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Plane and Solid Geometry
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MODULE IN PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY 2021

MODULE 1

TOPIC 1: THREE UNDEFINED TERMS IN GEOMETRY

In geometry, formal denions are formed using other dened words or terms. There are,
however, three words in geometry that are not formally dened. These words are point, line
and plane, and are referred to as the "three undened terms of geometry".

While these words are "undened" in the formal sense, we can sll "describe" these words.
The descripons, stated below, refer to these words in relaon to geometry.

POINT

• a point indicates a locaon (or posion) in space.

• a point has no dimension (actual size).
• a point has no length, no width, and no height (thickness).
• a point is usually named with a capital leer.
• in the coordinate plane, a point is named by an ordered
pair, (x,y).

The size of the dot drawn to

While we represent a point with a dot, the dot can be very
represent a point makes no
ny or very large. Remember, a point has no size.
dierence. Points have no size.
They simply represent a locaon.

LINE (straight line)

• a line has no thickness.

• a line's length extends in one dimension.
• a line goes on forever in both direcons.
• a line has innite length, zero width, and zero height.
• a line is assumed to be straight.
Lines can be labeled with a single
• a line is drawn with arrowheads on both ends.
script leer, or by two points on
• a line is named by a single lowercase script leer, or by any
two (or more) points which lie on the line. the line, . The thickness of a line
makes no dierence.

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PLANE
• a plane has two dimensions.
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• a plane forms a at surface extending indenitely in all
direcons.
• a plane has innite length, innite width and zero height
(thickness).
• a plane is drawn as a four-sided gure resembling a OR Plane m or Plane ABC.
While the diagram of a plane has
edges, you must remember that
tabletop or a parallelogram.
• a plane is named by a single leer (plane m) or by three the plane actually has no

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coplanar, but non-collinear,* points (plane ABC). boundaries.

*Collinear points are points that lie on the same straight line.
*Coplanar points are points that line in the same plane.

SUBSETS OF LINE

A. LINE SEGMENT
Measuring Line Segments

A line segment is named by its endpoints, but other points along its length can be named, too. Each poron of
the line segment can be labeled for length, so you can add them up to determine the total length of the line
segment.
*Example
Here we have line segment CX , but we have added two points along the way, Point G and
Point R:

To determine the total length of a line segment, you add each segment of the line segment. The
formula for
the line segment CX would be: CG + GR + RX = CX

7 units line segment CG

5 units line segment GR

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3 units line segment RX
7 + 5 + 3 = 15 units of length for CX

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A ray starts out at a point and connues o to innity. We can show
that by drawing an arrow at one end of the ray. Think of the sun's rays:
they start at the sun and go on indenitely.

We can name a ray using its starng point and one other point that is
on the ray: this is ray QP or ray (note the one arrowhead). Or, we can
OR
name a ray using a lowercase leer: this is ray r.

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ANGLE

Many people think that an angle is some kind of

slanted line. But in geometry an angle is made up of two rays that
have the same beginning point.

That point is called the vertex and the two rays are called the sides
of the angle.
1
To name an angle, we use three points lisng the vertex in the middle, single vertex leer,
number, Greek leer.
This is angle DEF or ∠DEF, ∠E, . We can use the symbol ∠ for angle.

This angle is half of the full This is one-fourth of the

circle, full circle, so it is 90°.
so it measures 180°. It is called This is called the right
the straight angle. angle. Table and book
If the angle opens up to a full corners are right angles.
Your two pencils (rays) are
circle, we say the angle is
lying
360 degrees (360°).
down at or straight on the

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oor.

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In each of these pictures the angle is opened more and more
OR The angle is opened even
and keeps geng bigger. The arc of the circle is larger. more now. It is an obtuse
angle: an angle that is

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These angles are acute angles, which means they are less than a more than a right angle,
right angle (less than 90°). Think of acute angles yet less than a straight
as sharp angles. If someone stabbed you with the vertex of an angle.
acute angle, it would feel sharp.
Think of obtuse angles as
dull angles.

How big is the angle?

It does not maer how long the sides of the angle are. Remember, they are rays, and rays go
on indenitely. But when we draw them on paper, we have to draw them as ending
somewhere.

The sides of the angle might even seem to have dierent lengths. That doesn't maer
either. The size of the angle is ONLY determined by how much it has “opened” as compared
to the whole circle. Think how big an arc of a circle the sides have drawn, as compared to a
whole circle.

Which of these two angles is bigger?

Look at how much the angle has opened?
How big a part of a circle have the sides drawn?
The second angle (on the right) is bigger.

Which of these is a bigger angle?

Again, the second one.

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OR
LINES
Parallel lines are coplanar lines that never intersect; they travel similar paths at a constant distance
from one another.

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Skew lines are noncoplanar lines that never intersect; they travel dissimilar paths on separate planes.

Parallel lines Skew lines a and b

5
a

a a

c c

b b

Two-Lined Intersections

When two lines look like they are crossing, they are really sharing a single
point. That point is on both lines. When lines intersect, they create four
angles: noce the appearance of the hub around the vertex in the gure
above. When the measures of those four angles are added, the sum equals
the rotaon of a complete circle, or 360°.
When the sum of the measures of any two angles equals 180°, the angles
are called supplementary angles.
When straight lines intersect, two angles next to each other are called
adjacent angles. They share a vertex, a side, and no interior points. Adjacent
angles along a straight line measure half a circle’s rotaon, or 180°.

a m∠ 1 + m ∠ 2 = 180
2 m∠ 2 + m ∠ 3 = 180
1 3
4 m∠ 3 + m ∠ 4 = 180
m∠ 4 + m ∠ 1 = 180
b m∠ 1 + m ∠ 2 + m ∠ 3 + m ∠ 4 = 360

When straight lines intersect, opposite angles, or angles nonadjacent to

each other, are called vercal angles . They are always congruent.

