Adapted from

Wireless Communications
Principles & Practice

By Theodore S. Rappaport , 2nd ed.

Prentice Hall, 2002

1
 Unit 1: Introduction to Wireless Communications
Systems
1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

• In 1897, Guglielmo Marconi first demonstrated radio’s ability to

provide continuous contact with ships sailing the English channel.

• During the past 10 years, fueled by

* Digital and RF circuit fabrication improvements
* New VLSI technologies
* Other miniaturization technologies
(e.g., passive components)
The mobile communications industry has grown by orders of
magnitude.

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• The trends will continue at an even greater pace during the next decade.
1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

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 1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

• The Bell laboratories developed the cellular concept in 1960s

and 1970s.
• Figure 1.1 illustrates how mobile telephony has penetrated our
daily lives compared with other popular inventions of the 29th
century.
• Fig.1.1 shows the first 35 years of mobile telephony saw a little
market penetration due to high cost and the technological
challenges involved.

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5
What are the differences between 1G, 2G, 3G,
4G LTE, and 5G networks?

• Simply, the "G" stands for "GENERATION".

• While connected to the internet, the speed of the connection depends upon the
signal strength that is shown in abbreviations like 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, etc. on
any mobile device.
• Each generation of wireless broadband is defined as a set of telephone network
standards that describe the technological implementation of the system.
• The aim of wireless communication is to provide high quality, reliable
communication just like wired communication and each new generation
represents a big leap in that direction.
Evolution of mobile communication systems-
1G, 2G, 3G, 4G LTE, and 5G
• Mobile communication has become more popular in the last few years
due to fast reform in mobile technology.
• For the comparison of 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G we first need to
understand the key features of all these technologies.
 Roadmap to 6G
• Overview of the generations
• First Generation(1G):
❑Came into existence in 1980s
❑Used analog FM in 30KHz channels
❑Allocated band was 800-900MHz by 1976 World Allocation Radio
Conference(WARC)
❑Came into commercial practice with 1979 NTT deployment in Japan
❑Followed by the 1981 Nordic mobile telephone service and the 1983 AT&T
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) in the United States.
❑AMPS was first launched in USA in 1G mobile systems
Cont…
❑Circuit switched
❑Speed upto 2.4kbps
❑Also called Analog Mobile Phone Service(AMPS)
❑Accommodated multiple users through FDMA

Drawbacks
❑Poor voice quality
❑Poor battery life
❑Very expensive
❑No security
❑Inefficient spectrum utilization
❑Limited capacity
❑Poor Handoff
• Second Generation (2G):
• 2G capabilities were achieved by allowing multiple users on a single channel
via multiplexing. During 2G, cellular phones were used for data along with
voice. Some of the key features of 2G were:
❑ Digital Cellular
❑Came into existence in 1990’s
❑The first, second generation (2G) system was GSM(Global System for
Mobile)
❑Supports maximum data rate of upto 64kbps
❑Other technologies are CDMA and IS-95
Cont…
❑Provided services like e-mail and Short Message Service (SMS) and
Multimedia Message Service (MMS)
❑Networks are more secure against eavesdropping as compared to 1G
networks
❑Could not handle complex data like huge videos
❑Provided better quality voice calls
❑It used a bandwidth of 30 to 200 KHz
❑Improved capacity
Cont…
• 2.5 G
❑Between 2G and 3G came 2.5G
❑Data rates up to 200kbps were supported in 2.5G
❑Technologies included General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and
Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
❑Phone calls, Send/Receive email messages, Web browsing
❑Camera phones
❑More downloading speed
• No direct communication between devices was used till this period.
• Third Generation (3G):
• The 3G standard utilizes Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) as its core network
architecture. (introduced in 2000s)
• 3G network combines aspects of the 2G network with new
technologies and protocols to deliver a significantly faster data rate.
• By using packet switching, the original technology was improved to
allow speeds up to 14 Mbps.
• It used Wide Band Wireless Network that increased clarity.
• It operates at a range of 2100 MHz and has a bandwidth of 15-20
MHz.
• Some of the main features of 3G are:
❑Data rates supported are up to 10Mbps
❑Came into existence in late 2000
❑Supports services with improved voice quality and help maintain better QoS.
❑Send/receive large email messages
❑Large capacities and broadband capabilities
❑Technologies supported are WCDMA, UMTS and CDMA2000
❑Improved security, downloading speed
❑Video conferencing, 3D gaming, Mobile TV
❑Technologies like Evolution-Data Optimized (EVDO), High Speed
Uplink/Downlink Packet Access(HSUPA/HSDPA) form a part of 3.5G and
provide improved data rates in comparison to 3G.
❑Though 3G is more advantageous than 2G, requires more power than 2G
networks
❑Costlier than 2G in terms of plans offered
 Fourth Generation (4G)

