TOPIC 1: FLUIDS AT REST

FLUID PRESSURE
A fluid is a substance which can flow. It refer to gases or liquids. These take
up the shape of the container, so the volume of the liquid filling a container
is equal to the volume of that container.

area of 1 m .
Fluid pressure is the force exerted by a fluid normally per cross-section

Consider a liquid of density,  poured into a cuboid of cross-section area, 

as shown below:

Volume of the liquid = Cross section Area × Height

The volume of the liquid is given by:

' = (ℎ

Weight of the liquid = Mass × Acceleration due to gravity

Weight of the liquid in the cuboid is given by:

- = (ℎ./
The pressure, 0 on at the base of the cuboid is due to the weight, 1 of the

weight
liquid above it.
Pressure at the base =
area
(ℎ./
4=
(
∴ 4 = ℎ./
Where ℎ is the depth of the liquid; . is the density of the liquid; and / is the
acceleration due to gravity, numerically equal to 10 m s 6 .
Note: Pressure at a point in a liquid is equal in all directions. It’s also
independent on the cross-section area.

Qn 1: A liquid, of density 800 kg m69 , is poured in a container to a depth of

WORKED EXAMPLES

500 cm. Calculate the pressure it exerts at the bottom of the container.
Question 2: (Source UNEB 2012/P1/Qn. 4 b (iii))

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A U-tube, whose ends are open to the atmosphere, contains water an oil as
shown in figure below.

Given that the density of oil is 800 kg m69 , find the value of ℎ. [4]
Qn 3: The tank below has a mass of 2.4 kg.

Determine the pressure exerted by the tank on the ground; when it is:
(i). empty

(iii). half filled with water. (Density of water = 1000 kg m69 )

(ii). filled with water up to the brim.

ARHMEDE’S PRINCIPLE
It states that when a body is fully or partially immersed in a fluid, it
experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

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Experiment to verify Archimedes’s principle

The weight, -; , of the sinker in air is measured using a spring balance and
recorded.
The overflow can is completely filled with the water to spout level and a

The sinker is then fully immersed in the water and its weight, -< , is
beaker is put under its spout.

The upthrust, = on the sinker is calculated from, = = -; − -< .

measured and recorded.

The water collected in the beaker is weighed to determine its weight, - .

It is found that - = =; which verifies Archimedes’s principle.

Consider a block of uniform cross-section area,  and height, ? immersed in

Proof of Archimedes’s principle

a liquid of density  as shown below

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volume of liquid displaced = volume of block = (ℎ
weight of liquid displaced = (ℎ./ ⟶ (1)
force at the top of the block = area × pressure = (ℎ< ./
force at the bottom of the block = area × pressure = (ℎ ./
upthrust = (resultant upward force) = (ℎ ./ − (ℎ< ./
= ((ℎ − ℎ< )./ = (ℎ./ ⟶ (2)
Since equations (1) and (2) are equal, it implies that
(upthrust) = (weight of liquid displaced)
Up thrust
This is defined as the upward force experienced by anything immersed in a
fluid. This force is due to the fluid resisting being compressed. The fluid may
be a liquid or a gas (particularly air).
When any object is immersed or submerged into a fluid, its weight appears

weight of apparent loss in

to have been reduced because it experiences an up thrust from the fluid. i.e.
(upthrust) = E F=E F
liquid displaced weight of the block

apparent loss in weight of the weight of the

E F=G H−E F
weight of the block block in air block in a liquid
It should also be noted that upthrust is also called buoyant force. Thus the
tendency of a fluid to exert an upward force on a body immersed in it is
called buoyancy.
Apparent weight
This is the weight of the body which completely immersed or submerged. i.e.
apparent weight of the body = weight of the block when in liquid
If the body is attached on a spring balance, then
apparent weight of the body = reading on the spring balance

If the body is attached on a string, then

apparent weight of the body = tension in the string
Note: The apparent weight is less than the weight of the body because when
the body is immersed it experiences up thrust.

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where applicable use the following constants
WORKED EXAMPLES

density of air = 1.3 kg m69

density of water = 1000 kg m69
density ofmercury = 13600 kg m69
density of oil = 800 kg m69
density of steel = 7800 kg m69

Question 1: (Source UNEB 1993/P1/Qn. 4 c (ii))

liquid of density 8.8 × 10 kg m69 . If the density of the metal is

A string supports a metal block of 2 kg which is completely immersed in a

9 × 109 kg m69 , calculate the tension in the string. [4]

liquid of density 800 kg m69 . Calculate the tension in the string if the density
Qn 2: A string supports a block of iron of mass 180 g totally immersed in a

of iron is 8000 kg m69 .

Qn 3: A block of metal has weight of 9 N in air and has a volume of 100 cm9.

density 1200 kg m69 . What is the reading on the spring balance?

It’s suspended from a spring balance and completely immersed in a liquid of

FLOATATION
A body floats if its density is less than that of the fluid in which it’s placed.
For example, when a stone is held below the surface of water, it sinks when
released yet a cork held below the surface of water rises to the top when
released.
The stone sinks because the upthrust of the water on stone is less than the
weight of the stone; hence it experiences a net (resultant) downward force
and therefore sinks.
The cork rises because the upthrust of the water on cork is greater than the
weight of the cork; hence it experiences a net (resultant) upward force and
therefore rises.
However, when wood is held below the surface of water, it neither sinks nor
rises but floats. This is because the upthrust of the water on the piece of
wood just balances the weight of the wood; hence it experiences no net force
and therefore floats.
Therefore, floating objects are always less dense than the fluids in which
they float.
The law of floatation
It states that a floating body displaces its own weight of fluid in which it
floats.
This implies that for a floating body,
upthrust = total weight of floating object
weight of fluid displaced = total weight of floating object
mass of fluid displaced = total mass of floating body

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Suppose a floating object is submerged in a liquid of density, ., such that LM
is the volume of the block above the liquid surface and LN is the volume of
the block surbmerged in the liquid as shown below:

The relation of density of a floating body, density of a liquid and fraction

submerged is given by the expression:

Density of floating object = Fraction submerged × Density of liquid

LN
i.e.
Density of floating object = E F×.
LM + LN
Also,
volume of fluid displaced = volume of floating object submerged

Experiment to verify the law of floatation

The weight, -< , of a floating body in air is measured using a spring balance
and recorded.
The overflow can is completely filled with the water to spout level and a
beaker is put under its spout.
The floating body is then lowered into the can until it floats.

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weight, - , determined.
The water displaced by the floating body is collected in the beaker and its

It is found that -< = - ; which verifies the law of floatation.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Question 1: (Source UNEB 2006/P1/Qn. 4 a (iii))-edited

volume submerged in oil. If the density of the wood is 8.3 × 10 kg m69 , find
A block of wood floats at an interface between water and oil with 0.25 of its

the density of the oil. [4]

A cube of rubber of volume 1 × 1069 m69 floats with half of its volume
Question 2: (Source UNEB Nov 1998/P1/Qn. 4 c (ii))

submerged in a liquid of density 1200 kg m69 . Find the depth to which the
cube will be submerged in a liquid of density 1000 kg m69 . [3]
Question 3: (Source UNEB 2011/P1/Qn. 3 d)

density 9.0 × 10 kg m69 . Calculate the density of the liquid in which the
A solid weighs 237.5 g in air and 12.5 g when totally immersed in a fluid of

solid would float with one-fifth of its volume exposed above the liquid
surface.

APPLICATIONS OF THE LAW OF FLOATATION

The law of floatation is applied in:
• Ships.
• Submarines.
• Balloons and air ships.
• Hydrometers.

(a). Ships
A ship is made from iron and steel which are denser than water. However, a
ship floats on water those it’s made of materials that are denser than water.
This is because of steel and iron ships are made hollow and containing air;
which makes its average density is less than that of water hence it floats.
A floating ship displaces a weight of water equal to its own weight including
that of the cargo. i.e.
Weight of displaced water = Weight of ship + Weight of cargo
Note: A ship has the load lines (called the plimsoul mark) on the sides
showing the levels to which it can legally/safely be loaded under different
conditions. It’s for this reason that a ship can take greater loads in summer
than in winter.
(b). Submarines
A submarine sinks in sea water by taking water into buoyancy tanks (also
called ballast tanks); causing its average density to rise higher than that of
sea water. i.e. the buoyancy of a submarine depends on the quantity of water
in its ballast tanks.

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When submerged, the upthrust is unchanged but the weight of the
submarine increases with the amount of water flowing.
In order to make it float on sea water like any other ship, compressed air is
used to blow the water out of the tanks such that the tanks are filled with
air. This makes the average density of the submarine less than that of sea
water. The submarine therefore stays at one depth or rises to the surface.

