Overview and importance of Biology in Engineering

Biological science, or biology, is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with many
sub-fields like:
• Cell biology: The study of the structure, function, and behavior of cells
• Ecology: The study of how organisms interact with their environment
• Biochemistry: The study of the chemicals and chemistry of living organisms
• Developmental biology: The study of how the structure of organisms changes over time
• Molecular biology: The study of the molecules that make up an organism, how they
interact, and how they are controlled
• Bioinformatics: The processing, storing, and analyzing of biological data
• Biotechnology: The use of living organisms to develop products for human benefit
• Immunology: The study of the immune system
• Zoology: The study of the animal kingdom
Biological science for engineers
It is the study of how biological processes can be integrated with engineering principles to solve
problems. This field is also known as bioengineering. Bioengineering can be used to create products
and technologies that benefit many sectors, including:

•Healthcare: Biological engineers design medical devices, such as glucose sensors and hip replacement
materials.
•Food and agriculture: Biological engineers develop equipment to harvest and process food.
•Environment: Biological engineers create processes to clean air and water, and develop plastic-free
packaging.
•Energy and materials: Biological engineers create new materials for defense and fuels for transport.

Bioengineering draws on knowledge from many engineering disciplines, such as mechanical, chemical,
and electrical engineering. It also uses expertise from other pure and applied sciences, including
biomechanics, bioinformatics, and thermodynamics. Some examples of bioengineering applications
include:
•Biotechnology: Uses living organisms to develop products.
•Tissue engineering: Combines cells, scaffolds, and signals to regenerate tissues and improve organ
function.
•Biomechanics: Applies engineering principles to understand biological systems, such as human movement
Principles of Bird Flight

 Lift: Generated by the wing's shape, similar to an airfoil. Air moves faster over the curved upper surface of
the wing, creating lower pressure above and higher pressure below. This pressure difference produces lift.
 Thrust: Achieved by flapping the wings, particularly during the downstroke. The forward motion pushes
against air, propelling the bird forward.
 Drag: Air resistance acts opposite to the bird's direction of movement. Streamlined body shape minimizes
drag.
 Gravity: Gravity pulls the bird downward. Birds counteract this by flapping to produce enough lift.
 “Lotus effect” in Nanotechnology
Can be applied to create dirt free clothes

• The lotus effect is a nanotechnology concept that refers to the self-cleaning and water repellency of
surfaces that mimic the structure of a lotus leaf.
• The lotus leaf's surface is covered with microscopic bumps called papillae, which are coated with
hydrophobic wax crystals. This structure minimizes the contact area between water and dirt particles.
 Velcro inventor George de Mestral and burrs.

One winter in 1948, a Swiss engineer George de Mestral was out walking his dog on the lower
slopes of the Jura mountains and discovered Velcro
Lecture-2: Overview and importance of engineering in biology
PACEMAKER:
• A Pacemaker is a medical device
that regulates the heart's rhythm
by delivering electrical impulses
to stimulate the heart to beat at a
normal rate and rhythm.

• It is primarily used in patients

with arrhythmias, where the heart
beats too slowly, too fast, or
irregularly.

