School of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

Structural Engineering

Lateral Loads on
Structures
Module 2 Chapter 2 – Reinforced Concrete Design

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Code Provision NSCP C101

Lateral Loads are, generally, composed of loads from WIND and EARTHQUAKE. In the National
Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP), these lateral loads are in CHAPTER 2 including all
information about other loads such as DEAD LOADS and LIVE LOADS.

Wind Loads

The design wind loads for buildings, tower and other vertical structures, including Main Wind-Force
Resisting System or MWFRS and component and cladding elements thereof, shall be determined
using one of the following procedures;

Method 1 – Simplified Procedure

Method 2 – Analytical Procedure

Method 3 – Wind Tunnel Procedure

In the calculation of design wind loads for the MWFRS and for components and cladding for
buildings, the algebraic sum of the pressures acting on opposite faces of each building shall be
taken into account.

The wind load to be used in the design of the MWFRS for an enclosed or partially enclosed
building or other structure shall not be less than 0.5kPa multiplied by the area of the building or
structure projected onto a vertical plane normal to the assumed wind direction. The design wind
force for open buildings and other structures shall be not less than 0.5 kPa multiplied by the area Af.

The design wind pressure for components and cladding of buildings shall not be less than a
net pressure of 0.5 kPa acting in either direction normal to the surface.

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BASIC WIND SPEED, V – three –second gust speed at 10 m above the ground in exposure C as
determined in accordance with appropriate sections of the code and associated with an annual
probability for 0.02 of being equalled or exceeded. ( 50 years mean recurrence interval).

BUILDING, ENCLOSED – is a building that does not comply with the requirements for open or
partially enclosed buildings.

BUILDING, ENVELOPE – Cladding, roofing, exterior wall, glazing, door assemblies, window
assemblies, skylight assemblies, and other components enclosing the building.

BUILDING, FLEXIBLE – slender buildings that have a fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz.

BUILDING, LOW RISE – enclosed or partially enclosed building that comply with the following
conditions;

Mean roof height h less than or equal to 18m.

Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal dimension.

BUILDING, OPEN – a building having each wall at least 80 percent open. This condition is expressed
for each wall by the equation Ao > 0.8 Ag where;

BUILDING, PARTIALLY ENCLOSED – is a building that complies with both of the following conditions:

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The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds the sum
of the areas of openings in the balance of the building envelope ( walls and roof) by more than
10%; and

The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds 0.5 m2 or
1 percent of the area of the wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of opening s in the
balance of the building envelope does not exceed 20 percent.

These conditions are expressed by the following equations;

Ao > 1.10 Avi

Ao > smaller of ( 0.5m2 or 0.01 Ag) and Avi/Agi < 0.20

BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE, REGULAR-SHAPED – a building or other structure having no

unusual geometrical irregularity in spatial form.

BUILDING, RIGID – a building or other structure whose fundamental frequency is greater or equal to
1 Hz.

BUILDING, SIMPLE DIAPHRAGM – is a building in which both wind ward and leeward wind loads are
transmitted through floor and roof diaphragms to the same vertical MWFRS (e.g. no structural
separation).

COMPONENTS AND CLADDING – elements of the building envelope that do not qualify as part of
the MWFRS.

DESIGN FORCE, F – is the equivalent static force to be used in the determination of wind loads for
open buildings and other strutures.

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DESIGN PRESSURE, Ƿ - is the equivalent static pressure to be used in the determination of wind
loads for buildings.

EAVE HEIGHT, h – the distance from the ground surface adjacent to the building to the roof cave
line at a particular wall. If the height of the eave varies along the wall, the average height shall be
used.

EFFECTIVE WIND AREA – is the area used to determine GCp. For component and cladding
elements, the effective wind area is the span length multiplied by an effective width that need not be
less than one-third the span length. For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall not be
gretar than the area that is tributary to an individual fastener.

ESCARPMENT – also known as scarp, with respect to topographic effect , a cliff or steep slope
generally separating two levels or gently sloping areas.

FREE ROOF – roof with a configuration generally conforming to those shown in the appropriate
figures (mono slope, pitched, or toughed) in an open building with no enclosing walls underneath
the roof surface.

GLAZING – Glass or transparent or translucent plastic sheet used in windows, doors, skylights, or
curtain walls.

GLAZING, IMPACT RESISTANT – Glazing that has been shown by testing in accordance with ASTM
E1886 and ASTM E1996 or other approved test methods to withstand the impact of wind-borne
missiles likely to be generated in wind-borne debris regions during design winds.