(c). Balloons and airships

A balloon is an airtight, light bag with hydrogen or helium gas.

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These gases (hydrogen or helium) are less dense than air. It therefore
weighs less than the weight of the air it displaces.
The weight of the balloon (bag and the hydrogen gas) acts downwards while
the weight of the displaced air is the upthrust of the balloon in air and acts
upwards.
Thus, a hydrogen filled balloon rises in air because the weight of air
displaced by the balloon (upthrust of the balloon in air) is greater than the
total weight of balloon and hydrogen, hence it experiences a net (resultant)
upward force and therefore rises.
The balloon continues to rise up until the upthrust acting on it is equal to the
weight of the balloon plus its content (hydrogen or helium gas) and then it
floats.
The lifting power of a balloon is calculated from the formula:
Lifting power = Upthrust in air − Total weight
An airship is a large balloon with a motor to move it and fins to steer it. It’s
used in meteorological measurements. Balloons that carry passengers
control their weight by dropping ballast to make them rise and by letting gas
out of the gas bag to make them fall. As the balloon rises, the atmospheric
pressure on it becomes less. The gas in the balloon tends to expand.
Therefore the gas bag must not be filled completely when the balloon is on
the ground.

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Qn 1: A balloon has a capacity 10 m9 and is filled with hydrogen. The
balloon’s fabric and the container have a mass of 1.25 kg. Calculate the

[Take Density of hydrogen = 0.089 kg m69 , density of air = 1.29 kg m69 ]

maximum mass the balloon can lift.

Qn 2: A balloon of negligible mass and of volume 100 m9 , is filled with

hydrogen gas; and then held stationary by a rope holding it to the ground as
shown below.

(i). Copy the diagram and indicate all the forces acting on it.

[Take Density of hydrogen = 0.089 kg m69 , density of air = 1.29 kg m69 ]

(ii). Calculate the tension in the rope holding it to the ground.

Qn 3: A rubber balloon of mass 5 × 1069 kg is inflated with hydrogen and

5 × 1069 m9, calculate the tension in the string.

held stationary by means of a string. If the volume of the inflated balloon is

[Take density of hydrogen = 0.089 kg m69 , density of air = 1.29 kg m69 ]

(d). Hydrometers
These are instruments used to measure relative density of liquids using the
principle of floatation.
Practical hydrometers have a weighted end (sinker) for stability, a wide
bulb to produce sufficient upthrust to counterbalance the weight, and a
narrow stem for sensitivity.

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 0.9
1.0
Graduated stem
1.1

Wide bulb

Weighted end ●●
●● ●●●●
●●●
(sinker)
• The sinker contains mercury or lead shots which keeps the
hydrometer upright when it floats.
• The bulb increases the volume of the instrument, hence the volume
of the liquid displaces and overcomes the weight of the sinker.
Buoyancy is thus increased by making the bulb large.
• The stem is a graduated thin glass tube and it sensitive to small
changes in relative density. The sensitivity of the hydrometer is thus
increased by making the stem very thin.
How a hydrometer works
Hydrometers use the principle of flotation to measure density or relative
density of a liquid by noting how far they sinks in the liquid.
Since they have a constant weight, the upthrust when they float in a liquid is
always the same.
The hydrometer is placed in the liquid whose density or relative density is

Thus, in a liquid of 10 g cm69 , a hydrometer of mass 20 g will sink until

to be measured and the scale reads at the level of the liquid surface.

20cm9 is immersed. In a liquid of 20 g cm69 , it will sink until 10cm9 is

immersed. The density or relative density readings hence increase in a
downward direction as shown in the figure above.

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Note: The smaller scales are at the top and the bigger scales are at the
bottom. This is because the hydrometer sink deeper in less dense liquids

Calculations: If ' is the whole volume of the hydrometer shown above, ( is

than in more dense liquids.

the area of the stem, and U is the length not immersed in a liquid of density,
., then
Upthrust = weight of liquid displaced = weight of the hydrometer
⟹ (' − (U). = -
Where - is the weight of the hydrometer.
Common examples of hydrometers are:
• Car hydrometer (battery tester): Used to test the state of the charge

a density of 1.25 g cm69, if it falls below 1.18, the accumulator needs

of a car battery. (The acid in a fully charged accumulator should have

recharging).
• Lactometer: Used to test the purity of milk.
• Sacharometer: Used for determining concentration of sugar in
solutions.
• Spirit hydrometers: Used for determining percentage concentration
of alcohol in beers.
Uses of a hydrometer
It is used for measuring the densities of milk (lactometer), beer, wines, acids
in cars batteries, e.t.c.
WORKED EXAMPLES

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Question 1: (Source UNEB 1995/P1/Qn. 4 b (iii))
A hydrometer floats in water with 72% of its volume submerged. The
hydrometer floats in another liquid with 80% of its volume submerged. Find
the relative density of the liquid. [3]
Qn 2: A hydrometer floats on water with 6.0 cm of its graduated stem un-
immersed, and in oil if relative density 0.8 with 4.0 cm of the stem un-
immersed. Calculate the length of the stem un-immersed when the
hydrometer is placed in a liquid of relative density 0.9.

uniform cross-section area, 0.4cm and volume 13.2cm9 . When immersed in

Qn 3: A hydrometer consists of a spherical bulb and a cylindrical stem of

water, the hydrometer floats with 8.0 cm of the stem above the water
surface. In alcohol, it floats with 1.0 cm of the stem above the alcohol
surface. Calculate the density of the alcohol.

RELATIVE DENSITY
Relative density of a substance is the number of times a given substance is
denser than water.
Water is taken as a standard substance. Liquids compared with water may
include: alcohol, mercury, kerosene, petrol, diesel, olive oil, cooking oil, e.t.c.
Solids can be sand, soil, ash, e.t.c.
Mathematically, relative density of a substance is expressed as the ratio of
the density of a substance to the density of water. i.e.
Density of substance
Relative density of substance = ⟶ (1)
Density of water

Mass
From,
Density =
Volume

Mass of substance
It implies that,
Density of substance =
Volume of substance
Mass of water
Density of water =
Volume of water

Density of substance
Therefore,
Relative density of substance =
Density of water
Mass of substance Mass of water
= ÷
Volume of substance Volume of water
Mass of substance Volume of water
= ×
Volume of substance Mass of water
Mass of substance
If the volume of the substance is equal to the volume of water, then
Relative density of substance =
Mass of an equal volume of water

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This means that relative density of a substance can also be expressed
mathematically as the ratio of mass of a given volume of the substance to the
mass of an equal volume of water.
Furthermore, relative density of a substance can also be expressed
mathematically as the ratio of weight of a given volume of the substance to

Weight of substance
the weight of an equal volume of water. i.e.
Relative density of substance =
Weight of an equal volume of water
Note: Relative density has no SI unit because it is a ratio of the same
quantities.

Relative density (Y. Z) of a solid is thus given by the following formulae:

RELATIVE DENSITY OF A SOLID

density of solid
(Y. Z)[\]^_ = E F
density of water
mass of solid in air
(Y. Z)[\]^_ = E F
mass of an equal volume of water
weight of solid in air
=E F
weight of an equal volume of water

weight of an equal volume of water = upthrust of solid in water

But,

weight of solid in air

∴ (Y. Z)[\]^_ = E F
upthrust of solid in water
Experiment to determine relative density of a solid using Archmede’s
principle

The weight, -; , of the solid in air is measured using a spring balance and

The solid is then fully immersed in the water and its weight, -< , is measured
recorded.

The relative density, (Y. Z) of the solid is thus calculated from formula
and recorded.

-;
Y. Z =
-; − -<
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Where (-; − -< ) is the upthrust on the solid.

Experiment to determine relative density of an object which floats in

water

above. The reading -; on the spring balance is read and recorded.

A sinker is tied on a string and then submerged in water shown in fig. (a)

The object, whose relative density is required, is tied on the sinker. The

fig.(b) above. The reading -< on the spring balance is again read and
sinker is then submerged in water while the object is in air as shown in

recorded.

are both submerged in water as shown in fig. (c) above. The reading - on
The object and the sinker are then tied together using the same string and

The relative density, (Y. Z) of the floating object is thus calculated from
the spring balance is also read and recorded.

-< − -;
formula
Y. Z =
-< − -
Where (-< − -; ) is the weight of the floating object in air; and (-< − - ) is
the upthrust due to the floating object only.