2 ∠ 1 ∠ 3, m 1= m 3

When two lines intersect and form four right angles, the lines are considered
perpendicular .

∠ 1 ∠ 2 ∠ 3 ∠ 4
m 1 = m 2 = m 3 = m 4 = 90
1 2

3 4

Three-Lined Intersections

A transversal line intersects two or more lines, each at a dierent point.

Because a transversal line crosses at least two other lines, eight or more
angles are created. When a transversal intersects a pair of parallel lines, cer-
tain angles are always congruent or supplementary. Pairs of these angles
have special names:
Corresponding angles are angles in corresponding posions.

Look for a disncve F shaped gure.

1
4 2
5 3
8
6
7

Angle Corresponding Angle

∠ 1 ∠ 5

∠ 2 ∠ 6

∠ 3 ∠ 7

∠ 4 ∠ 8

When a transversal intersects a pair of parallel lines, corresponding angles are congruent

Interior angles are angles inside a pair of crossed lines.

Look for a disncve I shaped gure.

1
4 2
5 3
8
6
7

Interior
Angles
∠ 4

∠ 3

∠ 6

∠ 5

Same-side interior angles are interior angles on the same side of a trans-
versal line.

Look for a disncve C shaped gure.

1
4
2
5 3
8
6
7

Same Side Interior Angles

∠ 3 ∠ 6

∠ 4 ∠ 5

When a transversal intersects a pair of parallel lines, same-side interior

angles are supplementary .

Alternate interior angles are interior angles on opposite sides of a

transversal line.

Look for a disncve Z shaped gure.

1
4 2
5 3
8
6
7

Alternate Interior Angles

∠4 ∠6

∠3 ∠5

When a transversal intersects a pair of parallel lines, alternate interior

angles are congruent .
When a transversal is perpendicular to a pair of parallel lines, all eight
angles are congruent.

∠ 1 ∠ 2 ∠ 3 ∠ 4
∠ 5 ∠ 6 ∠ 7 ∠ 8
1 2

4 3
m ∠ 1 = m∠ 2 = m∠ 3 = m∠ 4
m ∠ 5 = m∠ 6 = m∠ 7
m ∠ 8 = 90

5 6

8 7

There are also exterior angles, same-side exterior angles, and alternate
exterior angles. They are posioned by the same common-sense rules as the
interior angles.

SUMMARY

THEOREMS
Theorem

Theorem- a mathemacal statement that is proved using rigorous mathemacal reasoning.

In a mathemacal paper, the term theorem is oen reserved of the most important result.

 Right Angles Theorem- all right angles are congruent

 Straight Angles Theorem - all straight angles are congruent.
 Congruent Supplement Theorem - complement of the same angle is congruent.
 Vercal Angles Theorem- vercal angles are congruent.
 Triangle Sum Theorem- the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180o.
 Exterior Angle Theorem- the measurement of an exterior angle is equal to the sum of
the measurements of the two non-adjacent interior angles.
 Base Angle Theorem- if two side of a triangle are congruent, the angles opposite these
angles are congruent.
 Base Angle Converse Theorem - if two angle of a triangle are congruent, the sides
opposite these sides are congruent.
 Alternate Exterior Angles Theorem - if a transversal line intersects two parallel lines
then alternate exterior angles are congruent.
 Converse of the Alternate Exterior Angles Theorem - if two lines and a transversal line
form alternate exterior angles that are congruent, then the lines are parallel.
 Corresponding Angles Theorem- if a transversal intersects two parallel lines, and then
corresponding angles are congruent.
 Converse of the Corresponding Angles Theorem- if two lines and a transversal line form
corresponding angles that are congruent then the lines are parallel.
 Alternate Interior Angles Theorem - if a transversal line intersects two parallel lines then
alternate interior angles are congruent.
 Converse of the Alternate Interior Angles - if two lines and a transversal line form
alternate interior angles that are congruent, then the lines are parallel.

Postulates and Corollary

Postulate-is a statement that is accepted without proof. The postulates together with
the undened terms (points, lines and planes in geometry are used to prove theorems.

Postulate: Through any two points, there is exactly one line containing them.

Basic Postulates & Theorems of Geometry

Postulates are statements that are assumed to be true without proof.

Purposes - to explain undened terms and to serve as a starng point for proving other
statements.

Euclid's Postulates
1 .Two points determine a line segment.
2. A line segment can be extended indenitely along a line.
3. A circle can be drawn with a center and any radius.
4. All right angles are congruent.