IMPACT RESISTANT COVERING – a covering designed to protect glazing, which has been shown by
testing in accordance with ASTM E1886 and ASTM E 1996 or other approved test methods to
withstand the impact or wind-borne debris missiles likely to be generated in wind-borne debris
regions during design winds.

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IMPORTANCE FACTOR, Iw – A factor that accounts for the degree of hazard to human life and
damage to property.

MAIN WIND-FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM (MWFRS) – an assemblage of structural elements assigned

to provide support and stability for the overall structure. The system generally receives wind loading
from more than one surface.

MEAN ROOF HEIGHT, h – The average of the roof eave height and the height to the highest point
on the roof surface, except that, for roof angles of less than or equal to 10˚, the mean roof height
shall be the roof heave height.

OPENINGS – Apertures or holes in the building envelope that allow air to flow through the building
envelope and that are designed as “open” during design winds as define by the code provisions.

OTHER STRUCTURES – are non-building structures including poles , masts, trussed towers, and
billboards that are not typically occupied by persons but are also covered by the code.

WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGIONS – Areas within typhoon prone regions located:

Within 1.6 km of the total basic wind speed is equal to or greater than 180 kph.

In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than 190 kph.

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN AGAINST WIND

Method 1: Simplified Procedure

A building whose design wind loads are determined in accordance with the code provisions
shall meet all conditions of MWFRS or COMPONENTS & CLADDING. If a building qualifies only
under COMPONENTS & CLADDING for design of its components and cladding, then its MWFRS
shall be designed by Method 2 or Method 3.

MAIN WIND-FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM

For the design of MWFRS the building must meet all of the following conditions;

The building is a simple diaphragm building.

The building is a low-rise building

The building is enclosed and conforms to the wind-borne debris provisions

The building is a regular-shaped building or structure.

The building is not classified as a flexible building.

The building does not have response characteristics making it subject to across wind loading,
vortex shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter, and does not have a site location for which
channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions warrant special consideration.

The building has and approximately symmetrical cross-section in each direction with either a
flat roof or a gable or hip roof with 0 < 45˚.

The building is exempted from torsional load cases as indicated in the code or the torsional
load cases defined by the code do not control the design of any of the MWFRS of the building.

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COMPONENT AND CLADDING

For the design of components and cladding the building must meet all the conditions:

The mean roof height h must be less than or equal to 18m.

The building is enclosed as defined and conforms to wind-borne bedris provision.

The building is a regular-shaped building or structure.

The building does not have response characteristics making it subject to across wind loading,
vortex shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter; and does not have a site location for which
channeling effect or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions warrant special consideration.

The building has either a flat roof , a gable roof with Ɵ< 45˚, or a hip roof with Ɵ < 27˚.

The other detailed wind analysis is available in the NSCP under SECTION 207. Compete
detailed drawings and loads occurrence examples are also presented with the appropriate tables for
required variables.

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Earthquake loads

Earthquake loads are defined in the NSCP under SECTION 208 ( Loads are discussed in the NSCP
under Chapter 2).

Structures and portion thereof shall, as a minimum, be designed and constructed to resist the effects
of seismic ground motions as provided in the code. When the code-prescribed wind design
produces greater effects, the wind design shall govern, but detailing requirements and limitations
prescribed and reference sections shall be followed.

BASE – is the level at which the earthquake motions are considered to be imparted to the structure
or the level at which the structure as a dynamic vibrator is supported.

BASE SHEAR, V – is the total design lateral force or shear at the base of a structure.

BOUNDARY ELEMENT – is an element at edges of openings or at perimeters of shear walls or

diaphragms.

BRACED FRAME – is an essentially vertical truss system of the concentric or eccentric type that is
provided to resist lateral forces.

BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM – is an essentially complete space frame that provides support for gravity
loads.

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CANTILIVERED COLUMN ELEMENT – is a column element in a lateral-force-resisting system that

cantilevers from a fixed base and has minimal moment capacity at the top, with lateral forces applied
essentially at the top.

COLLECTOR – is a member or element provided to transfer lateral forces from a portion of a

structure to vertical elements of the lateral-force-resisting system.

COMPONENT – is a part or element of an architectural, electrical, mechanical or structural system.

COMPONENT, EQUIPMENT – is a mechanical or electrical component or element that is part of a

mechanical and/or electrical system.

COMPONENT, FLEXIBLE – is a component, including its attachment having a fundamental period

greater than 0.6 seconds.

COMPONENT, RIGID – is a component, including its attachment having a fundamental period less
than or equal to 0.6 seconds.

CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME – is a braced frame in which the members are subjected
primarily to axial forces.

