CHAPTER SIX
UNSTEADY FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
Common examples of unsteady open channel
flows include flood flows in rivers and tidal flows in
estuaries, irrigation channels, headrace and tailrace
channel of hydropower plants, navigation canals,
storm water systems and spillway operation.
1
Figure 6.1(a1) and (a2) illustrates extreme unsteady
flow conditions.
Figure 6.1(a1) and (a2) shows the propagation of an
instability wave down a stepped spillway.
In unsteady open channel flows (e.g. Fig. 6.1), the
velocities and water depths change with time and
longitudinal position.
2
For one-dimensional applications, the relevant flow
parameters (e.g. V and d) are functions of time and
longitudinal distance.
Analytical solutions of the basic equations are
nearly impossible because of their non-linearity, but
numerical techniques may provide approximate
solutions for some specific cases.
3
Fig. 6.1 Example of unsteady open channel flows
4
Basic Equations
The basic one-dimensional unsteady open channel
flow equations are commonly called the Saint-
Venant equations. They are named after the French
engineer Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-
Venant who developed them in 1871.
5
The main assumptions used in the derivation of the Saint
Venant equations are that:
1. The pressure distribution is hydrostatic
2. The velocity is uniformly distributed over a channel section
3. The average channel bed slope is small, and therefore the
flow depth measured in the vertical is considered equal to that
measured perpendicular to the channel bottom
4. The flow is homogeneous and incompressible.
6
The continuity equation for one-dimensional unsteady open-
channel flow is written as: ---------------------------------1
Where A = flow area, Q = discharge, t = time, and x = displacement
in the main flow direction.
The momentum equation is written as :
----------------------------------2
Where β = momentum correction factor, V = cross-sectional
average velocity, g = gravitational acceleration, y = flow depth, SO
= longitudinal channel slope, and Sf = friction slope. Assuming β =
1 for a prismatic channel, and noting that V = Q/A, Equation 2
becomes --------------3
7
Equations 1 and 3 describe the one-dimensional unsteady
flow in prismatic channels, and are attributed to Saint
Venant.
The momentum equation (Equation 3) in terms of the
piezometric head or stage, h = zb +y, where h = stage =
elevation of the water surface measured from a horizontal
datum and zb = elevation of the channel bottom above the
horizontal datum. Substituting y = h-zb into Equation 3 and
noting that So = -𝜕zb /𝜕x , obtain
-----------------------------4
8
The Saint Venant equations can also be written in terms of the
velocity, as opposed to the discharge. Noting that
Equation 1 becomes
-----------------------------------------------5
multiplying both sides by g, the momentum equation is
-------------------------------6
when the Manning formula is used to represent the flow
resistance, the friction slope is expressed as
--------------------------------7
9
where n = Manning roughness factor, R = hydraulic
radius, P = wetted perimeter, and k n = 1m1Τ3 /s = 1.49
ft 1Τ3 /s.
The Saint Venant equations are classified as partial
differential equations of the hyperbolic type.
All the flow variables are functions of both time and
distance along the channel.
In other words, at a given location, the flow depth,
discharge, and the other flow variables vary with time.
10
Likewise, at a fixed time, the flow variables change along
the channel.
For a given channel of known properties (cross-sectional
geometry, roughness factor, longitudinal slope, etc.), the
unknowns in Equations 1 and 3 are the discharge, Q, and the
flow depth, y.
The other flow variables, such as the area, A, and the friction
slope, Sf , can be expressed in terms of Q and y. (The
unknowns are V and y if Equations 5 and 6 are used.)
11
The independent variables are time, t, and distance along the
channel, x.
An initial condition and two boundary conditions are needed to
solve the Saint Venant equations.
The initial condition is described by the variation of the unknowns,
Q and y (or V and y), along the channel at time zero.
For example, the flow in a channel can initially be steady. In this
event, a constant discharge everywhere along the channel and the
water surface profile corresponding to this discharge describe the
initial condition.
12
If the flow is subcritical, one boundary condition at each of
the upstream and downstream ends of the channel is
required.
If the flow is supercritical, both boundary conditions should
be given at the upstream end.
A boundary condition can be in the form of a specified
relationship between the unknowns at one end of the
channel.