5. If two lines are cut by a transversal, and the interior angles on the same side of the
transversal have a total measure of less than 180 degrees, then the lines will intersect on that
side of the transversal.
Postulate: If a line contains two disnct points of a plane, it is contained in the plane. The
measure of any line segment is a unique posive number. The measure (or length) of AB is a
posive number, AB.
Postulate: For any three points, there is at least one plane containing them. Any three no
collinear points determine a plane. If X is a point on AB and A-X-B (X is between A and B), then
AX + XB = AB.
Postulate: If two disnct planes intersect, then their intersecon is a line. If two lines intersect,
then they intersect in exactly one point
Postulate: Space contains at least four no coplanar points. Through any three no collinear
points, there is exactly one plane.
Postulate(The ruler postulate): The points on a line can be placed in one-to-one
correspondence with the real numbers so that for every point on the line there corresponds
exactly one real number called the coordinate of the point and vice versa. The distance
between points A and B, wrien as AB, is the absolute value of the dierence between the
coordinates A and B.
Postulate (Angle Measurement Postulate): For every angle, there is unique posive number
between 0 and 180 called the degree measure of the angle. If two points lie in a plane, then the
line joining them lies in that plane.
The protractor
A protractor is used to nd the degree measure of a given angle.
Postulate: The measure of an angle is a unique posive number.
Postulate: If a point D lies in the interior of angle ABC, then m ABD + m DBC = m ABC.
Postulate 10 (Parallel Postulate): Through a point not on a line, exactly one line is parallel to the
given line
Linear Pair Postulate: If two angles form a linear pair, then the measures of the angles add up
to 180°.
Vercal Angles Postulate: If two angles are vercal angles, then they are congruent (have equal
measures).
Corresponding Angles Postulate: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then
corresponding angles are congruent.
2.3 Corollary
Corollary- is a statement that is proven true by another statement or considered to be
sequence of a statement’s truth. Corollaries are believed to be true without addional proof
besides the inial true statement.
 An equilateral triangle is always equiangular.
 If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of another triangle, then the
third angles are congruent.
 Each angle of an equilateral triangle has measure 60.
 In a triangle, there can be at most one right angle or obtuse angle.
 The acute angle angles of a right triangle are complementary.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY 1
Print these on a long bond paper and answer completely. Sow your soluons if needed.
1. Write if each gure is a line, ray, line segment, or an angle, and name it.

a. b. c.
_______________________ _______________________ _______________________

d. e. f.
_______________________ _______________________ _______________________

2. a. Find the angle formed by the rays DE and DF.

How do we name it?

b. Find the angle formed by the rays CA and CE.

How do we name it?

3. a. Draw two points, D and E. Then draw line DE. USE THE BOX.

b. Draw point Q not on the line.

c. Draw rays DQ and EQ.

d. Find the angles formed in your drawing.

4. Which angle is bigger? ENCIRCLE YOUR ANSWERS

b O c O
a. OR
. R . R

d O e O
OR f.
. R . R

5. a. Sketch three dierent

acute angles.

b. Sketch three dierent

obtuse angles.

c. Sketch a right angle

and a straight angle.

6. Give the measurement of and label the angles as acute, right, obtuse, or straight.

a. b. c.

d. e. f.

g. h. i.

MODULE IN PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY 2021

TOPIC 2: TRIANGLES
A is a 3-sided polygon
A closed gure consisng of three line segments joining three no collinear points.
The three angles of a triangle always add to 180°
A closed plane gure having three sides and three angles

Properes of a triangle

The VERTEX (plural: verces) is a corner of the triangle. Every triangle has three verces

The BASE of a triangle can be any one of the three sides, usually the one drawn at the
boom. You can pick any side you like to be the base. Commonly used as a reference side for
calculang the area of the triangle. In an isosceles triangle, the base is usually taken to be the
unequal side.

The ALTITUDE of a triangle is the perpendicular from the base to the opposite vertex.
(The base may need to be extended). Since there are three possible bases, there are also three
possible altudes. The three altudes intersect at a single point, called the orthocenter of the
triangle.

The MEDIAN of a triangle is a line from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.
The three medians intersect at a single point, called the centroid of the triangle.

INTERIOR ANGLES -The three angles on the inside of the triangle at each vertex

EXTERIOR ANGLES -The angle between a side of a triangle and the extension of an adjacent
side.

Types of Triangles

Classifying Triangles

Triangles can be classied either according to their sides or according to their angles. All of each
may be of dierent or the same sizes; any two sides or angles may be of the same size; there
may be one disncve angle.

A. The types of triangles classied by their sides are the following:

 Equilateral triangle: A triangle with all three sides equal in measure. In Figure 1, the slash marks
indicate equal measure.

 Isosceles triangle: A triangle in which at least two sides have equal measure (Figure 2).

 Scalene triangle: A triangle with all three sides of dierent measures (Figure 3).

The types of triangles classied by their angles include the following:

 Right triangle: A triangle that has a right angle in its interior (Figure 4).

 Obtuse triangle: A triangle having an obtuse angle (greater than 90° but less than 180°) in its
interior. Figure 5 shows an obtuse triangle.

 Acute triangle: A triangle having all acute angles (less than 90°) in its interior (Figure 6).

 Equiangular triangle: A triangle having all angles of equal measure (Figure 7).

3.4 Angle Side Relaonship

If one side of a triangle is longer than another side, then the angle opposite the longer
side will have a greater degree measure than the angle opposite the shorter side.

Converse also true: If one angle of a triangle has a greater degree measure than another
angle, then the side opposite the greater angle will be longer than the side opposite the smaller
angle.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY 2

1. A triangle has three angles. In fact, the word tri-angle means a three-angled shape.

i. Which among these

is an obtuse triangle?

a. b. c.

ii. Which one is a right

triangle?

For quesons 2-7, classify each triangle by its sides and by its angles. EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWERS.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. Can you draw a triangle with a right angle and an obtuse angle? Why or why not?
9. In an isosceles triangle, can the angles opposite the congruent sides be obtuse?
10. TRUE OR FALSE: A right triangle is acute.

Challenge quesons. Draw the triangle. Then, nd x and the measure of each side of the triangle.
Show your complete soluon. USE SEPARATE SHEET OF PAPER FOR YOUR ANSWERS.