• A pacemaker is an implantable or
external electronic device
designed to regulate abnormal
heart rhythms (arrhythmias) by
delivering electrical impulses to
the heart muscles, ensuring
proper cardiac function.
Applications
• 1. Bradycardia (Slow Heartbeat): To maintain an adequate heart rate in patients whose heart beats too
slowly.
• 2. Heart Block: Used to bypass disrupted electrical pathways in the heart that can cause a slow or irregular
heartbeat.
• 3. Tachycardia (Fast Heartbeat): Some pacemakers have features to help manage and prevent abnormally
fast heart rates.
• 4. Heart Failure: Specialized devices like cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) pacemakers help
coordinate the contractions of the heart's chambers to improve efficiency.
• 5. Post-Heart Surgery: Temporary pacing is sometimes used during recovery from cardiac surgery.
• 6. Congenital Heart Defects: Helps regulate the heart rhythm in individuals born with heart abnormalities.
• 7. Syncope (Fainting): Pacemakers can prevent fainting spells caused by heart rhythm issues.
ARTIFICIAL HEART:
• An artificial heart is a mechanical device
designed to replace the function of a failing
human heart.
• It can either partially or completely replace the
natural heart's role in pumping blood to sustain
life.
• Artificial hearts are used as a bridge to heart
transplantation or as a permanent solution in
patients who are not eligible for transplantation.
Applications
1. Bridge to Transplantation: Keeps patients
alive while waiting for a donor heart.
2. Destination Therapy: Used as a permanent
solution for patients ineligible for a heart transplant.
3. Bridge to Recovery: Temporarily supports
the heart to allow recovery after surgery or cardiac
events.
4. Palliative Care: Improves quality of life in
patients with end-stage heart failure.
BIOSENSOR:
• A biosensor is an analytical device that integrates a
biological recognition element with a
physicochemical detector to measure specific
substances (analytes) in a sample.
• It converts a biological response into a measurable
electrical, optical, or thermal signal.

Applications
1. Medical Diagnostics: Glucose monitoring in
diabetes, detection of infectious diseases, and cancer
biomarkers.
2. Environmental Monitoring: Detection of
pollutants, toxins, and pathogens in air, water, and soil.
3. Food and Agriculture: Monitoring food quality,
detecting pathogens, and measuring pesticide residues.
4. Industrial Processes: Monitoring fermentation
processes and bioreactors in pharmaceutical and
biofuel industries.
5. Biodefense and Security: Detection of
biological warfare agents and hazardous substances.
BIOREACTORS:
A bioreactor is a vessel or system designed to support a
biologically active environment for the cultivation of
microorganisms, animal cells, or plant cells. It provides the
necessary conditions for biological processes, such as
fermentation or cell culture, under controlled parameters like
temperature, pH, oxygen, and nutrient supply.

Applications
1. Pharmaceutical Industry: Production of antibiotics,
vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and therapeutic proteins.
2. Food and Beverage Industry: Manufacturing of
fermented products like yogurt, beer, and vinegar.
3. Biofuel Production: Production of ethanol,
biodiesel, and biogas using microorganisms.
4. Environmental Applications: Wastewater
treatment, bioremediation, and removal of pollutants.
5. Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine:
Cultivation of cells and tissues for medical purposes.
6. Agriculture: Production of biofertilizers,
biopesticides, and plant secondary metabolites.
Big Bang
The Big Bang is the prevailing scientific theory that explains the
origin and evolution of the universe. It posits that the universe began
as a singularity—an infinitely dense and hot point—approximately
13.8 billion years ago, and has been expanding ever since.

Key Features of the Big Bang Theory

1. Initial Singularity: The universe began as an extremely
small, hot, and dense point.
2. Expansion: The singularity rapidly expanded in an event
called the Big Bang, marking the beginning of time and space.
3. Formation of Fundamental Particles: As the universe
cooled, particles like quarks, electrons, and photons formed.
4. Formation of Atoms: About 380,000 years later, protons
and electrons combined to form hydrogen and helium atoms.
5. Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB): The residual heat
from the Big Bang, observed as faint microwave radiation, is
considered strong evidence of this event.
6. Formation of Galaxies and Stars: Over billions of years,
matter clumped together due to gravity, forming galaxies, stars, and
planets.
Nucleosynthesis is the process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons
and nuclei.