• The main difference between 3G and 4G is the data rate.

• There is also a huge difference between 3G and 4G technology.
• The key technologies that have made 4G possible are MIMO (Multiple Input
Multiple Output) and OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing).
• The most important 4G standards are WiMAX and LTE.
• Even after it was widely available, many networks were not up to the required
speed of 4G.
• 4G LTE is a “fourth generation long term evolution”, capable of delivering a
very fast and secure internet connection.
• Speed provided were 100Mbps-1Gbps
• 4G networks are referred to as MAGIC
❑M: Mobile Multimedia
❑A: Anytime Anywhere
❑G: Global Mobility Support
❑I: Integrated Wireless Solution
❑C: Customized Personal Service

• LTE-A introduced D2D Communication in cellular networks.

• Fourth Generation (4G LTE)
Some of the features of 4G LTE are:
❑Ultra High-Speed Data Transmission
❑From 100Mbps to 1Gbps
❑These provide a system based on Internet Protocol (IP)
❑Uses OFDM
❑Technologies include Long Term Evolution Advanced (LTE-A) and
Mobile Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax)
❑Applications include
❑Digital Video Broadcasting(DVB)
❑HDTV
❑Video Chatting
❑Video Conferences, etc.
Fourth Generation (4G LTE)

• Download speeds on 4G LTE

• <1s Individual emails
• 1s A webpage
• 4s An entire e-book
• 7s An MP3 file
3G vs. 4G LTE

3G 4G LTE
Slow – Over 30 Fast – Larger files
Download speeds seconds for larger take just a few
apps seconds
Fast and seamless;
similar to the home
Web browsing Slow and clunky
broadband
experience
Video & music Poor quality, with HD quality, live
streaming frequent buffering video
•Fifth Generation (5G)

❑ 5G networks operate on rarely used radio millimeter bands in the 30 GHz to 300
GHz range.
❑ Using small cells, the deployment of 5G with millimetre wave-based carriers can
improve overall coverage area.
❑ Combined with beamforming, small cells can deliver extremely fast coverage with low
latency.
❑ Low latency is one of 5G’s most important features.
❑ 5G uses a scalable orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) framework.
❑ 5G benefits greatly from this and can have latency as low as one millisecond with
realistic estimates to be around 1 – 10 seconds.
❑ 5G is estimated to be 60 to 120 times faster than the average 4G latency.
4G and 5G Technology Differences

• Although 5G networks mostly rely on 4G and 4G LTE towers right

now, cellular companies are working to develop “standalone” 5G
networks based on a few core concepts.
• Millimeter waves—extremely high-frequency radio waves that give
your mobile device gigabit-plus speeds over short distances.
• Beamforming—high-precision antenna arrays capable of directing
wireless signals to individual devices.
• Massive MIMO—bulked-up 5G transmitters designed to deliver
wireless data to devices at a much higher capacity.
4G Vs 5G

• 1. Speed
• 2. Latency
• 3. Coverage
• 4. Bandwidth
• Low band 5G (600-850MHz)
• Mid band 5G (2.5-3.7GHz)
• High band 5G (25-39GHz)
How fast is 4G vs. 5G?