RELATIVE DENSITY OF A LIQUID

upthrust of sinker in liquid

Relative density of a liquid is given by the formula:
(Y. Z)]^`a^_ = E F
upthrust of sinker in water
Experiment to determine relative density of a liquid using Archmede’s
principle

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balance and its weight, -; , is noted.
A sinker (an object denser than water) is weighed in air using a spring

The sinker is fully immersed in water and the new reading, -< , of the spring

The upthrust of the sinker in water, =< = -; − -< is calculated.

balance is noted.

required, and the new reading, - noted.

The sinker is then fully immersed in a liquid, whose relative density is

The upthrust of the sinker in the liquid, = = -; − - is calculated.

The relative density, (Y. Z) of the liquid is thus calculated from the formula
= -; − -
Y. Z = =
=< -; − -<
Experiment to determine relative density of a liquid using the
principle of moments and Archimedes principle
d0 d
Metre rule
G

W W0

In air, a sinker and weight, -, are attached to a metre rule balances

horizontally as shown above. Distances b and b; are measured and
recorded. Taking moments about the pivot, -b; = -; b
-b;
-; = , where -; = weight of sinker in air.
b

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 d1 d
Metre rule
G

W W1 Water

Keeping b constant, the sinker is immersed in water and the position of

weight, -, adjusted until balance is restored as shown above. Distance b< is
then measured and recorded. Taking moments about the pivot, -b< = -< b
-b<
-< = , where -< = weight of sinker in water.
b
d2 d
Metre rule
G

W W2 Liquid

Keeping b constant still, the sinker is further immersed in the liquid whose
relative density is required. The position of weight, -, is then adjusted until
balance is restored as shown above. Distance b is noted. Taking moments
about the pivot, -b9 = -9 b
-b
- = , where - = weight of sinker in liquid.
b
-; − - b; − b
relative density of liquid = =
-; − -< b; − b<

where applicable use the following constants

WORKED EXAMPLES

density of air = 1.3 kg m69

density of water = 1000 kg m69
density ofmercury = 13600 kg m69
density of oil = 800 kg m69
density of steel = 7800 kg m69

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A solid weighs 20.0 g in air, 15.0 g in water and 16.0 g in a liquid, Y. Find the
Question 1: (Source UNEB 2010/P1/Qn. 2 a (ii))

relative density of liquid Y. [3]

Question 2: (Source UNEB 1996/P1/Qn. 3 b)

is immersed in water of density 1.0 × 109 kg m69 , the spring balance reads
A block of mass 0.10 kg is suspended from a spring balance. When the block

0.63 N. When the block is immersed in a liquid of unknown density, the

spring balance reads 0.70 N. Find:
(i). the density of the solid. [4]
(ii). The density of the liquid. [3]
Qn 3: A sinker weighs 25 N in air. When completely immersed in liquid of

immersed in water of density 1000 kg m69 . Calculate the:

unknown density, it weighs 15 N; and it weighs 20 N when completely

(i). relative density of the unknown liquid.

(ii). density of the unknown liquid.
(iii). relative density of the sinker.
(iv). density of the sinker.

TOPIC 2: FLUIDS IN MOTION

VISCOSITY
This is the opposition set up by a fluid to shear. Or: Viscosity is the frictional
force between layers of a fluid.
Liquids that pour slowly (e.g. engine oil, syrup, glue) are more viscous than
those that pour very fast (e.g. water, milk, paraffin).
Origin of viscosity
For a flowing fluid, molecular layers in contact with the sides of the tube are
practically stationery because of the adhesive forces between the molecules
of the tube and those of the fluid. The successive layers towards the centre
must therefore slide over one another against the cohesive forces between
the molecules of the individual layers.
As a result the layers towards the centre of the tube will move faster than
those towards the sides of the tube. Since velocities of the neighboring
layers are different, the layers tend to reduce their relative motion as if
there’s some backward dragging force acting tangentially on the layers. This
property by virtue of which a liquid opposes relative motion between its

Coefficient of viscosity (d)

different layers is called viscosity.

in contact with it when velocity gradient between them is 1 s 6< .

This is the tangential stress which a layer of a fluid exerts on another layer

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The S.I unit of coefficient of viscosity is N s m6 .

L and (L + eL) respectively. Due to intermolecular forces, each layer is

Consider two layers X and Y of a viscous fluid moving at different velocities

exerting a force on the other such that layer X and layer Y are in contact but
each on is exerting a force on the other.

If the fluid layer are separated by a very small distance ef, then
(L + eL) − L eL
velocity gradient = =
ef ef
If F is the frictional force between the two layers, and A is the area of contact

tangential stress g L − L<

of the two layers, then
Coefficient of viscosity = =E F÷G H
velocity gradient ( f
hgj hL − L< j klm  lm 
hij = × = × = kl6< m 6<
h(j hfj l l
Velocity gradient is defined as the change in velocity between molecular
layers of a fluid separated by a distance of 1m2. Or: Velocity gradient is the
change in velocity of flow between twolayers divided by the distance
between the two layers.
Newton’s law of viscosity
It states that the frictional force per unit area of a fluid is proportional to the

g eL g eL
velocity gradient of the fluid.
E F ∝ E F, ⟹ E F = iE F
( ef ( ef
where i is the coeficient of viscosity of the fluid.
Molecular explanation (Origin) of viscosity in liquids
Viscosity in liquids originates from the existence of molecular forces of
attraction between neighboring layers of liquid as it flows in a particular
direction. At low speeds of flow of a liquid the molecules of the liquid move
in layers at different speeds. Thus the molecules in the adjacent layers rub
over each other. So the bulk of the liquid undergoes a shear because of
intermolecular attraction, there is resistance to the flow. This fluid’s
resistance to shear is known as viscosity.
Effect of temperature on viscosity in liquids
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Viscosity in liquids decreases with increase in temperature. As temperature
increases, the internal energy of the molecules increases due to increase in
their kinetic energy. This consequently weakens the intermolecular forces of
attraction leading to a decrease in the viscosity in liquids.

Molecular explanation (Origin) of viscosity in gases

Viscosity of air originates from the transfer of momentum that occurs
between neighboring layers of gases as it flows in a particular direction.
When fast moving molecules in layer X cross their own velocity to a layer Y
say where the molecules are moving with a slower velocity, the speed of
layer Y increases. Similarly, there is a corresponding decrease in the speed
of layer X. Hence a force acts on the layers of the gas while they move. This
constitutes viscous force.
Effect of temperature on viscosity in gases
Viscosity in gases increases with increase in temperature. As temperature
increases, the average speed of gas molecules increases. Molecular collision
becomes common and there’s greater momentum transfer between the
neighboring layers of gas. As a result, viscosity in gases increases.
Differences between solid friction and liquid friction
Solid friction Liquid friction
1. It’s independent of area of contact It depends on the area of contact
provided normal reaction is between the liquid layers.
constant.
2. It’s independent of relative Depends on the velocity
velocity of the moving bodies in gradient.
contact.

STREAM LINE AND TURBULENT FLOW

(a). Stream line flow (lamina flow)
This is a type of flow where the fluid particles that pass a given point P
follow the same path at the same velocity.
It’s brought about when the fluid flow is steady or smooth. If the tube
through which the fluid is flowing is parallel, the lines of flow (stream lines)
will be parallel to the axis of the pipe.

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Similarly, stream line flow occurs where the slope falls gently so that the
fluid flows slowly and uniformly as shown below.

Note: Streamline flow is obtained by making the:

• Diameter of the pipe wide.
• Fluid flow slowly and uniformly.
(b). Turbulent flow
This is a type of flow where all the particles passing through a given point P
don’t have the same velocity at that point. It’s brought about when the liquid
is flowing at a high speed. It’s also brought about when there’s a sharp
change in the shape of the liquid.

