3H_{2}SO_{4} + 5H_{2}C_{2}O_{4} \rightarrow K_{2}SO_{4} +
2MnSO_{4} + 10CO_{2} + 8H_{2}O
○​ K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} + 7H_{2}SO_{4} + 6KI \rightarrow Cr_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} +
4K_{2}SO_{4} + 3I_{2} + 7H_{2}O
○​ K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} + 7H_{2}SO_{4} + 6FeSO_{4} \rightarrow K_{2}SO_{4} +
Cr_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} + 3Fe_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} + 7H_{2}O
●​ Draw structure for chromate, dichromate, MnO_{4}^{-2}, MnO_{4}^{-}
○​ Chromate (CrO_{4}^{2-}): Tetrahedral structure with one central Cr atom bonded
to four oxygen atoms.
○​ Dichromate (Cr_{2}O_{7}^{2-}): Two corner-sharing tetrahedra with a bridging
oxygen atom. The structure is bent at the oxygen bridge.
○​ Manganate (MnO_{4}^{2-}): Tetrahedral structure with one central Mn atom
bonded to four oxygen atoms.
○​ Permanganate (MnO_{4}^{-}): Tetrahedral structure with one central Mn atom
bonded to four oxygen atoms.
○​

Most Important Question (Define the term):

1.​ Lanthanoid Contraction: The steady decrease in the atomic and ionic radii of the
lanthanoid elements (from La to Lu) with an increasing atomic number. This is caused by
the poor shielding effect of the 4f electrons, which leads to a greater effective nuclear
charge and a contraction of the electron cloud.
2.​ Magnetic Behaviour: The way a substance behaves in a magnetic field. It can be
paramagnetic (attracted to a magnetic field due to unpaired electrons), diamagnetic
(repelled by a magnetic field due to all electrons being paired), or ferromagnetic (strongly
attracted to a magnetic field and can be permanently magnetized).
3.​ Catalytic Property: The ability of a substance (catalyst) to increase the rate of a chemical
reaction without being consumed in the reaction. Transition metals and their compounds
are excellent catalysts due to their variable oxidation states and large surface area.
4.​ Formation of Alloys: The process of mixing two or more metals (or a metal and a
non-metal) to form a new substance with enhanced properties.
5.​ Interstitial Compound Formation: Compounds formed when small non-metal atoms
(like H, C, N) get trapped in the interstitial spaces or voids within the crystal lattice of a
transition metal. These compounds are typically non-stoichiometric.
6.​ Formation of Coloured Complexes: The ability of transition metal ions to form
complexes that absorb certain wavelengths of visible light, leading to the transmission of
the complementary colour. This is due to d-d transitions in the presence of ligands.
7.​ d-d Transition: The movement of an electron from one d-orbital to another d-orbital within
the same subshell. This transition is responsible for the characteristic colour of transition
metal compounds.
8.​ Screening and Penetration Effect: The screening effect (or shielding effect) is the
 reduction in the effective nuclear charge on an electron due to the repulsion from other
electrons in the inner shells. The penetration effect is the ability of an electron to
approach the nucleus and experience a greater effective nuclear charge.
9.​ Variable Oxidation State: The ability of an element to exhibit multiple oxidation states.
Transition metals show this property due to the small energy difference between their
(n-1)d and ns orbitals, which allows both to participate in chemical bonding.
10.​Enthalpy of Atomization: The amount of energy required to break one mole of a
substance into its constituent gaseous atoms. For transition metals, this value is high due
to the strong metallic bonding formed by the involvement of both d and s electrons.
11.​Ionisation Enthalpy: The energy required to remove the outermost electron from an
isolated gaseous atom or ion. It generally increases across a period due to increasing
effective nuclear charge.
12.​Differences between Lanthanoids and Actinoids:
○​ Lanthanoids: Show a common +3 oxidation state. They are less reactive. Their
electronic configuration involves the filling of 4f orbitals.
○​ Actinoids: Show a greater range of oxidation states. They are more radioactive.
Their electronic configuration involves the filling of 5f orbitals.
13.​Uses of Lanthanoids:
○​ Production of special steels.
○​ Manufacturing of misch metal, which is used in cigarette lighters and bullets.
○​ Production of phosphors for television screens.