Avg. 5G
Provider Avg. 4G speeds2 Avg. 5G speeds3 millimeter-
wave speeds9

Verizon 28.7 Mbps 56.0 Mbps 618.4 Mbps

AT&T 35.2 Mbps 51.5 Mbps 245.0 Mbps

T-Mobile 31.8 Mbps 118.7 Mbps 312.0 Mbps

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• Mobile: Any radio terminal that can be moved during operation.
• Portable: A radio terminal that can be hand-held and used by someone at
walking speed.
• Simplex: Communication is possible only in one direction.
• Half Duplex: Allows two-way communication but not at the same time.
• Full Duplex: Allows simultaneous communication between Tx and Rx.
• In FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing),
* a device, called a duplexer, is used inside the subscriber unit to enable the same
antenna to be used for simultaneous transmission and reception.
* to facilitate FDD, it is necessary to separate the XMIT and RCVD frequencies by
about 5% of the nominal RF frequency, so that the duplexer can provide sufficient
isolation while being inexpensively manufactured.
• In TDD (Time Division Duplexing),
* only possible with digital transmission format and digital modulation.
* very sensitive to timing. Consequently, only used for indoor or small area wireless
applications.
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1.2.1. Paging Systems

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•Paging systems are communication systems that send brief messages to a
subscriber called page.
•Messages are either numeric, alphanumeric or voice message.
•A message is sent to a subscriber via a paging system access number.
•Paging receivers are simple and inexpensive, but the transmission system
required is quite sophisticated. (simulcasting)
•They may cover a limited range of 2 to 5 Km.

•They are designed to provide ultra-reliable coverage, even inside buildings

•Buildings can attenuate radio signals by 20 or 30 dB, making the choice of

base station locations difficult for the paging companies.

•Small RF bandwidths are used to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio at

each paging receiver, so low data rates (6400 bps or less) are used.
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1.2.2 Cordless Telephone Systems

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1.2.3 Cellular Telephone Systems

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[Link] How a Cellular Telephone Call is Made

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Cont..

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The Cellular Concept - System Design
Fundamentals
I. Introduction

 Goals of a Cellular System

◼ High capacity
◼ Large coverage area
◼ Efficient use of limited spectrum
 Large coverage area - Bell system in New York City had
early mobile radio
◼ Single Tx, high power, and tall tower
◼ Low cost
◼ Large coverage area - Bell system in New York City had 12
simultaneous channels for 1000 square miles
◼ Small # users
◼ Poor spectrum utilization
 What are possible ways we could increase the number of
channels available in a cellular system?
 Cellular concept
◼ Frequency reuse pattern
 Cells labeled with the same letter use the same
group of channels.
 Cell Cluster: group of N cells using complete set of
available channels
 Many base stations, lower power, and shorter
towers
 Small coverage areas called “cells”
 Each cell allocated a % of the total number of
available channels
 Nearby (adjacent) cells assigned different channel
groups
◼ to prevent interference between neighboring base
stations and mobile users
 Same frequency channels may be reused by cells a
“reasonable” distance away
◼ reused many times as long as interference between same
channel (co-channel) cells is < acceptable level
 As frequency reuse↑ → # possible simultaneous
users↑→ # subscribers ↑→ but system cost ↑ (more
towers)
 To increase number of users without increasing radio
frequency allocation, reduce cell sizes (more base
stations) ↑→ # possible simultaneous users ↑
 The cellular concept allows all mobiles to be
manufactured to use the same set of freqencies
 *** A fixed # of channels serves a large # of users
by reusing channels in a coverage area ***
II. Frequency Reuse/Planning

 Design process of selecting & allocating channel

groups of cellular base stations
 Two competing/conflicting objectives:
1) maximize frequency reuse in specified area
2) minimize interference between cells
 Cells
◼ base station antennas designed to cover specific cell
area
◼ hexagonal cell shape assumed for planning
 simple model for easy analysis → circles leave gaps
 actual cell “footprint” is amorphous (no specific shape)
◼ where Tx successfully serves mobile unit
◼ Hexagonal shape cell covers an entire area without
overlapping or without any gaps.
◼ base station location
 cell center → omni-directional antenna (360° coverage)
◼ not necessarily in the exact center (can be up to R/4
from the ideal location)
 cell corners → sectored or directional antennas on 3
corners with 120° coverage.
◼ very commom
◼ Note that what is defined as a “corner” is somewhat
flexible → a sectored antenna covers 120° of a
hexagonal cell.
◼ So one can define a cell as having three antennas in the
center or antennas at 3 corners.
III. System Capacity