Turbulent flow occurs where the slope is so steep, such as at a water fall and
when there is a constriction. Due to constriction or steep slope, water tends
to flow very fast and so disorderly as shown below:

Note: Turbulent flow is obtained by making the:

• Diameter of the pipe narrow.
• Fluid flow very fast and disorderly, by lying the pipe steeply.
An experiment to show streamline and turbulent flow

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The set up is as above. The clip controls the water flow. When the clip is
slightly opened, the speed of water flow is low. Colored streamlines will be
observed when the tap for coloured water is opened; and this indicates
streamline flow.
When the clip is widely opened, the speed of water flow is high and all the
water in the glass tube will be colored. This indicates turbulent flow.
POISSEULLI’S FORMULAR
There are three major factors that affect the volume of liquid flowing out of
a pipe/tube per second and these include the following:
• Coefficient of viscosity.
• Radius of the pipe.
• Pressure gradient.
Poisseulli’s formular is a formular that expresses the volume of liquid
flowing out of a pipe/tube per second in terms of coefficient of viscosity,

Suppose L is the volume of liquid flowing out per second, i is the coefficient
radius of the pipe and pressure gradient.

of viscosity and (4⁄o) is the pressure gradient. It follows thatL =

qr s i t (4⁄o)u → (1)
We shall use dimensions to find the values of f, U wxb y as follows:
kl6< m 6
hLj = l9 m 6< , hrj = l, hij = kl6< m 6< , and h4⁄oj = = kl6 m 6
l
hLj = hrjs hijt h4⁄oj u
(l9 m 6< ) = (l)s (kl6< m 6< )t (kl6 m 6 )u
(l9 m 6< ) = k(tzu) l(s6t6u) m (6t6u)

0 = U + y ⟶ (1)
Comparing M, L and T separately on both sides gives,

3 = f − U − 2y ⟶ (2)
−1 = −U − 2y ⟶ (3)
(1) + (3) gives,
y=1
From (1),

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 U = −y
∴ U = −1,
From (2),
f = 3 + U + 2y = 3 − 1 + 2 = 4
Substituting f, U and y in equation(1) gives
{ 6< (4 ⁄ )<
qr { 4
L = qr i o =
io
}
But q = | ~8 thus;
}r { 4
L=
8io
This is poisseulli’s formular and it applies only for streamline flow.
Experiment to determine coefficient of viscosity in liquids using
Poisseulli’s formular
This experiment is used to measure coefficient of viscosity for low viscous
liquids such as water, milk, paraffin e.t.c.

The set up is as shown above. The constant head ℎ is measured and

recorded. Ensuring streamline flow in the capillary tube, the stop clock is

The volume, L of the liquid collected in time € is measured and recorded.

started when the liquid begins to fall into the measuring cylinder.

The experiment is repeated several times by varying ℎ to obtain a set of

values of L. For each volume L, the volume per second |L~€  is calculated.

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The length o of the capillary tube are measured and recorded. The radius r of
the capillary tube is obtained by measuring the mass of a known length of

A graph of |L~€  against ℎ is plotted and its slope,  found. The coefficient of
mercury column or; by travelling microscope method.

viscosity, i is then calculated from

}r { ./
i=
8o
where / is the acceleration du to gravity.
Precaution: The liquid should have stream line flow.
STOKE’S FORMULAR OF VISCOUS DRAG
Viscous drag is the force opposing the relative motion of particles in a fluid.
Or: Viscous drag is the resistance to motion through fluids.
Viscous drag depends on:
• Radius of the sphere.
• Coefficient of viscosity.
• Velocity of the sphere.
g = qr s i t L u ⟶ (2)
We shall use dimensions to find the values of f, U and y as follows:
g = klm 6 , hrj = l, hij = kl6< m 6< and hLj = lm 6<
hgj = hrjs hijt hLj u
(klm 6 ) = (l)s (kl6< m 6< )t (lm 6< )u
(klm 6 ) = k(t) l(s6tzu) m (6t6u)

U = 1 → (‚), 1 = f − U + y → (‚‚), −2 = −U − y → (‚‚‚)

Comparing M, L and T separately on both sides gives,

ƒr„ (‚‚‚) y = (2 − U) = (2 − 1) = 1,
ƒr„ (‚‚) f = 1 + U − y = 1 + 1 − 1 = 1
Substituting f, U and y in equation(2) gives
g = qr< i< L < = qriL
But q = 6}
g = 6}riL

Thus, the viscous drag, g, on a spherical body of radius, r, moving with

This is stoke’s formula for viscous drag.

terminal velocity, L, in a fluid of viscosity, i, is given by: g = 6}riL.

TERMINAL VELOCITY OF A BODY IN A VISCOUS FLUID
Terminal velocity is defined as the maximum constant velocity attained by a
body when falling in a viscous fluid.

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Consider a sphere of density . and radius r, falling through a liquid of
density † as shown above. Three forces act on it at any time namely, the
weight of the sphere W (acting downwards), the upthrust U (acting
upwards) and the viscous drag F (acting upwards).
As the body accelerates downwards, its velocity increases which increases
viscous drag according to stoke’s law. Since the body is completely
immersed in the fluid, upthrust F and weight W remain constant.
The upward force therefore increases while the downward force remains
constant. This reduces the downward resultant force making the

then moves with a constant velocity known as terminal velocity L‡ .

acceleration to reduce to zero when the downward force is zero. The body

At terminal velocity,- − = − g = 0
- ==+g
4 9 4
}r ./ = }r 9 †/ + 6}riL‡
3 3
2  2
r ./ = r  †/ + 3riL‡
3 3

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 2r  /(. − †)
L‡ =
9i
Measurement of terminal velocity of a liquid

into the fluid so that is falls along the axis of the jar. The time, €, taken by the
A tall jar is filled with a viscous fluid and a spherical ball is dropped gently

ball to fall between two marked points is determined. If the points are

The distance, ˆ, between the two points is measured and notes. Terminal
sufficiently below the surface, the ball would move with a uniform velocity.

velocity, L‡ = ˆ⁄€.
The procedure is repeated to get two other values of L‡ and their value
calculated. This will be the terminal velocity of the test liquid.
Experiment to determine coefficient of viscosity in liquids using
Stoke’s law
This experiment is used to measure the coefficient of viscosity of a highly
viscous liquids such as engine oil, syrup, glue e.t.c.

The densities of the metal sphere and the liquid, . wxb †, respectively are
obtained. Marks A, B and C, at equal distances, are made on the sides of a tall

centrally through the liquid. The times €< wxb €< for fall from A to B, and B to
transparent glass tube filled with the liquid. The sphere is allowed to fall

C respectively are noted. When €< = € = €, terminal velocity L; = = =

‰Š ŠŒ
‹ ‹
‰Œ
‹
.
Using a micrometer screw guage, the diameter b and hence radius r is
determined and the coefficient of viscosity, i calculated from
2r  /(. − †)
i=
9L‡
Alternatively:

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The densities of the steel ball and the liquid . wxb † respectively are
obtained. The diameter b of the tube is determined using a micrometer
screw guage and hence radius r obtained.

transparent tube with marks A and B near the bottom. The time, € of fall
The steel ball is gently dropped centrally in the liquid contained in a tall

from B to C is determined and the terminal velocity L; = is calculated.

ŠŒ
‹

results are tabulated including r  and a graph of L; against r  plotted. The

The experiment is repeated with different steel balls of different radii. The

slope S of the graph is calculated and noted and the coefficient of viscosity, i

2/(. − †)
obtained from
i=
9
NOTE: This experiment can be used to compare the coefficient of viscosity

density †′. The comparison will therefore be as follows

of two different liquids by repeating the experiment using another liquid of

i 2r  /(. − †) 2r  /(. − †′) . − † L′‡

=Ž Ž =E F
i′ 9L‡ 9L′‡ . − †′ L‡
Precautions:
• The glass tube should be wide compared to the diameter of the ball
bearing.
• Point C should be far away from the top of the tube.
• Temperature should remain constant.
Why a raindrop falls on the ground with a lesser force than expected

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Consider a rain drop falling in a viscous fluid (air in the case). It begins
initially with zero velocity and as it falls, velocity increases implying that
viscous drag increases. Since the body is completely immersed in the fluid,
up thrust F and weight W remain constant.
The upward force therefore increases while the downward force remains
constant. The downward resultant force reduces hence the drop to hit the
ground with a lesser force than expected.

Worked examples

Find the terminal velocity of an oil drop of radius 2.5 × 10‘ m which falls
Question 1: (Source UNEB 1995/P1/Qn. 4 a (iv))

through air. Neglect the density of air. (Viscosity of air = 1.8 × 106’ N s m6 ,
Density of oil = 900 kg m69 ) [4]

Find the time taken for an oil drop of diameter 6.0 × 1069 mm to fall
Question 2: (Source UNEB 2018/P1/Qn. 4 d)

through a distance of 4.0 cm in air of coefficient of viscosity 1.8 × 106’ Pa.

(The density of oil and air are 8.0 × 10 kg m69 and 1 kg m69 respectively.)
[4]
Question 3: (Source UNEB 2014/P1/Qn. 4 d)

vertical height of 20.0 cm in 0.56 s. If the density of steel is 7800 kg m69 and
A steel ball bearing of diameter 8.0 mm fall steadily through oil and covers a

that of oil is 900 kg m69 , calculate the:

(i). up-thrust on the ball. [3]
(ii). viscosity of the ball. [3]

MOTION OF A FLUID IN A PIPE OF NON-UNIFORM CROSS-SECTION

AREA
Consider a non-viscous fluid flowing with streamline flow in a tube of non-
uniform cross-section area in the direction shown below.