Nucleosynthesis:
Nucleosynthesis is the
process by which atomic
nuclei are formed from
protons and neutrons. It is
responsible for creating the
elements of the universe,
starting with the lightest
nuclei and progressing to
heavier ones through
various astrophysical
processes.
Types of Nucleosynthesis
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN)
a. Occurred in the first few minutes after the Big Bang (~10 seconds to 20 minutes).
b. Formed light elements like hydrogen (H), helium (He), and trace amounts of lithium (Li) and beryllium (Be).
c. Key reactions: Fusion of protons and neutrons to form deuterium, which combined to form helium and other
light elements.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
a. Takes place in the cores of stars during their lifetimes.
b. Responsible for the creation of elements heavier than helium through nuclear fusion.
c. Key processes:
 Hydrogen Burning: Fusion of hydrogen into helium via the proton-proton chain or CNO cycle.
 Helium Burning: Fusion of helium into carbon and oxygen.
 Advanced Burning Stages: Formation of elements like neon, silicon, and iron in massive stars.
3. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
a. Occurs during the explosion of massive stars (supernovae).
b. Produces elements heavier than iron (e.g., gold, uranium) through neutron capture processes like the r-
process and s-process.
4. Cosmic Ray Spallation
a. High-energy cosmic rays collide with nuclei in interstellar space, breaking them into lighter elements.
b. Responsible for the formation of light elements like lithium, beryllium, and boron.
5. Primordial Nucleosynthesis in Neutron Stars
a. Heavy elements can form in the extreme conditions during neutron star mergers, primarily through the r-
process.
Significance of Nucleosynthesis
1. Element Formation: Explains the abundance of elements in the universe.
2. Evolution of Stars: Drives the life cycles of stars, influencing their formation, evolution, and
death.
3. Cosmic Observations: Matches observed elemental abundances with theoretical predictions,
validating our understanding of astrophysics.
4. Chemical Enrichment of the Universe: Successive generations of stars recycle and enrich the
interstellar medium with heavier elements, supporting planet formation and life.
Timeline of the Origin of Life on Earth
The origin of life on Earth spans billions of years and involves a complex sequence of events, from the formation of the
planet to the emergence of cellular life. Below is a timeline highlighting the major milestones in this process:

1. Formation of Earth (~4.6 Billion Years Ago)

a. Earth formed from the accretion of dust and gas in the solar nebula.
b. Initial conditions were hostile, with intense volcanic activity, high temperatures, and frequent asteroid
impacts.

2. Formation of a Primitive Atmosphere (~4.5 Billion Years Ago)

a. Earth's early atmosphere was reducing, composed primarily of methane (CH₄), ammonia (NH₃), hydrogen
(H₂), water vapor (H₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂).
b. No free oxygen (O₂) was present.

3. Cooling of Earth and Formation of Oceans (~4.4 Billion Years Ago)

a. Earth's surface cooled, allowing water vapor to condense and form oceans.
b. These primordial oceans provided the medium for chemical reactions leading to life.

4. Abiotic Synthesis of Organic Molecules (~4.0 Billion Years Ago)

a. Simple organic molecules like amino acids, nucleotides, and sugars formed.
b. Energy sources: UV radiation, lightning, and volcanic heat.
c. Experiments like the Miller-Urey experiment simulated these conditions and demonstrated the abiotic
synthesis of organic molecules.
5. Formation of Protocells (~3.8–4.0 Billion Years Ago)
a. Organic molecules aggregated to form lipid bilayer vesicles, resembling primitive cell membranes.
b. These protocells could encapsulate molecules, creating isolated environments conducive to biochemical reactions.
6. Emergence of Self-Replicating Molecules (~3.8 Billion Years Ago)
a. RNA, a self-replicating molecule capable of catalysis (RNA World Hypothesis), likely played a crucial role in early
life.
b. Transition from simple replication to molecular evolution began.
7. First Prokaryotic Cells (~3.5–3.8 Billion Years Ago)
a. The first true living organisms (prokaryotic cells) appeared.
b. Likely anaerobic and heterotrophic, utilizing organic molecules from the environment.
8. Photosynthesis and Oxygen Production (~2.5–3.0 Billion Years Ago)
a. Cyanobacteria evolved, capable of oxygenic photosynthesis.
b. Released oxygen (O₂) into the atmosphere, initiating the Great Oxidation Event (~2.5 billion years ago).
9. Eukaryotic Cells (~2.0 Billion Years Ago)
Complex cells with nuclei and organelles evolved through endosymbiosis (e.g., mitochondria and chloroplasts).
10. Multicellular Life (~600 Million Years Ago)
Simple multicellular organisms emerged, enabling division of labor and increased complexity.

