Energy of a system
7.1 Systems and Environments
7.2 Work Done by a Constant
CHAPTER
Force
7.3 The Scalar Product of Two
7
Vectors
7.4 Work Done by a Varying Force
7.5 Kinetic Energy and the Work–
Kinetic Energy Theorem
7.6 Potential Energy of a System
7.7 Conservative and
Nonconservative Forces
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In the system model, we focus our attention on a small portion of the Universe— the system—and ignore details of the
rest of the Universe outside of the system. A critical skill in applying the system model to problems is identifying the
system. A valid system
• may be a single object or particle.
• may be a collection of objects or particles.
• may be a region of space (such as the interior of an
automobile engine combustion cylinder).
• may vary with time in size and shape (such as a rubber ball,
which deforms upon striking a wall)
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Almost all the terms we have used thus far—velocity, acceleration, force, and so on—convey a similar meaning in physics
as they do in everyday life. Now, however, we encounter a term whose meaning in physics is distinctly different from its
everyday meaning: work.
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Notice from Equation 7.1 that the work done by a force on a moving object is zero when the
force applied is perpendicular to the displacement of its point of application. That is, if q =
90o, then W = 0 because cos 90o = 0. For example, in Figure 7.3, the work done by the normal
force on the object and the work done by the gravitational force on the object are both zero
because both forces are perpendicular to the displacement and have zero components along
an axis in the direction of Dr.
If an applied force F is in the same direction as the displacement Dr, then q = 0 and cos
Figure 7.3 An object is displaced on a 0 = 1. In this case, Equation 7.1 gives
frictionless, horizontal surface. The normal
force n and the gravitational force mg do
no work on the object.
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A model of a common physical system on which the
force varies with position is shown in Figure 7.9. The
system is a block on a frictionless, horizontal surface
and connected to a spring. For many springs, if the
spring is either stretched or compressed a small
distance from its unstretched (equilibrium)
configuration, it exerts on the block a force that can be
mathematically modeled as
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𝑥𝑓 0 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 2
𝑊𝑠 = න 𝐹𝑠 . 𝑑𝑟 = න (−𝑘𝑥) . 𝑑𝑥 = න −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 − 0
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 0 2
𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 0
1 2
𝑊𝑠 = න 𝐹𝑠 . 𝑑𝑟 = න (−𝑘𝑥) . 𝑑𝑥 = න −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 − 𝑘𝑥
𝑥𝑖 0 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
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Let us imagine a system consisting of a book and the Earth,
interacting via the gravitational force. We do some work on the
system by lifting the book slowly from rest through a vertical
displacement Dr = (yf - yi )j as in Figure 7.15. According to our
discussion of work as an energy transfer, this work done on the
system must appear as an increase in energy of the system. The
book is at rest before we perform the work and is at rest after
we perform the work. Therefore, there is no change in the
kinetic energy of the system
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