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second is equal to that through Y per second. Suppose L< wxb L are
Since liquids are incompressible, volume of liquid passing through X per

velocities; while (< wxb ( are the cross-section areas at X and Y

volume through X volume through Y

respectively.
E F=E F
per second per second
(< L< = ( L → (1)
Equation (1) is called the equation of continuity. From this equation, it can

(<
be seen that;
L = E F L<
(
(<
since(< > ( , then E F > 1 , thusL > L<
(
This implies that velocity at the narrow part is greater than that at the wider
part.
NOTE: The equation of continuity is only true for an incompressible fluid,
such that its density is constant throughout the pipe. An incompressible
fluid is one in which changes in pressure produce no change in the density
of the fluid. Liquids and gases are taken to be incompressible. Note also that
the volume flowing per second is also known as flow rate or volume flux.
VARIATION OF PRESSURE IN A FLOWING FLUID
(a). Using a uniform horizontal tube

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When the liquid flows through the uniform horizontal tube, the level goes on

the pressure. i.e. ℎ‰ > ℎŠ > ℎŒ .

decreasing as shown in the diagram below, the faster the liquid, the lower

(b). Using a horizontal tube with a narrow part

hA hC
hB
A C
B
Narrow part
Wide part Wide part

Direction of fluid flow

Consider a liquid flowing with streamline flow in a tube with a narrow part
as shown above. The pressure variation in the fluid is shown by the height of
the liquid in the vertical manometers. The height of the liquid falls in

the wider part and low at the narrow part of the tube. i.e. ℎ‰ > ℎŒ > ℎŠ .
manometer B and then rises in manometer C. Therefore pressure is high at

This is because at the narrow part, the streamlines come closer hence
reducing pressure. Assuming that the liquid is incompressible, it implies
that velocity at narrow part is greater than that at the wider part.
This is summarized in the table below.
Narrow part Wider part
1. Velocity is high. Velocity is low.
2. Pressure is low. Pressure is high.

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
It states that the total energy of an incompressible and non-viscous fluid in a
stream line flow remains constant throughout the flow.
A stream line flow has three types of energy namely: pressure energy,
kinetic energy and potential energy. Therefore, Bernoulli’s principle states
that the sum of pressure at any part and kinetic energy per unit volume plus
potential energy per unit volume at that part for an incompressible non-
viscous fluid is always constant provided the flow is streamline.
An incompressible fluid is a fluid in which changes in pressure produce no
change in the density of the fluid.

Consider an imaginary tube in a fluid between section – and — which are at

heights ℎ< and ℎ from the reference line as shown below.

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Let 4< and 4 be the pressure, L< and L be the velocities and (< and ( be
the cross-section areas at point X and Y respectively. Also, let . be the

Work done per second = Force × Velocity = (4L

density of the fluid.

Change in work done Gain in K. E Gain in P. E

By conservation of energy,
E F E F E F
per second per second per second
= +
Volume Volume Volume
(< 4< L< − ( 4 L   L −  < L<
< <
 /ℎ − < /ℎ<
 
= +
Volume Volume Volume
but, Mass per second, = Density × Area × Velocity = .(L
1 1
(< 4< L< − ( 4 L = .( L 9 − .(< L< 9 + .( L /ℎ − .(< L< /ℎ<
2 2
but, (< L< = ( L
1 1
4< − 4 = .L  − .L<  + ./ℎ − ./ℎ<
2 2
1 1
4< + .L<  + ℎ< ./ = 4 + .L  + ℎ ./
2 2
1 
∴ 4 + .L + ℎ./ = constant
2
This is Bernoulli’s principle (also called Bernoulli’s equation).

• 4 = pressure energy per unit volume,

Where:

• . = mass per unit volume,

• L = velocity of the fluid,
• / = acceleration due to gravity,
• ℎ = height from the refernce point.

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NOTE: If the pipe is horizontal, change in potential energy per unit volume
is zero. Therefore, Bernoulli’s principle/equation for a horizontal pipe is

1
becomes

4 + .L  = constant
2

Worked examples

A horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area 0.4 m , tapers of a cross-section

Question 1: (Source UNEB 2013/P1/Qn. 2 e)

area 0.2 m . The pressure at the large section of the pipe is 8 × 10{ N m6
and the velocity of water through the pipe is 1.2 m s 6< . If the atmospheric
pressure is 1.01 × 10’ N m6 , find the pressure at the small section of the
pipe. [5]
Question 2: (Source UNEB 2001/P1/Qn. 4 c)
A venturi meter consists of a horizontal tube with a constriction which
replaces part of the piping system as shown in figure below.

If the cross-sectional are of the main pipe is 5.81 × 1069 m and that of the
constriction is 2.58 × 1069 m , find the velocity, L< of the liquid in the main
pipe. [5]

Water flowing in a pipe on the ground with a velocity of 8 m s 6< and a gauge
Question 3: (Source UNEB 2006/P1/Qn. 4 c)

pressure of 2.0 × 10’ Pa is pumped into a water tank 10 m above the

ground. The water enters the tank at a pressure of 1.0 × 10’ Pa. Calculate
the velocity with which the water enters the tank. [3]

FLUID FLOWING FROM A WIDE TANK

Consider a small hole made at the bottom of an open tank and is at a depth h
from the water surface.

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 P1

A
Water in tank
h

B P2
Reference line
1 1
From Bernoulli’s principle/equation,
4< + .L<  + ./ℎ< = 4 + .L  + ./ℎ
2 2
Since the tank is open to the surrounding/atmosphere, the pressure P1
above the water surface is equal to atmospheric pressure P. Similar,
pressure P2 is equal to atmospheric pressure since the small hole is exposed

⟹ 4< = 4 = 4
to the surrounding/atmospheric pressure P.

ℎ< = ℎ, wxb ℎ = 0
Taking horizontal line through point B to be the reference line,

is negligible compared with the speed of emergence L of the liquid through

Since the vessel (tank) is wide, it’s assumed that the rate of fall of the surface

the small hole. That is,L< = 0, wxb L = L.

1 1
4< + .L<  + ./ℎ< = 4 + .L  + ./ℎ
2 2
1 
4 + 0 + ./ℎ = 4 + .L + 0
2
1 
/ℎ = L , ⟹ L = ›2/ℎ
2
The velocity of emergence is given by L = ›2/ℎ and is the same as the
vertical velocity which would be acquired in free fall – a statement known as
Torricelli’s theorem. In fact, L is less than ›2/ℎ due to the viscosity of the
liquid.

PITOT-STATIC TUBE
This is a device used to measure the rate of flow (velocity/flow rate/volume
per second) of a fluid in a uniform pipe.

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density ., is made to flow with streamline flow through a horizontal tube of
A non-viscous fluid, which is incompressible (such as water) and of known

uniform cross-section area. The pitot tube and static tube are placed on the
horizontal tube as shown above. The heights h1and h2 of the fluid are
measured using a metre rule. The speed of the fluid in the horizontal tube
can therefore be got from
L = ›2/(ℎ − ℎ< )
The speed of the fluid in the horizontal tube can also be got from
2
L = œ (4 − 4< )
.

• 4 = total pressure measured from the pitot tube,

Where:

• 4< = static pressure measured from the static tube,

• . = density of the fluid,
• / = acceleration due to gravity.
Derivation of the above expressions

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 1 
Liquid at Y is static hence has no kinetic energy. Thus
.L = 0
2 
1 1
From Bernoulli’s principle/equation of a horizontal pipe,
4< + .L< = 4 + .L
2 2
1 
4< + .L = 4 + 0
2
1  2
L = 4 − 4< , ⟹ L = œ (4 − 4< )
2 .
Furthermore, 4< = ./ℎ< and4 = ./ℎ . Thus
2
L = œ (./ℎ − ./ℎ< ) = ›2/(ℎ − ℎ< )
.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
(i). Static pressure: static pressure at a point is the pressure with which the

Static pressure = 4 + ./ℎ

fluid would have if it were at rest.

1
(ii). Dynamic pressure: This is the pressure of the fluid due to its velocity.
Dynamic pressure = .L 
2
(iii). Total pressure: This is the sum of static pressure and dynamic

Total pressure = Static pressure + Dynamic pressure

pressure.

(iv). Fluid element: This is a molecule (the smallest volume) of a fluid

which follows the flow.
(v). Flow line: This is the path which an individual molecule in a fluid
element describes.