11. Cambrian Explosion (~540 Million Years Ago)

Rapid diversification of life forms, including the ancestors of modern animal phyla.
The elements and solar system formed in
astronomical events
Supernova explosions
Massive stars that end their lives in supernova explosions create the
heaviest elements, like iron

Solar nebula
The solar system formed from a cloud of gas and dust called the
solar nebula, which collapsed due to a shock wave from a nearby
supernova. The Sun formed in the center, and the planets formed in
a disk around it.
Reducing
Atmosphere/Modern
atmosphere of Earth

The early Earth's atmosphere is

believed to have been a reducing
atmosphere, meaning it lacked
significant amounts of free oxygen
(O₂) and was dominated by gases
that could donate electrons during
chemical reactions, promoting the
formation of complex organic
molecules. This type of atmosphere
played a crucial role in the origin of
life on Earth.
Reducing Atmosphere vs. Modern Atmosphere of Earth
The Earth's atmosphere has undergone significant changes since its formation, transitioning from a reducing
atmosphere to the oxygen-rich modern atmosphere we observe today. Below is a comparison:

1. Reducing Atmosphere (Early Earth)

a. Time Period: ~4.6 to ~2.5 billion years ago (Archean Eon).
b. Characteristics:
Low or no free oxygen (O₂).
Dominated by gases capable of donating electrons (reducing agents).
c. Composition:
1. Methane (CH₄)
2. Ammonia (NH₃)
3. Hydrogen (H₂)
4. Water Vapor (H₂O)
5. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) and Carbon Monoxide (CO)
6. Trace gases: Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and nitrogen (N₂)
d. Energy Sources:
i. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun.
ii. Volcanic activity and geothermal heat.
iii. Lightning.
e. Significance:
I. Promoted the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules (e.g., amino acids, nucleotides), laying the groundwork
for the origin of life.
II. Supported the "primordial soup" theory of chemical evolution.
2. Modern Atmosphere (Oxidizing Atmosphere)
a. Time Period: From ~2.5 billion years ago to the present (Proterozoic Eon onwards).
b. Characteristics:
o High levels of free oxygen (O₂).
o Presence of the ozone layer (O₃) protecting life from harmful UV radiation.
o Reduction in gases like methane and ammonia.
c. Composition:
1. Nitrogen (N₂) - ~78%
2. Oxygen (O₂) - ~21%
3. Argon (Ar) - ~0.93%
4. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) - ~0.04%
5. Trace Gases: Methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and ozone (O₃).
d. Energy Sources:
I. Solar radiation (filtered by the ozone layer).
II. Internal heat from Earth's core.
e. Significance:
I. Supports complex life forms, including aerobic organisms.
II. Facilitated the evolution of multicellular organisms and biodiversity.
III. Allows stable climates and ecosystems.
Transition from Reducing to Oxidizing Atmosphere
1. Great Oxidation Event (GOE) (~2.5 billion years ago):
a. Oxygen produced by cyanobacteria (via photosynthesis) accumulated in the atmosphere.
b. Oxygen levels gradually increased, reducing methane and leading to the first global ice age.
2. Formation of the Ozone Layer:
a. Oxygen formed ozone, shielding Earth from harmful UV radiation, enabling terrestrial life.