DESIGN BASIS GROUND MOTION – is that ground motion that has a 10 percent chance of being
exceeded in 50 years as determined by a site-specific hazard analysis or maybe determined from a
hazard map. A suite of ground motion time histories with dynamic properties representative of the
site characteristics may be used to represent this ground motion. The dynamic effects of the Design
Basis Ground Motion may be represented by the Design Response Spectrum.

DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRUM – is an elastic response spectrum for 5 percent equivalent viscous
damping used to represent the dynamic effects of the Design Basis Ground Motion for the design of
structures in accordance with prescribe provisions. This response spectrum may be either a site-

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specific spectrum based on geologic , tectonic, seismological and soil characteristics associated with
a specific site or may be a spectrum constructed in accordance with the spectral shape using the
site-specific values Ca and Cv and multiplied by the acceleration of gravity, 9.815 m/sec2.

DESIGN SEISMIC FORCE – is the minimum total strength design base shear, factored and distributed
in accordance with appropriate section in the code.

DIAPHRAGM – is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit lateral forces to the
vertical-resisting elements. The term “diaphragn” includes horizontal bracing systems.

DIAPHRAGM or SHEAR WALL CHORD – is the boundary element of a diaphragm or shear wall that
is assumed to take axial stresses analogous to the flanges of a beam.

DIAPHRAGM STRUT (drag strut, tie, collector) – is the element of a diaphragm parallel to the applied
load that collects and transfers diaphragm shear to the vertical-resisting elements or distributes
loads within the diaphragm. Such memebers take axial rension or compression.

DRIFT

DUAL SYSTEM – is a combination of moment-resisting frames and shear walls or braced frames
designed in accordance with the criteria of SECTION [Link] of the code.

ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (EBF) – is a steel-braced frame designed in conformance with

SECTION 528 of the code.

ELASTIC RESPONSE PARAMETERS – are forces and deformations determined from an elastic
dynamic analysis using an unreduced ground motion representation, in accordance with SECTION
208.6.

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ESSENTIAL FACILITIES – are those structures that are necessary for emergency operations
subsequent to a natural disaster.

FLEXIBLE ELEMENT or SYSTEM – is one whose deformation under lateral load is significantly larger
than adjoining parts of the system. Limiting ratios for defining specific flexible elements are set forth
in SECTION 208.5.6.

HORIZONTAL BRACING SYSTEM – is a horizontal truss system that serves the same function as a
diaphragm.

INTERMEDIATE MOMENT RESISTING FRAME (IMRF) – is a concrete frame designed in accordance

with SECTION 412 of the code.

LATERAL FORCE RESISTING FRAME (LFRF) – is that part of the structural system designed to resist
the Design Seismic Force.

MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME (MRF) – is a frame in which members and joints are capable of
resisting forces primarily by flexure.

MOMENT-RESISTING WALL FRAME (MRWF) – is a masonry wall frame especially detailed to provide
ductile behavior and designed in conformance with section SECTION 708.2.6 of the code.

ORDINARY BRACED FRAME (OBF) – is a steel-braced frame designed in accordance with the
provisions of SECTION 527 or 528 or concrete-braced frame designed in accordance with SECTION
421.

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ORDINARY MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME (OMRF) – is a moment-resisting frame not meeting special

deatailing requirement for ductile behavior.

ORTHOGONAL EFFECTS – are the earthquake load effects on structural elements common to the
lateral-force-resisting systems along two orthogonal axes.

OVERSTRENGTH – is a characteristics of structures where the actual strength is larger than the
design strength. The degree of overatrength is material-and-system-dependent.

PHI-DELTA EFFECT (Ƿ∆) – is the secondary effect on shears, axial forces and moments of frame
members due to the action of the vertical loads induced by horizontal displacement of the structure
resulting from various loading.

SHEAR WALL – is a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane to the plane of the wall(
sometimes referred to as vertical diaphragm or structural wall).

SHEAR WALL-FRAME INTERACTIVE SYSTEM – uses combinations of shear walls and frames
designed to resist lateral forces in proportion to their relative rigidities, considering interaction
between shear walls and frames on all levels.

SOFT STORY – is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70 percent of the stiffness of the story
above.

SPACE FRAME – is a three-dimensional structural system, without bearing walls, composed of

members interconnected so as to function as a complete self-contained unit with or without the aid
of horizontal diaphragms or floor-bracing system.

SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (SCBF) – is a steel-braced frame designed in

conformance with the provision of SECTION 526 of the code.

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SPECIAL MOMENT RESISTING FRAME ( SMRF) – is a moment-resisting- frame specially detailed to

provide ductile behavior and comply with the requirement given in CHAPTER 4 or 5.