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Worked examples
Question 1: (Source UNEB 2002/P1/Qn. 3 c (ii))

of the boat at sea. Given that the speed of the boat does not exceed 10 m s 6<
A pitot static tube filled with a pressure gauge is used to measure the speed

and the density of sea water is 1050 kg m69 , calculate the maximum
pressure on the gauge. [2]
Question 2: (Source UNEB 2022/P1/Qn. 3 d)
The depth of water in a tank of large cross-sectional area is maintained at
2.0 m. If the water emerges out of the tank continuously through a hole of
diameter 5 mm drilled at a height of 10.0 cm above the base of the tank,
calculate the:
(i). speed at which water emerges out from the hole. [3]
(ii). rate of mass flow of water from the hole. [2]

area 3 cm is made at the bottom of the tank. Calculate the mass of water
Qn 3: An open tank holds water 1.25 m deep. A small hole of cross-section

initially flowing out of the hole per second.

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE IN AIR

This effect can be realized using a thin sheet of paper; held at one end such
that it’s horizontally below the lips with the other end sagging under its own
weight. When air is blown steadily over the top of the paper, the sagging end
of the paper rises. In this case, the velocity of air above the sheet of paper is
higher than that under it. It therefore implies that from Bernoulli’s principle,
the pressure of air below the sheet of paper is greater than that above it and
so there’s a resultant upward force on the paper which produces a lift.
Aerofoil lift as an application of Bernoulli’s principle
Consider the wing of an aeroplane at take off.

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An aerofoil (aircraft wing) is shaped so that the air has to travel a longer
distance over its top surface as compared to the lower one; in the same time.
Air therefore moves faster above than below the aerofoil giving rise to
higher pressure underneath than above; hence a net upward force called
the lift force.
Note:
• The closeness of the streamlines above the aerofoil shows region of
low pressure.
• The aerofoil rises due to the difference in pressure between the upper
region above and the region beneath.
• Car races are designed so that the air flow is as smooth as possible.
They are streamlined to reduce the drag force or air resistance.

Let 4< and L< be the pressure and velocity of air below the wing respectively.
Derivation of the lift force of an aerofoil lift

Also, let 4 and L be the pressure and velocity of air above the wing

force below the wing, g< = (4<

respectively. If A is the area of the wing, then,

force above the wing, g = (4

lift force, g = g< − g = ((4< − 4 ) ⟶ (1)

1 1
From Bernoulli’s principle/equation of a horizontal pipe,
4< + .L<  = 4 + .L 
2 2
1
(4< − 4 ) = .(L  − L<  ) ⟶ (2)
2
Substituting (2) in (1) gives
1
g = ((4< − 4 ) = .((L  − L<  )
2
Note: Car races are designed so that the air flow is as smooth as possible.
They are streamlined to reduce the drag force or air resistance.

TEST QUESTIONS
1. The roof of a classroom block in a nearby school was blown off several
times during a given period by strong wings. Some local people
believe that it is the existence of ghosts in the school compound that
caused this. Explain to the local people why their belief is not correct.
2. What will be experienced by an unstreamlined body moving through
a fluid at high speed?
3. Explain why birds fly with their necks stretch out, beaks pointed
forward and feathers wrapped flat around the body.
4. Describe how the rotors of a helicopter facilitate its uplift.

Worked examples
Question 1: (Source UNEB 2019/P1/Qn. 4 c (iii))
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120 m s 6< , and past the lower surfaces of the wings at 110 m s 6< . Calculate
Air flows over the upper surface of the wings of an aeroplane at a speed of

the lift force on the aeroplane if it has a total wing area of 20 m.
(Density of air = 1.29 kg m69 ). [4]

An aero plane has a wing of area 40 m. At take off, the speeds of air above
Question 2: (Source UNEB 1999/P1/Qn. 3 d (ii))

and below the wings are 120 m s 6< and 100 ms6< respectively. Find the lift
in the aero plane, if the density of air is 1.3 kg m69. [5]
Question 3: (Source UNEB 2016/P1/Qn. 4 c)

6.4 × 109 N. The air flows under the wings at a speed of 120 m s 6< over an
Air flowing over the upper surface of an air craft’s wings causes a lift force of

area of 28 m. Find the speed of air flow over an equal area of the upper
surface of the air craft’s wings. (Assume density of air 1.2 kg m69 ).
[4]

Surface tension is the work done to enlarge the surface of a liquid by 1 m

TOPIC 3: SURFACE TENSION

under isothermal conditions.

Or: Surface tension is the force per metre length acting in the surface at
right angles to one side of a line drawn in the surface.
ORIGIN OF SURFACE TENSION

Consider molecules A, B and C such that molecules A and B are just below
the surface of the liquid while molecule C is deep inside the liquid.
Molecule C is attracted equally in all sides. The repulsive force balances the
attractive force hence making the resultant force to be zero.
Molecules A and B will experience greater inward attraction from their
neighbors. This puts them in a state of tension and the liquid surface
behaves like a stretched elastic skin. This phenomenon is called surface
tension.
Effect of temperature on surface tension
Surface tension decreases with increase in temperature. As temperature in
the liquid increases, the mean kinetic energy of liquid molecules increases.
Molecules therefore to spend less time in the neighborhood of a given
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molecule which decreases the attractive forces between them. More
molecules therefore enter the liquid surface which lowers the potential
energy of the surface molecules thereby lowering the surface tension.
COEFFICIENT OF SURFACE TENSION ()
This is the force per metre length acting in the surface at right angles to one
side of a line drawn in the surface of the liquid.
Or: Coefficient of surface tension is the force acting normally on one side of

hgj klm 6
an imaginary line of length 1 m drawn in the liquid surface. S.I units is Nm-1
dimensionally, hžj = = = km 6
hoj l
ANGLE OF CONTACT
This is defined as the angle between the solid surface and the tangent plane
to the meniscus (liquid surface), at the point where the liquid meets the
solid, measured through the liquid.

For water, angle of contact, Ÿ< , is acute (less than 90°). This is due to the fact
that the adhesion forces between the liquid molecules and the solid surface
is greater than the cohesion forces between the liquid molecules. This
explains why the meniscus of water in a clean beaker or capillary tube

For mercury, angle of contact, Ÿ , is obtuse (greater than 90° but less than
curves downwards.

180°). This is due to the fact that the cohesion forces between the liquid
molecules are greater than the adhesion forces between the liquid
molecules and the solid surface. This explains why the meniscus of mercury
in a clean beaker or capillary tube curves upwards.
Factors affecting the magnitude of the angle of contact
• The nature of the liquid.
• The impurities of the liquid.
• The nature of the solid surface (surface of the container).
CAPILLARITY
This is defined as the rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube.
Liquids with obtuse angles of contact (such as mercury) are depressed in a
capillary tube. For the same reason, mercury gathers itself into a pools and
forms drops when split on a clean glass surface. It therefore doesn’t wet the
glass.
Liquids with acute angles of contact (such as water) rise in a capillary tube.
For the same reason, they spread over and wet a clean glass surface when
split on it.

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Depression of mercury in a capillary tube
When a capillary tube is placed inside mercury, the cohesion forces between
mercury molecules are greater than the adhesion forces between the
mercury and glass molecules. Mercury therefore sinks down the tube such
that more mercury molecules remain together, and a convex meniscus is
formed.

Rising of water in a capillary tube

When a capillary tube is immersed in a beaker with water, the adhesion
forces between the water molecules and glass molecules are greater than
the cohesion forces between the water molecules. Water therefore rises up
the tube so that more water molecules are in are in contact with glass, and a
concave meniscus is formed.

CAPILLARY RISE
In this derivation, we shall consider a liquid having an acute angle of contact.
The liquid will rise up the clean capillary tube until equilibrium is reached
when the weight of the liquid column inside the capillary tube is equal to the
vertical component of the surface tensional force.

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g is the surface tensional force while is the weight of the liquid column.
Suppose r is the radius of the capillary tube and ž is the coefficient of

vertical component of surface tension force

surface tension.

circumference of vertical
=E F×E F
cappilary tube component of γ
= (2}r) × (ž cos Ÿ)
= 2}rž cos Ÿ
Suppose . is the density of the liquid and that the liquid rises to a height ℎ.
weight of liquid column
G H = (volume) × (density) × g
inside the tube
= (}r  ℎ) × . × /
= }r  ℎ./

}r  ℎ./ = 2}rž cos Ÿ

At equilibrium,

2ž cos Ÿ
∴ ℎ=
r./

in a capillary tube. For liquids with acute angles of contact, cos Ÿ is positive
The equation above shows an expression for the height of the liquid column

and therefore ℎ is positive; implying that the liquid rises up in the tube. For
liquids with obtuse angles of contact, cos Ÿ is negative and therefore ℎ is
negative; implying that the liquid falls in the capillary tube below the level of
the surrounding.
NOTE: If a capillary tube of insufficient length is put in a liquid, the liquid
rises to the top of the tube and its meniscus changes its shape until
equilibrium at a smaller height is reached. At equilibrium, the meniscus
acquires a new radius of curvature.