Understanding the transition from a reducing to an oxidizing atmosphere provides insights into Earth's
evolutionary history and the conditions necessary for life.
The Miller-Urey experiment

The Miller-Urey experiment was a

chemical synthesis experiment that
simulated the conditions of early
Earth's atmosphere to test the idea
that life's complex molecules could
have formed through natural
chemical reactions.
The experiment was conducted in
1952 by Stanley Miller, a graduate
student at the University of Chicago,
and Harold Urey
Procedure:
O A flask containing boiling water simulated the primordial ocean, providing water vapor.
O The water vapor mixed with the gases in the "atmosphere flask."
O Electric sparks passed through the gas mixture simulated lightning.
O The gas mixture then cooled, and condensed water containing dissolved molecules collected in a "trap" flask,
representing the primordial soup

Results
• After running the experiment for a week, Miller observed the formation of several organic compounds, including:
1. Amino Acids: Glycine, alanine, and others, essential for proteins.
2. Other organic molecules like urea, hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and formaldehyde.
• These results demonstrated that the basic building blocks of life could form spontaneously under early Earth-like
conditions.

Significance
1. Support for Chemical Evolution: The experiment provided strong evidence for the abiotic synthesis of organic
molecules, a key step in the origin of life.
2. Foundation for Abiogenesis Research: It inspired further studies on prebiotic chemistry and the origin of life.
3. Early Earth's Environment: Showed how the reducing atmosphere of early Earth, combined with energy
sources like lightning, could lead to the formation of complex organic molecules.
Limitations
1. Modern Understanding of Early Atmosphere: Current research suggests that the early atmosphere may have
been less reducing, with more nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

2. Complexity of Life: The experiment did not address how these simple molecules assembled into the complex
macromolecules (e.g., proteins, DNA) necessary for life.
Summary of the chemistry in a
model reducing atmosphere
(NH3, CO).

A reducing atmosphere is
generated by impact delivery and
degassing the chamber. Upon
exposure to shock waves and
discharges, formamide is
synthesized as a reactive
intermediate (A)
In subsequent chemistry
described in our previous work
(19, 66), reactive molecules are
produced by formamide
decomposition (B),
and nucleobases are synthesized
(C) in subsequent steps from 2,3-
diaminofumaronitrile (DAFN)
and 4-amino-5-cyanoimidazole
(AlCN).
1. Formation of HCN, HCHO etc:

CO2 → CO + [O] (atomic oxygen)--------------------------------------[Eq 4.1]

CH4 + 2[O] → CH2O + H2O ---------------------------------------------[Eq 4.2]

CO + NH3 → HCN + H2O -----------------------------------------------[Eq 4.3]

CH4 + NH3 → HCN + 3H2 -----------------------------------------------[Eq 4.4]

2. Formation of Glycine: The formaldehyde, ammonia, and HCN then react to form glycine.

CH2O + HCN + NH3 → NH2-CH2-CN + H2O ------------------------[Eq 4.5]

NH2-CH2-CN + 2H2O → NH3 + NH2-CH2-COOH ------------------[Eq 4.6]

The unit of time "Ga" is equal to one billion years
(\(1,000,000,000\) years). It is an abbreviation for
"gigaannum"
RNA World Hypothesis

Definition: The RNA World Hypothesis proposes that RNA was the first biomolecule to carry genetic
information and catalyze chemical reactions, serving dual roles as both genetic material and
enzyme-like molecule (ribozymes).

Importance: It addresses the origin of life by suggesting RNA predates DNA and proteins.
Support:
1. RNA can store information like DNA.
2. RNA has catalytic activity (e.g., ribozymes like the ribosome itself).
3. Some modern systems retain RNA as central (e.g., tRNA, mRNA, and ribosomal RNA)
 DNA------------------- RNA---------------- Protein
Think of RNA as a Swiss Army knife: It’s like the first multitool. It could handle many tasks (store data and
catalyze reactions).Over time, more specialized tools (DNA for storage, proteins for catalysis) were developed,
making RNA's multitasking role less critical.
Central Dogma of Life
Definition: Proposed by Francis Crick, the Central Dogma describes the directional flow of genetic
information:

DNA → RNA → Protein

Implications:
• DNA stores genetic information.
• RNA acts as an intermediary.
• Proteins execute cellular functions.