11. Triangle ABC is equilateral with AB = 3x − 2, BC = 2x + 4, and CA = x + 10.

12. Triangle DEF is isosceles, angle D is the vertex angle, DE = x + 7, DF = 3x − 1, and EF = 2x + 5.

For 13-15, Find the measures of the sides of triangle RST, sketch the triangle, and classify the
triangle by its sides.
13. R(-1,-3), S(4,4), T(8,-1)
14. R(0, 2), S(2, 5), T(4, 2)
15. R(1, 3), S(4, 7), T(5, 4)

YOU CAN USE OTHER RESOURCES FOR YOUR REFERENCE. AS MATH MAJOR STUDENTS, HAVE
AN INITIATIVE TO STUDY THIS TOPIC.

MODULE IN PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY 2021

MODULE 2

TOPIC 3: POLYGONS
Architecture and geometry are closely related. Architects use polygons to create
designs and compute dimensions and areas of polygonal parts of a building or any similar
project.

One very prolic contemporary architect is the Chinese-American architect Leo Ming
Pei, born in Guanzhou, China on 26 th day of April 1917. He designed famous buildings all over
the world, such as glass pyramid for the main entrance of the Louvre Museum in Paris (1990),
and the angular 70-storey Bank of China tower in Hong Kong (1990). The bank of china tower is
a skyscraper featuring roof of four triangles of four triangles to dierent heights. Even the
famous Eiel Tower is made up of triangles.

Denion of Polygon

Polygon- is a term derived from two ancient Greek words “ poly” meaning many and
“gon” meaning angle, thus the word polygon means “many angles”.

Denion: A polygon is a closed gure which is the union of segments, such that;

 These segments called their sides are non-collinear ; and

 Each segments or side intersects two other sides only at their endpoints, called their
verces.

A polygon divides a plane into three parts:

1. the interior of the polygon;

2. the polygon itself ; and
3. The exterior of the polygon.

Interior
exterior

Types of Polygons

Convex polygon

A convex polygon contains every line segment drawn through any two of the points on its
plane.

Concave polygon

A polygon that are not convex is called non convex or concave.

Regular polygon

A regular polygon is a polygon in which all the sides are equal and all the angles are
equal.

A segment whose endpoint is two non-consecuve verces of a polygon is called

diagonal .

B C C AC and BD are the

diagonals of quadrilateral A

A D

Naming Polygons

To name a polygon we refer the number of sides it has. The table below gives the
common names of some polygons.

Number of sides Name of polygon Figure

3 Triangle

4 Quadrilateral

5 Pentagon

6 Hexagon

7 Heptagon

8 Octagon

9 Nonagon

10 Decagon

n n -gon

In general, a polygon with sides greater than 10 is called n-gon. We oen to them simply
as 11-gon ,12-gon, 13-gon, and so on.

Angles of polygon

Interior angle

Consider each convex polygon below with all possible diagonals drawn from one vertex.

Noce that each polygon is separated into triangles. Since the sum of the measures of the
interior angles in a triangle is 180, it easy to nd the sum of the measures of the interior of the
interior angles of each polygon. The following table will help us in determining the sum of the
measures of any convex polygon.

Convex Polygon Number of Number of Sum of the Measures

Sides Triangles of the Interior Angles
Triangles 3 1 or ( 3 −2)
1(180) = 180

Quadrilateral 4 2 or ( 4− 2) 2(180) = 360

Pentagon 5 3 or ( 5 −2)
3(180)=540
Hexagon 6 4 or ( 6 −2 )
4(180) = 720
Heptagon 7 5 or ( 7 −2 )
5(180) = 1900
Octagon 8 6 or ( 8 −2 )
6(180) = 1080

In each polygon, noce that the number of triangles formed is always 2 less than the number of
sides, or( n −2 ), and the sum of angle measurement is( n −2 ) 180 . This leads to the following
theorem whose proof is not discussed here.

Theorem:

If a convex polygon has n sides and S is the sum of the measures of its interior angles,
then

S= ( n−2 ) 180 °

Example 1. Find the sum of the measures of the interior angles of:

a. Decagon b. 15-gon

Soluon: a. S= ( n−2 ) 180 °

S= ( 10 − 2 ) 180 °

Decagon has 10 sides, so substute 10 for n.

S= 1440 °

Sum of the measures of all interior angles of a

b. S= ( n−2 ) 180 °

S= (15 −2 ) 180 °

Substute 15 for n

S= (13 ) 180 °

S= 2340 °

Sum of the measures of all interior angles of a 15- gon

Example 2. Find the measures of each interior angle of a regular nonagon.

Soluon: S= ( n−2 ) 180

S= ( 9−2 ) 180

Substute 9 for n, since nonagon has 9 sides

S= (7 ) 180

S= 1260

Sum of the measures of all interior angles of a nonagon

Since the interior angles of a regular nonagon are congruent, therefore, the measure of
1260
each angle is equal to =140
9

 If all interior angles in a polygon are congruent, then the measures (m) of one of them
are obtained by dividing ( n −2 )180 by the number (n) of angles. The formula is
( n− 2 )
m= 180.
n

Example 3. Three angles of a convex pentagon are congruent. Each of the other two angles
has a measure of more than twice that of each of the three angles. Find the measure of each
angle.

Soluon:

Let: x =m ∠ A =m ∠ B =m ∠ C

2x + 4 = m ∠ D = m ∠E
S= ( n−2 ) 180

S= (5 −2 ) 180 Substute (5 for n)

S= ( 3 ) 180

S= 540

Total measure of all 5 interior angles

Equaon: S= 3 ( x ) + 2 ( 2 x + 4 )

540 = 3 x + 4 x+ 8
7x =532
x =76
∴ m∠ A =m ∠ B= m ∠ C =76
m ∠ D =m ∠ E =2 ( 76 ) + 4 =156

Example 4. Find the number of sides of a regular polygon if each of its angles has a measure of
120.