SPECIAL TRUSS-MOMENT FRAME (STMF) – is a moment resisting frame specially detailed to provide
ductile behavior and comply with the provision of SECTION 525.

STORY – is the space between levels. Story x is the story below level x.

STORY DRIFT – is the lateral displacement of one level relative to the level above or below.

STORY DRIFT RATIO – is the story drift divided by the story height.

STORY SHEAR (Vx) – is the summation of design lateral forces above the story under consideration.

SUBDIAPHRAGM – is a portion of a diaphragm used to transfer wall anchorage forces to diaphragm

cross ties.

VERTICAL LOAD-CARRYING FRAME – is a space frame designed to carry vertical gravity loads.

WALL ANCHORAGE SYSTEM – is the system of elements anchoring the wall to the diaphragm and
those elements within the diaphragm required to develop the anchorage forces, including
subdiaphragms and continuous ties.

WEAK STORY – is one in which the story strength is less than 80 percent of the story above.

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Other lateral loads

LATERAL FORCE ON ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURES, NONSTRUCTURAL COMPONENTS AND

EQUIOMENT SUPPORTED BY STRUCTURE

Elements of structure and their attachments, permanent non-structural components and their
attachments, and the attachments for permanent equipment supported by a structure shall be
designed to resist the total design seismic forces as prescribed by the code.

Attachments for floor- or roof-mounted equipment weighing less thn 1.8 kN, and furniture
need not be designed.

Attachment shall include anchorages and required bracing. Friction resulting from gravity
loads shall not be considered to provide resistance to seismic forces.

When the structural failure of the lateral-force-resisting system of non-rigid equipment would
cause a life hazard, such system shall be designed to resist seismic forces.

When permissible design strength and other acceptance criteria are not contained in or
referenced by this code, such criteria shall be obtained from approved national standards subject to
the approval of the building official.

DESIGN FOR TOTAL LATERAL FORCE

The total design lateral seismic force, Fp, shall be determined from the following equation;

Fp = 4CaIpWp (208-18)

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Alternatively, Fp may be calculated using the following equation;

Fp=apCaIp/Rp ( 1+3 hx/hr)Wp (209-19)

Except that Fp shall not be less than 0.7CaIpWp and need not be more than 4CaIpWp.

Where:

hx = the element or component attachment elevation with respect to the grade. h, shall not be
taken less than 0.0

hr = the structure roof elevtion with respect to grade.

aƥ = the in-structure Component Amplification Factor that varies from 1.0 to 2.5 taken from Table
208-12.

SOIL LATERAL LOADS

Basement, foundation and retaining walls shall be designed to resist lateral soil loads. Soil
loads specified in TABLE 209-1 shall be used as the minimum design lateral soil loads unless
specified otherwise in a soil investigation report approved by the building officials.

Basement walls and other walls in which horizontal movement is restricted at the top shall be
designed for at rest pressure. Retaining walls free to move and rotate at the top are permitted to be
designed for active pressure. Design lateral pressure from surcharge loads shall be added to the
lateral earth pressure load.

Design Lateral pressure shall be increased if soils with expansion potential are present at the site.
Basement walls extending not more than 2400mm shall be permitted to be designed for active
pressure.

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ROOF DRAINAGE

Roof drainage systems shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of the code
having jurisdiction in the area. The flow capacity of secondary (overflow) drains or scuppers shall not
be less than that of the primary drains or scuppers.

Each portion of a roof shall be designed to sustain the load of rainwater that will accumulate
on it if the primary drainage system for that portion is blocked plus the uniform load caused by
water that rises above the inlet of the secondary drainage system at its design flow.

R =0.009 ( 8ds + dh)

Where;

dh = additional depth of water on the undeflected roof above the inlet of secondary drainage
system at its design flow (i.e. the hydraulic head), in mm.

ds = depth of water on the undeflected roof up to the inlet of secondary drainage system when the
primary drainage ystem is blocked (i.e. the static head), in mm.

R = rain load on the undeflected roof, in kN/m2

When the phrase “undeflected roof”is used, deflections from loads (including dead loads)
shall not be considered when determining the amount of rain on the roof.

For roofs with slope less than 6mm per 300 mm (1.19 degrees or 0.0208 radian), the design
calculations shall include verification of adequate stiffness to preclude progressive deflection in
accordance with SECTION 8.4 of ASCE-7-05. (Ponding Stability).

Roof equipped with hardware to control the rate of drainage shall be equipped with a
secondary drainage system at a higher elevation that limits accumulation of water on the roof above
the elevation.