The Central Dogma implies the dependency of life on DNA for long-term information storage and
proteins for structural and enzymatic roles, but this raises a critical question: Which came first,
DNA, RNA, or proteins?
Key Points
1. What is RNA?
a. RNA is a molecule made of smaller units called nucleotides.
b. It is similar to DNA but has some differences:
 It contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose.
 It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
 RNA is usually single-stranded.

2. The Idea Behind the RNA World Hypothesis

a. Early Earth had no life but had simple chemicals.
b. These chemicals might have combined to form RNA.
c. RNA had two unique abilities:

3. Store Information: RNA could carry genetic instructions.

4. Catalyze Reactions: RNA could speed up chemical reactions, like enzymes (proteins)
5. Why RNA Came First?
a. DNA is too stable: It's great for long-term storage but can't perform reactions.
b. Proteins can't store information: They are excellent catalysts but don’t hold genetic instructions.
c. RNA, being versatile, could do both!

6. What Happened Next?

a. RNA molecules may have replicated themselves and evolved over time.
b. These RNA systems became more complex and eventually gave rise to:
 Proteins: To improve catalytic efficiency.
 DNA: To provide a more stable way to store genetic information.

7. Evidence Supporting the RNA World

a. Ribozymes: RNA molecules that act like enzymes (e.g., ribosomes that make proteins).
b. RNA is still central to life today (e.g., mRNA, tRNA, rRNA).
c. Laboratory experiments show that simple RNA molecules can form under conditions like those on
early Earth.

8. Challenges to the Hypothesis

a. How did RNA form naturally in prebiotic conditions?
b. RNA is fragile compared to DNA, so its survival in the harsh conditions of early Earth is questioned.
Hen-Egg Puzzle in Biological Evolution

The Hen-Egg Puzzle in the context of molecular evolution

pertains to the question:

Which came first: genetic information (DNA/RNA) or

functional molecules (proteins/enzymes)?

Key Challenges:
1. DNA needs proteins for replication and transcription, but proteins require RNA/DNA for their
synthesis.
2. This interdependence makes it unclear how such a system could arise spontaneously.
3. The RNA World Hypothesis offers a resolution by suggesting:
4. RNA predates DNA and proteins, as it can both store genetic information and catalyze reactions.
5. DNA and proteins evolved later for improved stability (DNA) and functionality (proteins).
History of Cells & the Cell Theory

Virchow Cell Specialization

1
 First to View Cells
•In 1665, Robert Hooke
used a microscope to
examine a thin slice of
cork (dead plant cells)

•What he saw looked

like small boxes

2
First to View Cells

•Hooke is responsible for

naming cells

•Hooke called them

“CELLS” because they
looked like the small
rooms that monks lived in
called Cells

3
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• In 1673, Leeuwenhoek (a
Dutch microscope maker), was
first to view organism (living
things)

• Leeuwenhoek used a simple,

handheld microscope to view
pond water & scrapings from
his teeth

4
Cell Theory
The Cell Theory is a fundamental principle in
biology that describes the properties of cells
and their role in the organization of life. It was
developed through contributions from
scientists like Matthias Schleiden, Theodor
Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow in the 19th
century

5
Beginning of the Cell Theory

•In 1838, a German botanist

named Matthias Schleiden
concluded that all plants
were made of cells

•Schleiden is a cofounder of
the cell theory

6
Beginning of the Cell Theory

•In 1839, a German zoologist

named Theodore Schwann
concluded that all animals
were made of cells

•Schwann also cofounded the

cell theory

7
Beginning of the Cell Theory

•In 1855, a German medical doctor

named Rudolph Virchow
observed, under the microscope,
cells dividing

•He reasoned that all cells come

from other pre-existing cells by
cell division

8
CELL THEORY

•All living things are made of

cells

•Cells are the basic unit of

structure and function in an
organism (basic unit of life)