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Experiment to determine the coefficient of surface tension using
capillary method

A clean capillary tube of uniform cross-section area is used. The internal

diameter of the capillary tube is measured using a travel microscope. A wire,
bent at 90° is attached to the capillary tube using a rubber band.
The capillary tube is supported vertically with its lower end dipped in a
liquid till the tip of the wire just touches the liquid. The traveling microscope
is the directed towards the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid and the
reading S1 on the scale of the travel microscope is noted.
The beaker containing the liquid is taken away and the microscope is
focused to the tip of the wire. The reading S2 on the scale of the travel

ℎ = |< −  | is obtained. The angle of contact Ÿ between glass and liquid is

microscope is noted. The height of the liquid column in the capillary tube

got from the table of constants. The coefficient of surface tension, ž, is then

rℎ./
calculated from:
ž=
2 cos Ÿ
Where . is the density of the liquid.
EXCESS PRESSURE ACROSS A SPHERICAL SURFACE
For a spherical surface, the pressure on the concave side of a given liquid is
always greater than that on the convex side. (a). Water meniscus

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For the water meniscus, 4 is the atmospheric pressure and acts downwards
while 4< is the pressure inside the water and acts upwards. Since 4 is on the
concave side of the meniscus, 4 > 4< . Thus,
Excess pressure at the meniscus = (4 − 4< )
(b). Mercury meniscus

For the mercury meniscus, 4 is the atmospheric pressure above the mercury
meniscus and acts downwards while 4< is the pressure below the mercury
meniscus and acts upwards. Since 4 is on the convex side of the meniscus,
4 < 4< . Thus,
Excess pressure at the meniscus = (4< − 4)
EXCESS PRESSURE IN A CAPILLARY TUBE

Consider a liquid rising in a capillary tube as shown above. P1 is the pressure

below the curved surface while P2 is the pressure above the curved surface.

Excess pressure = (4 − 4< )

The difference between them is called excess pressure. Thus,

If r is the radius of the tube and θ is the angle of contact, then

Force due to 4< = }r  4< , Force due to4 = }r  4
Surface tensional force = 2}rž cos Ÿ

Force due to 4 = Force due to 4< + Surface tensional force

At equilibrium,

}r  4 = }r  4< + 2}rž cos Ÿ

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 r4 = r4< + 2ž cos Ÿ , ⟹ r(4 − 4< ) = 2ž cos Ÿ
2ž cos Ÿ
(4 − 4< ) =
r
2ž cos Ÿ
Excess pressure =
r
From the expression of capillary rise, ℎ, of the liquid column,
2ž cos Ÿ 2ž cos Ÿ
ℎ= , ⟹ ℎ./ =
r./ r
2ž cos Ÿ
∴ Excess pressure, ℎ./ =
r
NOTE: If the angle of contact is zero (Ÿ = 0°), then
2ž
Excess pressure, ℎ./ =
r

Qn 1: The internal diameter of the glass tube of a mercury barometer is 4.0

mm. The barometer reads 745 mmHg. Find the correct reading of the

of mercury is 0.052 N m6< , its angle of contact is 130° and its density is
barometer after allowing the error due to surface tension. (Surface tension

13600 kg m69 .)
Qn 2: The internal diameter of the glass tube of a mercury barometer is 3.5
mm. The barometer reads 752.4 mmHg. Find the correct reading of the

of mercury is 0.52 N m6< , its angle of contact is 140° and its density is
barometer after allowing the error due to surface tension. (Surface tension

13600 kg m69 .)

EXCESS PRESSURE IN A U-TUBE FOR LIQUIDS WITH ACUTE ANGLES OF

Consider a U-tube with limbs of radii r< and r containing a liquid of surface
CONTACT

tension ž, density . and an acute angle of contact θ as shown below.

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 Limb of Limb of
radius r1 radius r2
P
●
●
P1
h
P
●
● ●
P2 P3

Liquid

From the figure above, 4 is the atmospheric pressure.

Considering the limb of radius, r< ,
2ž cos Ÿ
Excess pressure at meniscus = 4 − 4< =
r<
2ž cos Ÿ
∴ 4< = 4 −
r<
Considering the limb of radius, r ,
2ž cos Ÿ
Excess pressure at meniscus = 4 − 49 =
r
2ž cos Ÿ
∴ 49 = 4 −
r
Pressures 4 and 49 are equal since they are on the same level. Thus
2ž cos Ÿ
4 = 49 = 4 −
r
Since pressure increases with depth, 4 > 4< . Thus,
Pressure difference, 4 − 4< = ℎ./
2ž cos Ÿ 2ž cos Ÿ
E4 − F − E4 − F = ℎ./
r r<
2ž cos Ÿ 2ž cos Ÿ
− = ℎ./
r< r
1 1
2ž cos Ÿ E − F = ℎ./
r< r

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 1 1
Excess pressure in liquid column, ℎ./ = 2ž cos Ÿ E − F
r< r
2ž cos Ÿ 1 1
Difference in levels, ℎ= E − F
./ r< r
NOTE: If the angle of contact is zero (Ÿ = 0°), thus:
2ž 1 1
ℎ= E − F
./ r< r

EXCESS PRESSURE IN A U-TUBE FOR LIQUIDS WITH OBTUSE ANGLES

Consider a U-tube with limbs of radii r< wxb r containing a liquid of surface
OF CONTACT

tension ž, density . and an obtuse angle of contact θ as shown below.

Limb of Limb of
radius r1 radius r2
P
●
●
P1
h
P
●
● ●
P2 P3

Liquid

Considering the limb of radius, r< ,

From the figure above, P is the atmospheric pressure.

2ž cos Ÿ
Excess pressure at meniscus, 4< − 4 =
r<
2ž cos Ÿ
∴ 4< = 4 +
r<
Considering the limb of radius, r ,
2ž cos Ÿ
Excess pressure at meniscus, 49 − 4 =
r

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 2ž cos Ÿ
∴ 49 = 4 +
r
Pressures 4 and 49 are equal since they are on the same level. Thus
2ž cos Ÿ
4 = 49 = 4 +
r
Since pressure increases with depth, 4 > 4< . Thus,
Pressure difference, 4 − 4< = ℎ./
2ž cos Ÿ 2ž cos Ÿ
E4 + F − E4 + F = ℎ./
r r<
2ž cos Ÿ 2ž cos Ÿ
− = ℎ./
r r<
1 1
2ž cos Ÿ E − F = ℎ./
r r<
1 1
Excess pressure in liquid column, ℎ./ = 2ž cos Ÿ E − F
r r<
2ž cos Ÿ 1 1
Difference in levels, ℎ= E − F
./ r r<
NOTE: If the angle of contact is zero (Ÿ = 0°), thus:
2ž 1 1
ℎ= E − F
./ r r<

Qn 1: A U-tube with limbs of diameter 5.0 mm and 10.0 mm is inverted

that surface tension of water is 0.072 N m6< , angle of contact between glass
vertically with the open ends below the surface of water in a beaker. Given

and water is zero, and that density of water is 1000 kg m69 , what is the
difference in water levels to which the water rises.
Qn 2: Water is poured into a glass U-tube with vertical limbs of diameter 2.0
mm and 12.0 mm respectively. If the angle of contact between water and

(Atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 10’ Pa and surface tension of water is

glass is zero, calculate the difference in the levels of water in the tube.

7.2 × 106 N m6< ). [6]

Qn 3: A liquid is poured into a glass U-tube with vertical limbs of diameters

the glass is 45° and the surface tension of the liquid is 0.072 N m6< , calculate
4.0 mm and 12.0 mm respectively. If the angle of contact between liquid and

the difference in the liquid levels. (density of liquid = 1000 kg m69 )

EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE AN AIR BUBBLE

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a liquid of surface tension ž.
Fig (a) above shows an air bubble (which is assumed to be spherical) inside

Consider half a bubble as shown in fig. (b) above. 4< is the pressure outside
the bubble while 4 is the pressure inside the bubble. The difference

Excess pressure = (4 − 4< )

between them is called excess pressure. Thus,

If r is the radius of the air bubble, the cross-section area, (, of the bubble is
given by: ( = }r  .