 S : total # of duplex channels available for use in a

given area; determined by:
◼ amount of allocated spectrum
◼ channel BW → modulation format and/or standard specs.
(e.g. AMPS)
 k : number of channels for each cell (k < S)
 N : cluster size → # of cells forming cluster
 S=kN
 M : # of times a cluster is replicated over a
geographic coverage area
 System Capacity = Total # Duplex Channels = C
C=MS=MkN
(assuming exactly MN cells will cover the area)
 If cluster size (N) is reduced and the geographic area
for each cell is kept constant:
◼ The geographic area covered by each cluster is smaller, so
M must ↑ to cover the entire coverage area (more clusters
needed).
◼ S remains constant.
◼ So C ↑
◼ The smallest possible value of N is desirable to maximize
system capacity.
 Cluster size N determines:
◼ distance between co-channel cells (D)
◼ level of co-channel interference
◼ A mobile or base station can only tolerate so much
interference from other cells using the same frequency
and maintain sufficient quality.
◼ large N → large D → low interference → but small M
and low C !
◼ Tradeoff in quality and cluster size.
◼ The larger the capacity for a given geographic area, the
poorer the quality.
 Frequency reuse factor = 1 / N
◼ each frequency is reused every N cells
◼ each cell assigned k ≒ S / N
 N cells/cluster
◼ connect without gaps
◼ specific values are required for hexagonal geometry
 N = i2 + i j + j2 where i, j ≧ 1
 Typical N values → 3, 4, 7, 12; (i, j) = (1,1), (2,0), (2,1), (2,2)
 To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell
◼ (1) Move i cells along any chain of hexagons, then (2) turn
60 degrees and move j cells.
IV. Channel Assignment Strategies
 Goal is to minimize interference & maximize use of
capacity
◼ lower interference allows smaller N to be used → greater
frequency reuse → larger C
 Two main strategies: Fixed or Dynamic
 Fixed
◼ each cell allocated a pre-determined set of voice channels
 calls within cell only served by unused cell channels
 all channels used → blocked call → no service
◼ several variations
 MSC allows cell to borrow a VC (that is to say, a FVC/RVC
pair) from an adjacent cell
 donor cell must have an available VC to give
 Dynamic
◼ channels NOT allocated permanently
◼ call request → goes to serving base station → goes
to MSC
◼ MSC allocates channel “on the fly”
 allocation strategy considers:
◼ likelihood of future call blocking in the cell
◼ reuse distance (interference potential with other cells
that are using the same frequency)
◼ channel frequency
◼ All frequencies in a market are available to be used
 Advantage: reduces call blocking (that is to say, it
increases the trunking capacity), and increases voice
quality
 Disadvantage: increases storage & computational
load @ MSC
◼ requires real-time data from entire network related to:
 channel occupancy
 traffic distribution
 Radio Signal Strength Indications (RSSI's) from all channels
V. Handoff Strategies