Soluon:letn = number of side , m= measureof aninterior angle

( n −2 ) 180
m= Formula for nding the measure of one interior angle of regular
n
polygon

( n −2 ) 180
120 =
n

120 n = ( n−2 ) 180

120 n = 180 n −360
60 n =360
n=6 sides

Exterior angle

An exterior angle of a polygon is an angle that forms a linear pair with one of the angles of
the polygon.

Theorem:

The sum of the measure of the exterior angles

of a convex polygon is 360

Finding the sum of the exterior angle of a polygon is simple. No maer what type of ° If
you are working with a regular polygon, you can determine the size of each exterior angle by
360 °
simply dividing the sum, 360, by the number of angle. The formula is , remember it is only
n
work in a regular polygon.

Basic Compass Construcon

Bisecng an Angle

Perpendicular Bisector

Copying an angle

90 Degree Angle
STEPS

• Draw the line segment PA

• Place the point of the compass at P and draw an arc that cuts the arm Q
• Place the point of the compass at Q and draw an arc of radius PQ that cuts arc drawn in
step 2 at R
• With the point of the compass at R, draw an arc of radius PQ to cut the arc drawn in
step 2 at S
• With the point of the compass sll at R, draw another arc of radius PQ near T as shown
• With the point of the compass at S, drawn an arc of radius PQ to cut the arc drawn in
step 5 at T
• Join T to P. The angle APT is 90 Degrees.

QUADRILATERALS
Quadrilateral – is a closed gure consisng of four line segments or sides. These sides may or
may not be congruent and parallel.

- can be named by their verces. The order of naming the verces is important.

5.1 Kinds of quadrilaterals

Trapezoid – with exactly one pair of parallel side.

Parallelogram – two pairs of opposite sides are both parallel and congruent.

Rhombus – all sides are congruent.

Rectangle – all angles are congruent and two pairs of opposite sides are parallel and congruent.

Square – all angles are right angles and all sides are congruent.

The trapezoid and its properes

Trapezoid - it is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides.

The two parallel sides of the quadrilateral are called the bases and the two nonparallel
sides are called the legs. The two angles that include the bases are called the base angles. Every
trapezoid has two pairs of base angles.

Isosceles trapezoid - the legs are congruent, the base angles are congruent and the diagonals
are congruent.

The median of a trapezoid is parallel to the bases, and its length is equal to half the sum
of the length of the bases.

The parallelogram and its properes

Quadrilateral – can have two pairs of opposite sides which are parallel.

If two pairs of sides of a quadrilateral are parallel and congruent, then the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram.

If all sides of a parallelogram are congruent, then the parallelogram is a rhombus.

If all angles of a parallelogram are right angles, then the parallelogram is a rectangle.

If all angles of a parallelogram are right angles and all sides are congruent, then the
parallelogram is a square.

Properes of a parallelogram

1. Opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.

2. Two non-opposite angles of a parallelogram are supplementary.

3. A diagonal of a parallelogram divides the parallelogram into 2 congruent triangles.

4. Two opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent.

5. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY 3
A. Show your complete soluons. Use separate white papers.

1. Find the length of the median of the trapezoid if the bases measures 19 & 25.

2. What is the length of one of the bases of the trapezoid if the length of its median is 25 and
the other base measures 38?

3. Give the measures of the three angles of parallelogram STAR if;

a. Angle S measures 75
b. Angle R measures 45
4 . What is the measure of each angle of a parallelogram if two opposite angles are 3x-20 and
x+40?

5. In a right triangle, one acute angle measures twice the measure of the other. Find the
measure of each angle.

6. The rao of the interior angles of a triangle is 2:3:4. nd the measures of each angle.

7. The exterior angle of the base angle of an isosceles triangle is 108degrees. What is the
measure of the vertex angle?

8. How many sides does a polygon have if it has 27 diagonals?

9. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is 1800 degrees. How many sides does the
polygon have?

10. in triangle NIC, ∠ NIO measures 75 degrees. If IO is the angle bisector of ∠ NIC, what is ⃗

the measure of ∠ NIC ?

B. Construct the following. Research for the dierent steps in basic construcon. USE
DIFFERENT COLORS OF PEN TO EMPHASIZE THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION.

1. Perpendicular line to a given point in the line

2. Corresponding Angles

CHALLENGE QUESTION:
1. The measures of the angles are in the rao 4:5. The larger of the two angles is 60 less than
twice the smaller angle. Find the measure of each angle. Are the angles complementary?
Supplementary?

TOPIC 4: TRIANGLE SIMILARITY

Mint chocolate chip ice cream and chocolate chip ice cream are similar, but not the
same. This is an everyday use of the word "similar," but it not the way we use it in mathemacs.

In geometry, two shapes are similar if they are the same shape but dierent sizes. You
could have a square with sides 21 cm and a square with sides 14 cm; they would be similar. An
equilateral triangle with sides 21 cm and a square with sides 14 cm would not be similar
because they are dierent shapes.

Similar triangles are easy to idenfy because you can apply three theorems specic to triangles.
These three theorems, known as Angle - Angle (AA), Side - Angle - Side (SAS) , and Side - Side -
Side (SSS), are foolproof methods for determining similarity in triangles.

Corresponding Angles

In geometry, correspondence means that a parcular part on one polygon relates exactly to a
similarly posioned part on another. Even if two triangles are oriented dierently from each
other, if you can rotate them to orient in the same way and see that their angles are alike, you
can say those angles correspond.

The three theorems for similarity in triangles depend upon corresponding parts. You look at
one angle of one triangle and compare it to the same-posion angle of the other triangle.