•Cells come from the

reproduction of existing cells
(cell division)
9
Seven Key Tenets of Cell Theory
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells-Unicellular organisms
(e.g., bacteria) consist of a single cell. Multicellular organisms (e.g., plants,
animals) consist of numerous cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms-Cells
carry out all essential processes of life, such as metabolism, growth, and
reproduction.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells-This was proposed by Rudolf Virchow as
"Omnis cellula e cellula." It refutes the idea of spontaneous generation.
4. Cells contain hereditary material (DNA) that is passed on during cell division-
This principle emphasizes the role of cells in heredity and evolution.
5. Energy flow occurs within cells-Metabolic reactions such as respiration take
place in cellular structures.
6. Cells contain specialized organelles-These perform distinct functions necessary
for cellular life.
7. All cells have a similar chemical composition-The basic macromolecules
(carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids) and ions are universally present
in cells.
Discoveries Since
the Cell Theory

11
Simple or Complex Cells

12
Prokaryotes – The first Cells

•Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-bound

organelles
•Includes bacteria
•Simplest type of cell
•Single, circular chromosome

13
Prokaryotes

• Nucleoid region
(center) contains the
DNA
• Surrounded by cell
membrane & cell
wall (peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes
(no membrane) in
their cytoplasm to
make proteins

14
Eukaryotes

• Cells that HAVE

a nucleus and
membrane-
bound
organelles
• Includes
protists, fungi,
plants, and
animals
• More complex
type of cells

15
Eukaryotic Cell
Contain 3 basic
cell structures:
•Nucleus
•Cell Membrane
•Cytoplasm with
organelles

16
Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell 17

Cell Organelles

•Very small (Microscopic)

•Perform various functions for a cell
•Found in the cytoplasm
•May or may not be membrane-bound

18
 Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and
proteins
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer
Outside
of cell

Carbohydrate
chains
Proteins
Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein
(cytoplasm) channel Lipid bilayer
19
Phospholipids

• Heads contain glycerol & phosphate

and are hydrophilic (attract water)
• Tails are made of fatty acids and are
hydrophobic (repel water)
• Make up a bilayer where tails point
inward toward each other
• Can move laterally to allow small
molecules (O2, CO2, & H2O to enter)

20
The Cell Membrane is Fluid

Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving and changing

21
Cell Membrane Proteins

• Proteins help move

large molecules or
aid in cell
recognition
• Peripheral proteins
are attached on the
surface (inner or
outer)
• Integral proteins are
embedded
completely through
the membrane

22
 Cell Membrane in Plants
Cell membrane
• Lies immediately
against the cell
wall in plant cells
• Pushes out against
the cell wall to
maintain cell
shape

23
Cell Wall
Cell wall

• Found outside of the

cell membrane
• Nonliving layer
• Supports and
protects cell
• Found in plants, fungi,
& bacteria

24
 Cytoplasm of a Cell

cytoplasm

• Jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell
membrane
• Provides a medium for
chemical reactions to
take place
• Contains organelles to
carry out specific jobs
25
The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• Controls the normal
activities of the cell

• Contains the DNA in

chromosomes

• Bounded by a
nuclear envelope (membrane)
with pores

• Usually the largest organelle

26
 More on the Nucleus

Nucleus

• Each cell has fixed

number of
chromosomes that
carry genes

• Genes control cell

characteristics 27
Nuclear Envelope

•Double membrane surrounding

nucleus
•Also called nuclear membrane
•Contains nuclear pores for
materials to enter & leave nucleus

Nuclear
pores

28
Inside the Nucleus -

The genetic material (DNA) is found

DNA is spread out DNA is condensed &

And appears as wrapped around proteins
CHROMATIN forming
in non-dividing cells as CHROMOSOMES
in dividing cells
29
What Does DNA do?
DNA is the hereditary
material of the cell