 Handoff: when a mobile unit moves from one cell

to another while a call is in progress, the MSC must
transfer (handoff) the call to a new channel
belonging to a new base station
◼ new voice and control channel frequencies
◼ very important task → often given higher priority than
new call
 It is worse to drop an in-progress call than to deny a new one
 Minimum useable signal level
◼ lowest acceptable voice quality
◼ call is dropped if below this level
◼ specified by system designers
◼ typical values → -90 to -100 dBm
 choose a (handoff threshold) > (minimum useable
signal level)
◼ So, there is time to switch channels before level becomes
too low
◼ as mobile moves away from base station and toward
another base station
 Handoff Margin △
◼ △ = Phandoff threshold - Pminimum usable signal dB
◼ carefully selected
◼ △ too large → unnecessary handoff → MSC loaded down
◼ △ too small → not enough time to transfer → call dropped!
 A dropped handoff can be caused by two factors
◼ not enough time to perform handoff
 delay by MSC in assigning handoff
 high traffic conditions and high computational load on MSC
can cause excessive delay by the MSC
◼ no channels available in new cell
 Handoff Decision
◼ signal level decreases due to
 signal fading → don’t handoff
 mobile moving away from base station → handoff
◼ must monitor received signal strength over a period of
time → moving average
◼ time allowed to complete handoff depends on mobile
speed
 large negative received signal strength (RSS) slope → high
speed → quick handoff
◼ statistics of the fading signal are important to making
appropriate handoff decisions → Chapters 4 and 5
 The time over which a call may be maintained
within a cell, without handoff, is called the Dwell
Time.
 Dwell time is governed by many factors such as
◼ Propagation
◼ Interference
◼ Distance between subscriber and base station
◼ Other time varying effects
 A stationary mobile user can produce fading and
thus a stationary subscriber may have a random and
finite dwell time.
◼ MSC no longer monitors RSS of all channels
 reduces computational load considerably
 enables much more rapid and efficient handoffs
 imperceptible to user
 In first generation analog cellular systems, signal strength
measurements are made by the base stations and supervised by the
MSC.
 A spare receiver in each base station known as locator receiver used to
scan and determine the signal strengths of mobile users in the
neighboring cells.
 Based on locator receiver signal strength information from each base
station, MSC decides if a handoff is necessary or not.
 In second generation systems, handoff decisions are mobile assisted.
 In MAHO, every mobile station measures the received power from
surrounding base stations and continually reports the results of these
measurements to the serving base station.
 A handoff is initiated when the power received from the base station of
a neighboring cell exceed the power received from the current base
station by a certain level or for a certain period of time.
 A mobile may move into a different system
controlled by a different MSC
◼ Called an intersystem handoff
◼ What issues would be involved here?

 Prioritizing Handoffs
◼ Issue: Perceived Grade of Service (GOS) – service
quality as viewed by users
 “quality” in terms of dropped or blocked calls (not voice
quality)
 assign higher priority to handoff vs. new call request
 a dropped call is more aggravating than an occasional
blocked call
 Guard Channels
◼ % of total available cell channels exclusively set
aside for handoff requests
◼ makes fewer channels available for new call
requests
◼ a good strategy is dynamic channel allocation (not
fixed)
 adjust number of guard channels as needed by demand
 So, channels are not wasted in cells with low traffic
 Queuing Handoff Requests
◼ use time delay between handoff threshold and minimum
usable signal level to place a blocked handoff request in
queue
◼ a handoff request can "keep trying" during that time
period, instead of having a single block/no block
decision
◼ prioritize requests (based on mobile speed) and handoff
as needed
◼ calls will still be dropped if time period expires
Practical Handoff Considerations
 Problems occur because of a large range of mobile
velocities
◼ pedestrian vs. vehicle user
 Small cell sizes and/or micro-cells → larger #
handoffs
 MSC load is heavy when high speed users are
passed between very small cells
 Umbrella Cells
◼ Fig. 3.4, pg. 67
◼ use different antenna heights and Tx power levels to
provide large and small cell coverage
◼ multiple antennas & Tx can be co-located at single
location if necessary (saves on obtaining new tower
licenses)
◼ large cell → high speed traffic → fewer handoffs
◼ small cell → low speed traffic
◼ example areas: interstate highway passing thru urban
center, office park, or nearby shopping mall
 Cell Dragging
◼ low speed user w/ line of sight to base station (very strong signal)
◼ strong signal changing slowly
◼ user moves into the area of an adjacent cell without handoff
◼ causes interference with adjacent cells and other cells
 Remember: handoffs help all users, not just the one which is
handed off.
 If this mobile is closer to a reused channel → interference for the
other user using the same frequency
 So this mobile needs to hand off anyway, so other users benefit
because that mobile stays far away from them.
 Typical handoff parameters
◼ Analog cellular (1st generation)
 threshold margin △ ≈ 6 to 12 dB
 total time to complete handoff ≈ 8 to 10 sec
◼ Digital cellular (2nd generation)
 total time to complete handoff ≈ 1 to 2 sec
 lower necessary threshold margin △ ≈ 0 to 6 dB
 enabled by mobile assisted handoff
◼ benefits of small handoff time
 greater flexibility in handling high/low speed users
 queuing handoffs & prioritizing
 more time to “rescue” calls needing urgent handoff
 fewer dropped calls → GOS increased
◼ can make decisions based on a wide range of metrics
other than signal strength
 such as also measure interference levels
 can have a multidimensional algorithm for making
decisions
 Soft vs. Hard Handoffs
◼ Hard handoff: different radio channels assigned when
moving from cell to cell
 all analog (AMPS) & digital TDMA systems (IS-136, GSM,
etc.)
◼ Many spread spectrum users share the same frequency in
every cell
 CDMA → IS-95
 Since a mobile uses the same frequency in every cell, it can
also be assigned the same code for multiple cells when it is
near the boundary of multiple cells.
 The MSC simultaneously monitors reverse link signal at
several base stations
◼ MSC dynamically decides which signal is best
and then listens to that one
 Soft Handoff
 passes data from that base station on to the PSTN
◼ This choice of best signal can keep changing.
◼ Mobile user does nothing for handoffs except
just transmit, MSC does all the work
◼ Advantage unique to CDMA systems
 As long as there are enough codes available.
VI. Co-Channel Interference