Force due to 4 = Force due to 4< + Surface tensional force

At equilibrium,

(4 = (4< + g
}r 4 = }r  4< + 2}rž


r4 = r4< + 2ž
r(4 − 4< ) = 2ž
2ž
(4 − 4< ) =
r
2ž
∴ Excess pressure =
r
NOTE: The total pressure inside the air bubble is greater than that outside
(external pressure); otherwise, the combined affect of the external pressure
and the surface tensional forces would cause the bubble to collapse.

Question 1: (Source UNEB 2001/P1/Qn. 3 d (ii))

Calculate the total pressure within a bubble of air of radius 0.1 mm in water

water is 7.27 × 106 N m6< . (Atmospheric pressure = 1.01 × 10’ Pa).

if the bubble is formed 10 cm below the water surface and surface tension of

[4]

EXCESS PRESSURE IN A SOAP BUBBLE

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Consider half the soap bubble as shown above. 4< is the pressure outside the
bubble while 4 is the pressure inside the bubble. The difference between

Excess pressure = (4 − 4< )

them is called excess pressure. Thus,

If r is the radius of the air bubble, the cross-section area, (, of the bubble is
given by: ( = }r  .

bubble and the other outside. Therefore, surface tensional force, g, is given
A soap surface has two liquid surfaces in contact with air; one inside the

by: g = 2 × 2}rž = 4}rž

Force due to 4 = Force due to 4< + Surface tensional force

At equilibrium,

(4 = (4< + g
}r 4 = }r  4< + 4}rž


r4 = r4< + 4ž
r(4 − 4< ) = 4ž
4ž
(4 − 4< ) =
r
4ž
∴ Excess pressure =
r
NOTE: The total pressure inside the soap bubble is greater than that outside
(external pressure); otherwise, the combined affect of the external pressure
and the surface tensional forces would cause the bubble to collapse.

Question 1: (Source UNEB 2009/P1/Qn. 4 c (iii))

surface tension of the soap solution is 2.5 × 106 N m6<.[2]

Calculate the excess pressure inside a soap bubble of diameter 3.0 cm if the

EXCESS PRESSURE WHEN TWO SOAP BUBBLES COALESCE TO FORM A

COMMON INTERFACE

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Consider two soap bubbles A and B of radii r< andr respectively where r >
r< . If the two soap bubbles come into contact and have a common interface,
then the radius of curvature of curvature, r of the common interface can
calculated using excess pressure (pressure differences) for each soap bubble
as follows.
Pressure P outside each bubble is the same. P1 is the pressure inside soap

Since r > r< , then 4< > 4 .

bubble A of radius r1. P2 is the pressure inside soap bubble B of radius r2.

4ž
for A, Excess pressure, (4< − 4) = ⟶ (1)
r<
4ž
for B, Excess pressure, (4 − 4) = ⟶ (2)
r
Since r > r< , then 4< > 4 .
Equation (1) − (2) gives,
4ž 4ž
Excess pressure at interface, (4< − 4 ) = −
r< r
If the radius of curvature of the common interface is r, then
4ž 4ž 4ž
Excess pressure at interface, = −
r r< r
1 1 1
= −
r r< r
1 r − r<
=
r r r<
r r<
∴ Radius at interface, r=
r − r<
Assumption: It is assumed that the bubbles coalesce under isothermal
conditions. i.e. they can be placed in a vacuum to ensure isothermal
conditions.
Qn 1: Two soap bubbles A and B of radii 3 cm and 5 cm respectively
coalesce so as to have a common. Calculate
(i). The radius of curvature of this common interface.

solution is 0.02 N m6< .

(ii). The excess pressure at the interface if the surface tension of the soap

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USING SURFACE ENERGY TO DEFINE COEFFICIENT OF SURFACE
TENSION

liquid film of area 1 m .

Surface energy is defined as the energy needed to create a new surface of

Suppose that the film is stretched isothermally from §¨ to §© ¨ © through a

Consider a liquid film stretched on a rectangular metal frame.

small distance, ef, against the surface tensional force, g, so that the surface
area of the film increases.

force, g = (2o × ž).

Since there are two liquid surfaces in contact with the air, surface tensional

Increase in surface area, e( = (2o × ef).

e- = g × ef = 2žo × ef
Work done to enlarge the surface,

e- 2žo × ef
but surface energy, †= = =ž, ⟹ ž=†
e( 2o × ef

defined as the work done in enlarging the surface area of the liquid by 1 m
Therefore, in terms of surface energy, coefficient of surface tension is

under isothermal (constant temperature) conditions. S.I unit is J m6 .

e-
NOTE: This work done is stored as surface energy in the liquid film. Thus,
from, ž= , ∆- = ž × ∆(
e(
∴ Work done = Surface tension × Change in surface area
but, Work done = Change in surface energy
∴ Change in surface energy, ∆† = ž × ∆(
⟹ Surface energy, † = ž×(

Question 1: (Source UNEB 2017/P1/Qn. 4 d)

A mercury drop of radius 2.0 mm falls vertically and on hitting the ground, it

energy given that surface tension of mercury is 0.52 N m6< .

splits into two drops each of radius 0.5 mm. Calculate the change in surface

[5]
Question 2: (Source UNEB 2016/P1/Qn. 4 d (ii))

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A water drop of radius 0.5 cm is broken up into other drops of water each of

break up the water drop. (Take surface tension of water = 0.07 N m6< ) [4]
radius 1 mm. Assuming isothermal conditions, find the total work done to

Question 3: (Source UNEB 2002/P1/Qn. 4 b (i))

Calculate the work done against surface tension forces in blowing a soap

3.0 × 106 N m.
bubble of diameter 15 mm, if the surface tension of the soap solution is
[3]

EXCESS PRESSURE WHEN TWO SOAP BUBBLES COALESCE TO FORM A

Consider two soap bubbles A and B of radii r< wxb r respectively where
SINGLE BUBBLE

r > r< . If the two soap bubbles come into contact and coalesce to form a
single bubble, the radius of curvature of curvature, r of the common
interface of the resulting soap bubble will be greater than r and can
calculated using the principle of conservation of energy (surface energy) as
follows.

for bubble A, surface energy, †‰ = 2 × 4}r‰  × ž = 8}r‰  ž

for bubble B, surface energy, †Š = 2 × 4}rŠ  × ž = 8}rŠ  ž
for the resulting bubble, surface energy, † = 2 × 4}r  × ž = 8}r  ž

† = †‰ + †Š
By conservation of energy,

8}r ž = 8}r‰  ž + 8}rŠ  ž



r  = r‰  + rŠ 
r = ›r‰  + rŠ 
This implies that excess pressure inside the resulting soap bubble is given

4ž 4ž
by
(4< − 4 ) = =
r ›r‰  + rŠ 

Question 1: (Source UNEB 2015/P1/Qn. 4 b)

Two soap bubbles of radii 2.0 cm and 4.0 cm respectively coalesce under

2.5 × 106 N m6< , calculate the excess pressure inside the resulting soap
isothermal conditions. If the surface tension of the soap solution is

bubble. [4]

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Qn 2: Two soap bubbles A and B of radii 3 cm and 5 cm respectively

surface tension of the soap solution is 0.02 N m6< , calculate the excess
coalesce under isothermal conditions to form a single soap bubble. If the

pressure inside the resulting soap bubble.

Consider a soap bubble of radius rN ; formed at the top of a capillary tube of

Formation of a soap bubble at the top of a capillary tube

radius r dipped into a beaker of water as shown below.

If 4 is the atmospheric pressure, then:

4‰ = 4¬ = 4
Let žN and ž be the coefficient of surface tension of the soap solution and of

Excess pressure between ( and § is given by:

the capillary tube respectively.

4žN 4žN 4žN

(4Š − 4‰ ) = , ⟹ 4Š = 4‰ + =4+
rN rN rN
4žN
but, 4Œ = 4Š , ⟹ 4Œ = 4 +
rN
Excess pressure between ¨ and Z is given by:
2ž
(4Œ − 4­ ) =
r
4žN 2ž 4žN 2ž
E4 + F − 4­ = , ⟹ 4­ = 4 + −
rN r rN r
Also, 4® = 4¯ = 4
Pressure difference between Z and ° is given by:

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 (4® − 4­ ) = ℎ./
4žN 2ž
4 − E4 + − F = ℎ./
rN r
2ž 4žN
∴ ℎ./ = −
r rN
Assumption made: It’s assumed that water has zero angle of contact.

Qn 1: A soap bubble of diameter 10 mm is formed at the top of a capillary

of water and soap solution are 7 × 106 N m6< and 3 × 106 N m6<
tube of diameter 1mm dipped into a beaker of water. if the surface tension

respectively. Calculate, with reference to the figure below, the height of the
water in the capillary tube above the water in the beaker. (Assume zero
angle of contact)

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