Some Fundamental

Concepts in Quantum
Mechanics and The
Infinite Square Well
Problem

SSP Assignment
[Link]
Some Basic Principles of Quantum Mechanics
1. Superposition Principle:
In quantum mechanics, the state of a system can be in a superposition of
multiple states simultaneously. This is unlike classical systems, which are
always in a single, well-defined state. It means that it can be in multiple
locations or have multiple energies at once until a measurement is made.
Wavefunction Representation: The arbitrary state of a system is represented
by a wavefunction 𝛹, which can be a combination (superposition) of several
possible states.
 Mathematically: |𝛹⟩ = 𝑐1|𝜓1⟩ + 𝑐2|𝜓2⟩ + ⋯
2. Probability Amplitude and the Born Rule:
Quantum mechanics is inherently probabilistic. The wavefunction 𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡)
represents a probability amplitude, and the probability of finding the
particle at a particular position (or in a particular state) is given by the square
of the wavefunction’s magnitude: 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∣ 𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡) ∣𝟐
Born Rule: The probability of an event in quantum mechanics is given by the
square of the amplitude of the wavefunction associated with that event. This
introduces the idea that until a measurement is made, the system's
behaviour is described only in terms of probabilities, not certainties.
3. Wavefunction Evolution:
The wavefunction evolves over time according to the Schrödinger equation,
which governs the deterministic evolution of the system in the absence of
measurements. This evolution is continuous and describes how a quantum
state changes with time.

 Equation: 𝑖ℏ 𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐻𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡)

The Schrödinger equation governs the wave-like nature of particles. It evolves

the system smoothly in time, but it doesn't tell you anything about what
happens during a measurement.
4. Measurement Problem:
The measurement problem arises because quantum systems exist in a
superposition of states before being measured. However, once a
measurement is made, the system appears to collapse into a single, well-
defined state. The central question is: how and when does this collapse
occur?
Inconsistency: The Schrödinger equation describes the deterministic
evolution of the wavefunction over time. This evolution is continuous and
smooth, yet when we observe a quantum system, we obtain a definite
outcome—introducing a form of randomness. This poses a serious question:
Did the particle have a definite state before we measured it, or did the act
of measurement itself "create" the definite state? The apparent
contradiction between the deterministic evolution of the wavefunction and
the randomness of measurement outcomes is a key unresolved puzzle in
quantum mechanics.
While this issue remains unsolved, several interpretations like the many
worlds interpretation, pilot-wave interpretation and the Copenhagen
Interpretation etc. attempted to explain the measurement process. One of
the most widely accepted is the Copenhagen interpretation, largely due to
its compatibility with experimental results.
[Link] Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics:
In the Copenhagen interpretation, a quantum system is described by a
wavefunction that evolves deterministically according to the Schrödinger
equation. However, the act of measurement causes the system to "collapse"
into a single, definite state.
 Before Measurement:
o The system is described by a wavefunction 𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡), which
encodes all possible outcomes for the system's properties (such
as position, momentum, etc.).
o The wavefunction represents a superposition of different states,
meaning the particle does not have a single definite state.
Instead, it behaves as a wave that exists in a blend of all possible
states simultaneously.
 After Measurement:
 o When a measurement is performed (e.g., measuring the
particle's position), the wavefunction collapses into one of the
possible eigenstates corresponding to the measured observable.
o After the collapse, the system no longer exhibits wave-like
behaviour. Instead, we observe a particle-like property, where
the particle now has a well-defined state (e.g., a specific position
or momentum).
This process is referred to as wavefunction collapse. Before measurement,
the quantum system behaves probabilistically, existing in multiple possible
states simultaneously. Once observed, it "chooses" a specific state, and we
observe it as a particle with definite properties.

Mathematical Formalism
In quantum mechanics, mathematical formalism serves as a powerful tool to
describe the behaviour of quantum systems with precision. One of the key
components of this formalism is the use of vectors, operators, and state
functions that represent the system's quantum state and its evolution.
1. The State Vector (Ket) - ∣ 𝜳⟩:
The quantum state of a system is described by a vector in a Hilbert space(an
Abstract space which can be formed by any basis vector like the position
,energy ,momentum ,technically anything.), known as the state vector or Ket,
denoted as ∣ 𝛹⟩. This vector encapsulates all the information about the
system's properties.
It is mathematically represented as,
|𝛹⟩ = 𝑐1|𝜓1⟩ + 𝑐2|𝜓2⟩ + ⋯
Where 𝑐1, 𝑐2, 𝑐3 … are called the eigen values of that specific eigen state &
|𝛹1⟩, |𝛹2⟩, |𝛹3⟩ … are called the eigen vectors/states.
Eigen Vectors represent the certain states a particle can attain when we make
the measurement and the eigen values are the probability amplitudes of that
specific state and these eigen values are complex functions in nature.
2. The Wave Function - 𝜳(𝒙):
The wavefunction is a specific representation of the state vector in a chosen
basis, such as position or momentum. For example, the position
wavefunction 𝜓(𝑥) is the projection of the state vector |𝜓⟩ onto the position
basis ∣ 𝑥⟩:
𝜓(𝑥) = ⟨𝑥 ∣ 𝜓⟩
where the ⟨𝑥 ∣ 𝜓⟩ is called as the inner-product, which is the amount of
overlap between the Ket and the position state vector and the whole inner
product notation is known as the Bra-Ket notation [Dirac Notation],where ⟨𝑥 ∣
is called as Bra.
Similarly, the momentum wavefunction 𝜓(𝑝) is:
𝜓(𝑝) = ⟨𝑝 ∣ 𝜓⟩
Overall, the wavefunction describes how the state vector behaves in a
specific context (e.g., position space or momentum space).
Since the wavefunction is complex-valued function of the variable x or p and,
when squared i.e., |𝜓(𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑝)| , gives the probability density for the
particle's position or momentum [also known as born rule].
This lets us write the state vector of some particle in the form;

|𝜓⟩ = 𝜓(𝑥) ∣ 𝜓⟩𝑑𝑥

Where the 𝜓(𝑥) is the normalised wavefunction of position.