 Interference is the limiting factor in performance of

all cellular radio systems
 What are the sources of interference for a mobile
receiver?
 Interference is in both
◼ voice channels
◼ control channels
 Two major types of system-generated interference:
1) Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
2) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
 First we look at CCI
 Frequency Reuse
◼ Many cells in a given coverage area use the same set of
channel frequencies to increase system capacity (C)
◼ Co-channel cells → cells that share the same set of
frequencies
◼ VC & CC traffic in co-channel cells is an interfering
source to mobiles in Several different cells
 Possible Solutions?
1) Increase base station Tx power to improve radio signal
reception? __
 this will also increase interference from co-channel cells by
the same amount
 no net improvement
2) Separate co-channel cells by some minimum distance to
provide sufficient isolation from propagation of radio
signals?
 if all cell sizes, transmit powers, and coverage patterns ≈
same → co-channel interference is independent of Tx power
 co-channel interference depends on:
◼ R : cell radius
◼ D : distance to base station of nearest co-channel cell
 if D / R ↑ then spatial separation relative to cell
coverage area ↑
◼ improved isolation from co-channel RF energy
 Q = D / R : co-channel reuse ratio
◼ hexagonal cells → Q = D/R = 3N
 Fundamental tradeoff in cellular system design:
◼ small Q → small cluster size → more frequency
reuse → larger system capacity great
◼ But also: small Q → small cell separation →
increased co-channel interference (CCI) → reduced
voice quality → not so great
◼ Tradeoff: Capacity vs. Voice Quality
 Signal to Interference ratio → S / I, ____________

◼ S : desired signal power

◼ Ii : interference power from ith co-channel cell
◼ io : # of co-channel interfering cells
 Approximation with some assumptions

◼ Di : distance from ith interferer to mobile

◼ Rx power @ mobile  ( Di ) − n
 n : path loss exponent
◼ free space or line of sight (LOS) (no obstruction) →
n=2
◼ urban cellular → n = 2 to 4, signal decays faster
with distance away from the base station
◼ having the same n throughout the coverage area
means radio propagation properties are roughly the
same everywhere
◼ if base stations have equal Tx power and n is the
same throughout coverage area (not always true)
then the above equation (Eq. 3.8) can be used.
 Now if we consider only the first layer (or tier) of
co-channel cells
◼ assume only these provide significant interference
 And assume interfering base stations are equidistant
from the desired base station (all at distance ≈ D)
then
 What determines acceptable S / I ?
◼ voice quality → subjective testing
◼ AMPS → S / I ≧18 dB (assumes path loss exponent n =
4)
◼ Solving (3.9) for N

◼ Most reasonable assumption is io : # of co-channel

interfering cells = 6
◼ N = 7 (very common choice for AMPS)
 Many assumptions involved in (3.9) :
◼ same Tx power
◼ hexagonal geometry
◼ n same throughout area
◼ Di ≈ D (all interfering cells are equidistant from the base
station receiver)
◼ optimistic result in many cases
◼ propagation tools are used to calculate S / I when
assumptions aren’t valid
 S / I is usually the worst case when a mobile is at the
cell edge
◼ low signal power from its own base station & high
interference power from other cells
◼ more accurate approximations are necessary in those cases