Genes that make up

the DNA molecule
code for different
proteins
30
Nucleolus
•Inside nucleus
•Disappears when
cell divides
•Makes ribosomes
that make proteins

31
Cytoskeleton

• Helps cell maintain cell

shape
• Also help move
organelles around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are
threadlike & made of
ACTIN
• Microtubules are tubelike
& made of TUBULIN

32
 Cytoskeleton

MICROTUBULES

MICROFILAMENTS

33
Centrioles
• Found only in animal cells
• Paired structures near nucleus
• Made of bundle of
microtubules
• Appear during cell division
forming mitotic spindle
• Help to pull chromosome pairs
apart to opposite ends of the
cell

34
Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle
cells have MORE mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells have
mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION
(burning glucose)

35
MITOCHONDRIA

Surrounded by a DOUBLE
membrane

Has its own DNA

Folded inner membrane
called CRISTAE (increases
surface area
for more chemical
Reactions)

Interior called MATRIX

36
Interesting Fact ---
•Mitochondria Come
from cytoplasm in
the EGG cell during
fertilization
Therefore …
•You inherit your
mitochondria from
your mother!

37
Endoplasmic Reticulum - ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport

Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH 38

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)

• Has ribosomes on its

surface
• Makes membrane
proteins and proteins
for export out of cell

39
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)

•Proteins are made

by ribosomes on
ER surface
•They are then
threaded into the
interior of the
Rough ER to be
modified and
transported

40
Functions of the Smooth ER

•Makes membrane
lipids (steroids)
•Regulates calcium
(muscle cells)
•Destroys toxic
substances (Liver)
41
Endomembrane System

Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER connected

to cell membrane (transport)
42
Ribosomes
•Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
•“Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins through protein
synthesis

43
Ribosomes

Can be attached to
Rough ER

OR

Be free
(unattached)
in the
cytoplasm
44
Golgi Bodies

•Stacks of flattened sacs

•Have a shipping side (cis CIS
face) & a receiving side
(trans face)
•Receive proteins made by
ER
•Transport vesicles with TRANS
modified proteins pinch
off the ends
Transport
vesicle
45
Golgi Bodies

Look like a stack of pancakes

Modify, sort, & package molecules from ER for

storage OR transport out of cell

46
Golgi Animation

Materials are transported from Rough ER

to Golgi to the cell membrane by VESICLES
47
Lysosomes

• Contain digestive enzymes

• Break down food, bacteria,
and worn out cell parts for
cells
• Programmed for cell death
(APOPTOSIS)
• Lyse & release enzymes to
break down & recycle cell
parts)

48
Lysosome Digestion

• Cells take in food

by phagocytosis
• Lysosomes digest
the food & get rid
of wastes

49
Cilia & Flagella
•Function in moving cells, in
moving fluids, or in small
particles across the cell
surface

50
Cilia & Flagella

•Cilia are shorter

and more
numerous on cells
•Flagella are longer
and fewer (usually
1-3) on cells
51
Cell Movement with Cilia & Flagella

52
Cilia Moving Away Dust Particles from the Lungs

53
 Vacuoles
• Fluid filled sacks for
storage
• Small or absent in
animal cells
• Plant cells have a
large Central Vacuole

54
Vacuoles

•In plants, they store Cell

Sap
•Includes storage of sugars,
proteins, minerals, lipids,
wastes, salts, water, and
enzymes

55
Chloroplasts

•Found only in producers

(organisms containing
chlorophyll)
•Use energy from sunlight to
make own food (glucose)
•Energy from sun stored in
the Chemical Bonds of
Sugars

56
Chloroplasts
• Surrounded by
DOUBLE membrane
• Outer membrane
smooth
• Inner membrane
modified into sacs
called Thylakoids
• Thylakoids in stacks
called Grana &
interconnected
• Stroma – gel like
material
surrounding
thylakoids 57