Proporon

Similarity is related to proporon. Triangles are easy to evaluate for proporonal changes that
keep them similar. Their comparave sides are proporonal to one another; their
corresponding angles are idencal.

You can establish raos to compare the lengths of the two triangles' sides. If the raos are
congruent, the corresponding sides are similar to each other.

Included Angle

The included angle refers to the angle between two pairs of corresponding sides. You cannot
compare two sides of two triangles and then leap over to an angle that is not between those
two sides.

Proving Triangles Similar

Here are two congruent triangles. To make your life easy, we made them both equilateral
triangles.

Example:

△FOX is compared to △HEN. Noce that ∠O on △FOX corresponds to ∠E on △HEN. Both

∠O and ∠E are included angles between sides FO and OX on △FOX, and sides HE and EN on
△HEN.
Side FO is congruent to side HE; side OX is congruent to side EN, and ∠O and ∠E are the
included, congruent angles.
The two equilateral triangles are the same except for their leers. They are the same size, so
they are idencal triangles. If they both were equilateral triangles but side EN was twice as long
as side HE, they would be similar triangles.

Triangle Similarity Theorems

Angle-Angle (AA) Theorem

Angle-Angle (AA) says that two triangles are similar if they have two pairs of corresponding
angles that are congruent. The two triangles could go on to be more than similar; they could be
idencal. For AA, all you have to do is compare two pairs of corresponding angles.

Example:
Here are two scalene triangles △JAM and △OUT.
We have already marked two of each triangle's interior angles with the geometer's shorthand
for congruence: the lile slash marks. A single slash for interior ∠A and the same single slash for
interior ∠U mean they are congruent. Noce ∠M is congruent to ∠T because they each have
two lile slash marks.
Since ∠A is congruent to ∠U, and ∠M is congruent to ∠T, we now have two pairs of congruent
angles, so the AA Theorem says the two triangles are similar.

Tricks of the Trade

Watch for trickery, somemes the triangles are not oriented in the same way when you look at
them. You may have to rotate one triangle to see if you can nd two pairs of corresponding
angles.

Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Theorem

The second theorem requires an exact order: a side, then the included angle, then the next
side. The Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Theorem states if two sides of one triangle are proporonal to
two corresponding sides of another triangle, and their corresponding included angles are
congruent, the two triangles are similar.

Example:

Here are two triangles, side by side and oriented in the same way.
△RAP and △EMO both have idened sides measuring 37 inches on △RAP and 111 inches
on △EMO, and also sides 17 on △RAP and 51 inches on △EMO. Noce that the angle between
the idened, measured sides is the same on both triangles: 47°.

Is the rao 37/111 the same as the rao 17/51? Yes; the two raos are proporonal, since they
each simplify to 1/3. With their included angle the same, these two triangles are similar.

Side-Side-Side (SSS) Theorem

The last theorem is Side-Side-Side, or SSS. This theorem states that if two triangles have
proporonal sides, they are similar. This might seem like a big leap that ignores their angles, but
think about it: the only way to construct a triangle with sides proporonal to another triangle's
sides is to copy the angles.

Example:
Here are two triangles, △FLO and △HIT. Noce we have not idened the interior angles. The
sides of △FLO measure 15, 20 and 25 cm in length. The sides of △HIT measure 30, 40 and 50 cm
in length.

You need to set up raos of corresponding sides and evaluate them:

15/30 = 12
20/40 = 12
25/50 = 12
They all are the same rao when simplied. They all are 12. So even without knowing the
interior angles, we know these two triangles are similar, because their sides are proporonal
to each other.

TRIANGLE CONGRUENCE

Two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides are equal in length and their

corresponding interior angles are equal in measure.

We use the symbol to show congruence.

Corresponding sides and angles mean that the side on one triangle and the side on the other

triangle, in the same posion, match. You may have to rotate one triangle, to make a careful

comparison and nd corresponding parts.

How can you tell if triangles are congruent?

Geometricians prefer more elegant ways to prove congruence. Comparing one triangle with

another for congruence, they use three postulates.

A postulate is a statement presented mathemacally that is assumed to be true. All three

triangle congruence statements are generally regarded in the mathemacs world as postulates,

but some authories idenfy them as theorems (able to be proved).

Before going into the detail of these postulates of congruency, it is important to know
how to mark different sides and angles with a certain sign which shows their
congruency. You will often see the sides and angles of a triangle are marked with little
tic marks to specify the sets of congruent angles or congruent sides.

You will see in the diagrams below that the sides with one tic mark are of the same
measurement, the sides with two tic marks also have the same length, and the sides
with the tic marks are equal. The same goes for the angles.

Side – Angle – Side

Side Angle Side (SAS) is a rule used to prove whether a given set of triangles are
congruent. In this case, two triangles are congruent if two sides and one included angle
in a given triangle are equal to the corresponding two sides and one included angle in
another triangle.

Remember that the included angle must be formed by the two sides for the triangles to
be congruent.

Illustration of SAS rule:

Given that; length AB = PR, AC = PQ and ∠ QPR = ∠ BAC, then;

Triangle ABC and PQR are congruent (△ABC ≅△ PQR).

Side - Angle – Angle

The Side - Angle – Angle rule (SAA) states that two triangles are congruent if
their corresponding two angles and one non-included side are equal.

Illustration:

Given that;

∠ BAC = ∠ QPR, ∠ ACB = ∠ RQP and length AB = QR, then

triangle ABC and PQR are congruent (△ABC ≅△ PQR).

Side – Side – Side

The side – side – side rule (SSS) states that: Two triangles are congruent if their
corresponding three side lengths are equal.

Illustration:

Triangle ABC and PQR are said to be congruent (△ABC ≅△ PQR) if length AB =
PR, AC = QP, and BC = QR.