S R −4
=
I 2( D − R) −4 + 2( D + R) −4 + 2 D −4
N =7 and S / I ≈ 17 dB
 Eq. (3.5), (3.8), and (3.9) are (S / I) for forward link only,
i.e. the cochannel base Tx interfering with desired base
station transmission to mobile unit
◼ so this considers interference @ the mobile unit
 What about reverse link co-channel interference?
◼ less important because signals from mobile antennas (near the
ground) don’t propagate as well as those from tall base station
antennas
◼ obstructions near ground level significantly attenuate mobile
energy in direction of base station Rx
◼ also weaker because mobile Tx power is variable → base stations
regulate transmit power of mobiles to be no larger than necessary
Adjacent Channel Interference
◼ Interference from channels that are adjacent in frequency,
◼ The primary reason for that is Imperfect Receive Filters which cause the adjacent
channel energy to leak into your spectrum.
◼ Problem is severer if the user of adjacent channel is in close proximity. →Near-
Far Effect
◼ Near-Far Effect: The other transmitter(who may or may not be of the same type)
captures the receiver of the subscriber.
◼ Also, when a Mobile Station close to the Base Station transmits on a channel
close to the one being used by a weaker mobile: The BS faces difficulty in
discriminating the desired mobile user from the “bleed over” of the adjacent
channel mobile.
 Minimization of ACI

(1) Careful Filtering ---- min. leakage or sharp transition

(2) Better Channel Assignment Strategy

◼ Channels in a cell need not be adjacent: For channels within a cell, Keep
frequency separation as large as possible.
◼ Sequentially assigning cells the successive frequency channels.
◼ Also, secondary level of interference can be reduced by not assigning adjacent
channels to neighboring cells.
◼ For tolerable ACI, we either need to increase the frequency separation or reduce
the passband BW.
Trunking and Grade of
Service (GOS)
 Trunking and Grade of Service
(GOS)
Trunking:
◼ A means for providing access to users on demand from
available pool of channels.
◼ With trunking, a small number of channels can accommodate
large number of random users.
◼ Telephone companies use trunking theory to determine number of circuits
required.
◼ Trunking theory is about how a population can be handled by a limited
number of servers.
Terminology:
1. Traffic intensity is measured in Erlangs:
 One Erlang: traffic in a channel completely occupied. 0.5 Erlang:
channel occupied 30 minutes in an hour.
2. Grade of Service (GOS): probability that a call is blocked (or
delayed).
3. Set-Up Time: time to allocate a channel.
4. Blocked Call: Call that cannot be completed at time of request due to
congestion. Also referred to as Lost Call.
5. Holding Time: (H) average duration of typical call.
6. Load: Traffic intensity across the whole system.
7. Request Rate: (λ) average number of call requests per unit time.
Traffic Measurement (Erlangs)
Tahir Iqbal, Air University 110
Erlang C Model –Blocked calls
cleared
◼ A different type of trunked system queues blocked calls –Blocked Calls
Delayed. This is known as an Erlang C model.

◼ Procedure:
 Determine Pr[delay> 0] = probability of a delay from the chart.
 Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ] = probability that the delay is longer than t, given
that there is a delay
Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ] =exp[-(C-A)t /H ]
 Unconditional Probability of delay > t :
Pr[delay > t ] = Pr[delay > 0] Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ]
 Average delay time D = Pr[delay > 0] H/ (C-A)
Erlang C Formula

◼ The likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a channel is determined

by Erlang C formula:
Tahir Iqbal, Air University 118
Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems

◼ Cost of a cellular network is proportional to the number of Base Stations. The

income is proportional to the number of users.
◼ Ways to increase capacity:
 New spectrum –expensive. PCS bands were sold for $20B.
 Architectural approaches: cell splitting, cell sectoring, reuse partitioning, microcell zones.
 Dynamic allocation of channels according to load in the cell (non-uniform distribution of
channels).
 Improve access technologies. 3.7 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
Cell Splitting

◼ Cell Splitting is the process of subdividing the congested cell into smaller cells
(microcells),Each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in
antenna height and transmitter power.