Such roof shall be designed to sustain the load of rainwater that will accumulate on them to
the elevation of the secondary drainage system plus the uniform load caused by water that rises
above the inlet of the secondary drainage system at its design flow determined from SECTION 210.2.
Such roofs shall be also be checked for ponding stability in accordance with SECTION 210.3
(Ponding Stability).

FLOOD LOADS

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Within flood hazard areas as established in SECTION 211.3, all new construction of buildings,
structure and portions of buildings and structures, including substantial improvement and
restoration of substantial damage to buildings and structures, shall be designed and constructed to
resist the effects of flood hazards and flood loads. For building that are located in more than one
flood hazard area, the provisions associated with the most restrictive flood hazard area shall apply.

DEFINITIONS

BASE FLOOD – the flood having a 1-percecent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given
year.

BASE FLOOR ELEVATION – the elevation of the base flood, including wave height, relative to the
datum to be set by the specific national or local government agency.

BASEMENT – the portion of a building having its floor subgrade (below ground level) on all sides.

DESIGN FLOOD – the flood associated with the greater of the following two areas;

1. Area with a flood subject to a 1-percent or greater chance of flooding in any year; or

2. Area designated as a flood hazard area on a community’s flood hazard map, or otherwise
legally designated.

DESIGN FLOOD ELEVATION – the elevation of the “design flood”, including wave height, relative to
the datum specified on the community’s legally designated flood hazard map. The design flood
elevation shall be the elevation of the highest existing grade of the building’s perimeter plus the
depth number (in meters) specified on the floor hazard map.

DRY FLOOD PROOFING – a combination of design modifications that results in a building or

structure, including the attendant utility and sanitary facilities, being water tight with walls
substantially impermeable to the passage of water and with structural components having the
capacity to resist loads as identified in the code.

FLOOD or FLOODING – a general and temporary condition of partial or complete inundation of

normally dryland from;

1. The overflow of inland or tidal water.

2. The unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters from any source.

FLOOD DAMAGE-RESISTANT MATERIALS – any construction material capable of withstanding direct

prolonged contact with flood waters without sustaining any damage that requires more than
cosmetic repair.

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FLOOD HAZARD AREA SUBJECT TO HIGH VELOCITYWAVE ACTION – area within the flood hazard
that is subject to high velocity wave action.

FLOODWAY – the channel of the river, creek or other water course and the adjacent land areas that
must be reserved in order to discharge the base flood without cumulatively increasing the water
surface elevation more than a designated height.

LOWEST FLOOR – the floor of the lowest enclosed area, including basement, but excluding any
unfinished or flood-resistant enclosure, usable solely for vehicle parking, building access or limited
storage provided that such enclosure is not built so as to render the structure in violation of this
section.

SUBSTANTIAL DAMAGE – damage of any origin sustained by a structure whereby the cost of
restoring the structure to its before-damaged condition would equal or exceed 50 percent of the
market value of the structure before the damage occurred.

SUBSTANTIAL IMPROVEMENT – any repair, reconstruction, rehabilitation, addition or improvement

of a building or structure, the cost of which equals or exceeds 50 percent of the market value of the
structure before the improvement or repair is started. If the structure has sustained substantial
damage, any repairs are considered substantial improvement regardless of the actual repair work
performed. The term does not , however, include either:

1. Any project for improvement of a building required to correct exisiting health, sanitary or
safety code violations identified by the building official and that are the minimum necessary to
assure safe living conditions.

2. Any alteration of a historic structure provided that the alteration will not preclude the
structure’s continued designation as a historic structure.

FLOOD HAZARD DOCUMENTATION

The following documentation shall be prepared and sealed by an engineer-of-record and

submitted to the building official:

1. For construction in flood hazard areas not subject to high-velocity wave action:

1.1. The elevation of the lowest floor, including the basement, as required by the lowest floor
elevation.

1.2. For fully enclosed areas below the design flood elevation where provision to allow for the
automatic entry and exit of floodwaters do not meet the minimum requirements, construction
documents shall include a statement that the design will provide for equalization of hydrostatic flood
forces.

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1.3. For the dry flood-proofed nonresidential buildings, construction documents shall include a
statement that the dry flood-proofing is designed.

2. For construction in flood hazard areas subject to high-velocity wave action:

2.1 The elevation of the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural member as required by
the lowest floor elevation.

2.2 Construction documents shall include a statement that the building is designed, including
that the pile or column foundation and building or structure to be attached thereto is designed to
be anchored to resist flotation, collapse and lateral movement due to the effects of wind and flood
loads acting simultaneously on all building components, and other load requirement of Chapter 2.

2.3 For breakaway walls designed to resist a nominal load of less than 0.48 kN/m2 or more than
0.96 kN/m2, construction documents shall include a statement that the break away wall is designed.

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