Angle – Side – Angle

The Angle – Side – Angle rule (ASA) states that: Two triangles are congruent if
their corresponding two angles and one included side are equal.

Illustration:

Triangle ABC and PQR are congruent (△ABC ≅△ PQR) if length ∠ BAC
= ∠ PRQ, ∠ ACB = ∠ PQR.

Worked examples of triangle congruence:

Example 1
Two triangles ABC and PQR are such that; AB = 3.5 cm, BC = 7.1 cm, AC = 5 cm, PQ =
7.1 cm, QR = 5 cm and PR = 3.5 cm. Check whether the triangles are congruent.

Solution
Given: AB = PR = 3.5 cm
BC = PQ = 7.1 cm and
AC = QR = 5 cm
Therefore, ∆ABC ≅ ∆PQR (SSS).

Example 2
Given that ∠ABC = (2x + 30) °, ∠ PQR = 55 ° and ∠ RPQ = 65 °, find the value of x.

Solution
∆ABC ≅ ∆PQR
Therefore,
55 ° + 65 ° + (2x + 30) ° = 180°
120° + 2x + 30° = 180°
150° + 2x = 180°
2x = 30°
x = 15°

Example 3
Describe the type of congruence in two triangles given by;
∆ ABC, AB = 7 cm, BC = 5 cm, ∠B = 50° and ∆ DEF, DE = 5 cm, EF = 7 cm, ∠E = 50°

Solution
Given:
AB = EF = 7 cm,
BC = DE = 5 cm and
∠B =∠E = 50°
Therefore, ∆ABC ≅ ∆FED (SAS)

EXAMPLE:

Suppose you have parallelogram SWAN and add diagonal SA. You now have two

triangles, △SAN and △SWA. Are they congruent?

You already know line SA, used in both triangles, is congruent to itself. What about ∠SAN? It is
congruent to ∠WSA because they are alternate interior angles of the parallel line segments SW
and NA (because of the Alternate Interior Angles Theorem).
You also know that line segments SW and NA are congruent, because they were part of the
parallelogram (opposite sides are parallel and congruent).
So now you have a side SA, an included angle ∠WSA, and a side SW of △SWA. You can compare
those three triangle parts to the corresponding parts of △SAN:

 Side SA ≅ Side SA
 Included angle ∠WSA ≅ ∠NAS
 Side SW ≅ Side NA

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY 4

1. Construct the two-column proof to prove that these two triangles are congruent
Given: AB ≅ ED , AC ≅ EF , BF ≅ DC
Prove: ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ EDF

A E

B F C D

2. Complete the two-column proof. Supply the missing informaon.

TOPIC 6: CIRCLES
The circle is the most symmetrical of all mathemacal curves. Given any object, circular
in form, noce that all points along its edges have the same distance from the center.

Circles are named by their centers.

The circle below is called circle O. in symbols, ʘO.

Parts of a Circle

1. Segment OT is a radius of ʘ O.

A radius is a segment, one of its endpoint is in the center of the circle and the other
endpoint is on the circle.

2. Segment PS is a chord.

A chord is a segment whose endpoints are any two points on the circle.

3. Segment PR is a diameter.

A diameter is a chord which passes through the center of the circle.

4. Line PT is a secant.

A secant is a line which intersects the circle at two disnct points.

5. Line QR is a tangent.

A tangent is a line in the plane of a circle that intersects the circle at exactly one point.

6. Points N and Q are points in the plane of the circle.

The interior of the circle is the set of points whose distance from the center is less than
the radius.

The exterior of the circle is the set of points whose distance from center is greater that
the radius.

6.2 Arcs and Angles

When two rays are drawn from the center of a given circle, an angle is formed and parts
of a circle are intercepted. The same is true when two rays forming an angle are drawn from
any point on the circle.

Other basic terms needed in the study of the circle are illustrated and dened as
follows.

1. A central angle is an angle formed by two radii of a circle with its vertex is in the center of the
circle.

2. An arc is a part of a circle. If it is half a circle, it is called a semicircle. If it is less than half a
circle, it is called a minor arc. If it is more than a circle, it is called major arc.

3. An arc is intercepted by a given angle or the angle intercepts the arc if the endpoints of the
arc are points of the angle and all other points of the arc are in the interior of the angle.

͡XY is intercepted by XMY.

4. An angle is subtended by an arc if two points are endpoints of the arc.

XMY is subtended by͡XY, XY is a chord subtended by͡PQ.

5. Arcs are measured by their corresponding central angles. Like angles, measures of arcs can

be added or subtracted to nd the measures of the arcs.

NOTE: The degree measure of a minor arc is the degree

measure of its central angle. The degree measure of a
major arc is 360 minus the degree measure of the minor
arc

A B
A
O O M
60O

B C
N
ABC is a semicircle MN is a minor arc
m ͡ABC = 180 mMON = 60
m͡MN = 60

C.

A͡
EB is a major arc
E A
70O m͡AEB = 360-m͡AB
m͡AEB = 360-70
m͡AEB = 290
B
Name me!

Name each of the. Refer to circle P.

1. A circle

2. Two radii

3. Two diameters

4. Two tangents

5. A chord

6. A scant

7. Two points of tangency

8. A central angle

9. A major arc

10. A minor a

Some Basic Facts and Theorems on Central Angles and Arcs

1. Arc Addion Postulate:

If P is a point on a circle between two other points Q and R on the circle, then m͡PQ + m͡
QR=
m͡PQR

2. If two central angles of a circle are congruent, their intercepted arcs are also congruent.

POQ  QOR, then͡PQ  ͡

QR,

3. If two arcs of the circle are congruent then, the

angles subtended by them are congruent.