For example, if a channel conveying subcritical flow
terminates at a free fall, use the critical flow relationship (𝐹𝑟
= 1.0) as the downstream boundary condition.
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Method of Characteristics
The method of characteristics is a mathematical
technique to solve a system of partial differential
equations such as the Saint-Venant equations which
may be expressed in terms of the water depth d:
------------------------------8
------------------------------9
14
In an open channel, a small disturbance can
propagate upstream and downstream. For a
rectangular channel, the celerity of a small
disturbance equals C = 𝑔𝑑
In a channel of irregular cross-section, the celerity
of a small wave is C = g AΤB , where A is the flow
cross section and B is the free-surface width
15
The celerity C characterizes the propagation of a
small disturbance (i.e. small wave) relative to the
fluid motion.
For an observer standing on the bank, the absolute
speed of the small wave is (V+ C) and (V - C) where
V is the flow velocity.
The differentiation of the celerity C with respect to
time and space satisfies, respectively:
16
-------------------------------10
---------------------------------11
Replacing the terms 𝜕d/𝜕t and 𝜕d/𝜕x by equations (10)
and (11), respectively, in the SaintVenant equations, it
yields: ----------------------------12
--------------------------------13
The addition of the two equations gives:
----------------------14
while the subtraction of equation (13) from equation (12) yields:
-----------------------15
17
Equations (14) and (15) may be rewritten as:
--------16a
--------16b
along their respective characteristic trajectories:
------------17a
------------17b
18
Fig. 6.2 Definition sketch of the forward and backward
characteristics: (a) subcritical flow conditions and (b)
supercritical flow conditions.
19
These trajectories are called characteristic directions
or characteristics of the system.
For an observer travelling along the forward
characteristics (Fig. 6.2, equation (17a),
equation(16a) is valid at any point.
For an observer travelling on the backward
characteristics (equation (17b), equation (16b) is
satisfied everywhere.
20
Dynamic Equation
The differential form of the Saint-Venant equations may be
written as: ---------------18
----------------19
For steady flows, the continuity equation states 𝜕Q/𝜕x = 0 (i.e.
constant flow rate) in absence of lateral inflow and the
dynamic equation yields:
--------------------20
Equation (20) is basically the backwater equation for flat
channels and it may be rewritten as:
21
----------------------21
where β = is the momentum correction coefficient which is
assumed as a constant.
Note a major difference between the backwater equation
and equation (21).
The former derives from the energy equation but the latter
was derived from the momentum principle.
For steady uniform equilibrium flows, the dynamic
equation yields:
---------------------22
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Limitations of the Saint-Venant Equations
The Saint-Venant equations were developed for one-
dimensional flows with hydrostatic pressure distributions,
small bed slopes, constant water density, no sediment motion
and assuming that the flow resistance is the same as for a
steady uniform flow for the same depth and velocity.
Limitations of the Saint-Venant equation applications
include two- and three-dimensional flows, shallow-water
flood plains where the flow is nearly two-dimensional,
undular and wavy flows, and the propagation of sharp
discontinuities. 23
Non-hydrostatic pressure distributions
The Saint-Venant equations are inaccurate when the flow is not
one dimensional and the pressure distributions are not
hydrostatic.
Examples include flows in sharp bends, undular hydraulic jumps
and undular tidal bores. Other relevant situations include
supercritical flows with shock waves and flows over a ski jump.
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Concluding Remarks
The Saint-Venant equations are the unsteady flow equivalent of the
backwater equation.
The latter was developed for steady gradually varied flows and it is
derived from the energy equation, while the Saint-Venant equations are
derived from the momentum equation.
Both the backwater and Saint-Venant equations are developed for one-
dimensional flows, assuming a hydrostatic pressure distribution, for
gradually varied flows, neglecting sediment transport and assuming
that the flow resistance is the same as for uniform equilibrium flow
conditions for the same depth and velocity.
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The Saint-Venant equations assume further that the
slope is small.
Note that the backwater equation may account for the
bed slope and a pressure correction coefficient may be
introduced if the pressure is not hydrostatic.
Overall the assumptions behind the Saint-Venant
equations are very restrictive and limit the applicability
of the result.
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