◼ Cell Splitting increases the capacity since it increases the number of times the
channels are reused.
 An Example

◼ The area covered by a circle with radius R is four times the area covered by the
circle with radius R/2
◼ The number of cells is increased four times
◼ The number of clusters the number of channels and the capacity in the coverage
area are increased
◼ Cell Splitting does not change the co-channel re-use ratio Q =D/R
Transmit Power

◼ New cells are smaller, so the transmit power of the new cells must be reduced
◼ How to determine the transmit power?
◼ The transmit power of the new cells can be found by examining the received
power at the new and old cell boundaries and setting them equal

◼ Pr(at the old cell boundary) is proportional to

◼ Pr(at the new cell boundary) is pproportional to

Transmit Power
Application of cell splitting

◼ Not all cells are split at the same time.

◼ Larger transmit power
◼ Some of the channels would not be sufficiently separated from the co-channel
cells.
◼ Smaller transmit power --parts of the larger cells left uncovered
◼ Two groups:
 one that corresponds to the smaller cell and the other for larger cell reuse requirements
Application of cell splitting (cont.)

◼ The sizes of these two groups depend on the stage of the splitting process
◼ At the beginning, fewer channels will be there in the smaller power group. As the
demand grows, smaller groups would require more channels
◼ Cell splitting continues until all the channels are in the smaller power group
◼ Antenna Down tilting
 To limit the radio coverage of microcells
Disadvantages: Frequent Handoff
Channel Assignment is complicated
More Base Stations are required
Cell Overlay
◼ It’s a relatively novel technique
◼ Cells used by A are divided into:
 Channels used by ‘a’ –those are used by ‘A’ only within radius R/2 from center.

 Channels not used by ‘a’ –no restrictions on their use in A.

Cell sectoring
◼ Another way to reduce the number of cells in a cluster and hence, to
reduce Interference is sectoring. Sectoring refers to the use of directional
rather than omni antennas. Three (3) 120 degrees sectors are shown as an
example

◼ Analysis: mobile in center cell will experience

interference from only 2 cells (not 6).
Improvement of 6dB in S/I. Alternatively,
try to reduce the reuse factor. Sectoring entails
reduced trunking efficiency.
Tahir Iqbal, Air University 134
Example of Cell Sectoring
◼ With omin directional antennas

Where we assumed that the power attenuation n = 4.

◼ For N = 4, we obtain S = 13.8 dB.
◼ For N = 4 and with 3 sectors, we get S = 19. 9 dB:
Microzones

◼ Multiple zones and a base station make up a cell

◼ As a mobile travels within the cell, it is served by the zone with the strongest
signal
◼ This technique is superior to sectoring because antennas are placed at the outer
edges of the cell, and any base station channel can be assigned to any zone by
the base station
Microzoning
ADVANTAGES

◼ No handoffs is required at the MSC

◼ The base station radiation is localized and interference is reduced. A given

channel is active only in the particular zone in which the mobile is traveling

◼ The co-channel interference is also reduced

◼ Decreased co-channel interference improves signal quality which leads to an
increase in capacity without any degradation in trunking efficiency caused by
sectoring

◼ For example
We know an (S/I) of 18dB is required for satisfactory system performance in
narrowband FM
EXAMPLE

◼ If a system with N=7 and (D/R)=4.6,it can achieved a (S/I) of 18dB

◼ For a microcell zone system, since transmission at any instant is confined to a
particular zone, this implies that a (Dz/Rz) of 4.6 can achieve the required
performance
◼ where,
Dz = minimum distance between active co-channel zones and
Rz = zone radius
EXAMPLE (cont.)
Repeaters for Range Extension
◼ Repeaters are radio re-transmitters used to provide coverage for hard-to-
reach areas, such as within buildings or in valleys or tunnels

◼ Repeaters are bidirectional. Upon receiving signals from base station,

then amplifies and reradiates the base station signals to the specific
coverage region. Also it will send signals to the serving base station.

◼ The repeaters do not add capacity to the system-it simply serves to

reradiate the base station signal into specific locations
Repeaters for Range Extension