 ͡PQ  ͡QR, then POQ  QOR

4. If two arcs of a circle are congruent then, the

chords subtended them are congruent.

 ͡PQ  ͡QR, then͞ ͞PQ  ͞QR

Inscribed Angles and arcs

An inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex lies on the circle and whose sides contain the
endpoints of an arc of the same circle.

Theorems on Inscribed Angle

1. Inscribed Angle Theorem:

The measure of an angle inscribed in a circle is one-half the measure of the central angle
intersecng the same arc.

2. The measure of an inscribed angle is one-half the measure of the arc intercepted by this
angle.

3. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.

[Link] angle that intercept the same arc or congruent arcs have the same measure.

B  D

Tangent of a circle

A line tangent to a circle is a line on the same plane which intersects the circle in one plane and
only one point. This point of intersecon is called the point of tangency or point of contact.

Related Facts and Theorems:

1. If a line is tangent to a circle , then it is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of
tangency.

Given: AB is tangent to ʘO at A

Conclusion: AB  OA at A

2. A line that is perpendicular to a radius of a circle at its outer endpoint is a tangent to a circle.

Given: OR  PQ at R

Conclusion: PQ is a tangent to ʘO.

3. Right angles are formed by a tangent that intersects a radius of a circle at its outer endpoint.

Given: NP intersects OM at M

Conclusion: OMA and OMP are right angles.

4. The measure of an angle formed by a tangent and a chord is half the measure of the
intercepted arc.

Given: RT is tangent to ʘO at P

SP is a chord of ʘO

1
Conclusion: mSPT = m͡SP
2

1
mSPR = m͡SNP
2

5. The measure of an angle formed by two tangents meeng outside the circle is half the
dierence of the measures of the intercepted arcs.

Given: CD and BC are tangents to ʘO

DC intersects BC at C

1
Conclusion: mC = (m ͡DEB  m ͡DFB)
2

6. The segments tangent from an exterior point a circle are congruent.

Given: PR intersects RS at R

PR and PS are tangents to ʘO

Conclusion: PR  SR

Tangent of a Circle
Two circles are tangent if they are tangent to the same line at the same point. A line is a
tangent to each of two coplanar circles is called common tangent.

 If two tangent circles are Coplanar and their centers are on the same side of their common
tangent, then they are internally tangent.

 If two tangent circles are coplanar and their centers are on the opposite side of their
common tangent, then there are externally tangent.

Angles Formed by Secants and Tangents

A secant is a line that intersects a circle at two dierent points.

6.8 Theorems on Circle

1. The measure of an angle formed by two secants intersecng at a point on the circle is
half the measure of the arc intercepted by the secant.

1
mBAC = m ͡BC
2

2. The measure of an angle formed by two secants intersecng at an exterior point of the circle
is half the dierence of the measure of the two arcs intercepted by the secants.

1
QPR = (m ͡QR  m ͡ST)
2

3. The measure of an angle formed by two secants intersecng at an interior point of the circle
is half the sum of the measures of the arcs intercepted by the vercal angles formed by these
secant lines.

1
mFAH = (m ͡DE  m ͡FH)
2

1
mDAE = (m ͡DE  m ͡FH)
2

1
mDAF = (m ͡DF  m ͡EH)
2

1
mEAH = (m ͡DF  m ͡EH)
2

4. The measure of an angle formed by a tangent and a secant intersecng a point on the circle
is half the measure of the arc intercepted by them.

1
mBCD = m ͡CB
2

5. The measure of an angle formed by a tangent and a secant intersecng at the exterior of a
circle is half the dierence of the measures of the arc intercepted by them.

1
mP= (m ͡MQ  m ͡NQ)
2

TRANGRAM

Tangram- A tradional Chinese puzzle made of square divided into seven pieces (one
parallelogram, one square and ve triangles) that can be arranged to much parcular designs.

History of the tangram puzzle

Tangram puzzles originated in

Imperial China during the Tang
Dynasty, they are thought to have
travelled to Europe in the 19th
century on trading ships.

Tangram puzzles were popular

during World War 1 and have
become the most popular
dissecon puzzle in the world.
Besides, tangram paerns have
also been described as early
psychological tests.

Tangram paerns are called in China "Chin-Chiao Pan" meaning intriguing seven piece
puzzle.

A book published in China in 1815 by Shan-Chiao contains 374 puzzle paerns.

Early Chinese mathemacians manipulated geometric shapes in their problem solving. A

technique that is sll applied in classrooms today, inter alia, through the use of tangrams.

The legend of the tangram

The ancient Chinese story of the tangram is that a sage, a wise old man was to take a
precious sheet of glass to the king who needed a window in his palace.

The square piece of glass was wrapped in silk and canvas and carried in the sage's
backpack.

The journey was long, the sage crossed a desert and rivers, he travelled through forests
and elds. He arrived at a rugged mountain range and climbed to the summit of a high, rocky
peak. At the top of the mountain he looked into the distance and glimpsed the palace he was
travelling to.

Pleased that he had almost arrived, he stumbled and tumbled down the side of the
mountain. The glass was broken.

When he met the king he told of his journey and admied that the glass was broken.
The square glass was unwrapped from its silk and canvas case and the sage was surprised to see
that glass was not shaered but divided into seven geometric shapes.

The sage moved the shapes around and made images to describe his journey.

He showed the king his home, a camel he had seen in the desert, monks he met on his
way, a boat on the river he crossed and the mountain range where he fell.

The king enjoyed the geometric images and had the shapes recreated in wood. . .
Tangrams were invented.

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