3. Operators:
operators represent observable physical quantities (such as position,
momentum, and energy) and their associated measurements. These
operators are typically represented as matrices in certain bases (such as
position, momentum, or spin) because matrices offer a natural way to encode
the linear transformations that operators perform on quantum states (state
vectors).
They are represented by a hat on the observable quantity. Example: 𝑝̂ , 𝑥 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
Some important results in the formalism:
1. ⟨ 𝜓 ∣ 𝜓 ⟩ = 1
2. ⟨ 𝜙 ∣ 𝜓 ⟩ = 𝜓(𝜙) which is a complex number and is only equal to zero
if there is no overlap between them and only equal to 1 when there is
a complete overlap.
3. From the above result we can isolate the probability amplitude of
certain state |𝜙 ⟩ for the state vector |𝜓⟩;
|𝜓⟩ = 𝑐 |𝜙 ⟩ + 𝑐 |𝜙 ⟩ + 𝑐 |𝜙 ⟩ + ⋯
⟨𝜙 ∣ 𝜓⟩ = 𝑐 ⟨𝜙 ∣ 𝜙 ⟩ + 𝑐 ⟨𝜙 ∣ 𝜙 ⟩ + 𝑐 ⟨𝜙 ∣ 𝜙 ⟩ + ⋯
And by definition, the states in 𝜙 are orthogonal to each other as they
form the basis vectors. Therefore, only the first term survives and
equals 1 while all the other inner products equal to 0. finally, we get
⟨𝜙 ∣ 𝜓⟩ = 𝑐
The magnitude of this 𝑐 gives the probability for the occurrence of
that state. [Born Rule]
4. ⟨ 𝑎𝜙 ∣ 𝑏𝜓 ⟩ = 𝑏⟨ 𝑎𝜙 ∣ 𝜓 ⟩ = 𝑏⟨ 𝜓 ∣ 𝑎𝜙 ⟩∗ = 𝑏𝑎∗ ⟨ 𝜙 ∣ 𝜓 ⟩
5. 𝑂|𝜓⟩ = 𝑎|𝜓⟩ where 𝑂 is an operator and the equation signifies that the
operator is acting on the state vector and the state vector linearly
evolves by some scalar a.
6. There exists some kind of operators that can interchange their
positions in the inner product while leaving the inner product intact,
such operators are called Hermitian [Link] such operator is the
Hamiltonian operator. ⟨ 𝜙 ∣ 𝐻𝜓 ⟩ = 𝐻 𝜙 ∣ 𝜓 here,
𝐻 =𝐻
7. 𝜓 ∣∣ 𝑂 𝑂 ∣∣ 𝜓 = 𝜓 𝑂 𝜓 = 〈𝑂〉 which is also called as the
expectation or the average value of the observable 𝑂 in the state |𝜓⟩
when measured by a detector.

4. Normalizing a Wavefunction
If a wavefunction is not normalized, it can be normalized by determining a
normalization constant N. For a given wavefunction 𝜓(𝑥), the normalized
wavefunction 𝜓 (𝑥) can be expressed as:
𝜓 (𝑥) = 𝑁𝜓(𝑥) where 𝑁 is called as the normalisation factor.

We know that ∫ |𝜓 (𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥 = 1 = ∫ 𝑁 |𝜓(𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥

Therefore,
1
𝑁=
∫ |𝜓(𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥

Derivation of the Schrödinger’s wave equation:

1. The Wave Particle Duality:
Louis de Broglie extended the concept of wave-particle duality of light to
matter. He hypothesized that particles such as electrons also exhibit wave-
like properties, characterized by a wavelength given by the relation:
𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝
where 𝜆 is the De-Broglie wavelength, ℎ is Planck's constant, and 𝑝 is the
particle's momentum. This hypothesis was confirmed in experiments, such as
the electron diffraction experiment performed by Davisson and Germer in
1927, which demonstrated that electrons can produce interference patterns,
a hallmark of wave behaviour.
The particle can also be associated with a frequency for the given energy E

Using the relation, 𝑓 = where h is the Planck’s constant.

These equations connect the particle properties of the matter to its wave
properties.
The wave-like behaviour of matter particles is described by Schrödinger's
equation in quantum mechanics.

2. Classical wave equation:

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡)
This is derived from the following second order partial differential equation;
𝜕 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) 1 𝜕 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
One can draw an analogy between the construction of classical wave
equations and Schrödinger's equation, but care must be taken when
extending this analogy to quantum systems. In classical wave theory, the
wave equation is often formulated for waves with constant parameters, such
as a fixed momentum or wavelength. However, in quantum mechanics, a
particle's momentum can vary due to external forces, which causes its
associated de Broglie wavelength to change. So, we need a wave equation
that can determine the wave function for any given situation. Therefore, we
need a clever way to incorporate the varying parameters into the wave
equation, we do this by introducing the Hamiltonian of the system in the
wave equation Since the potential energy of a quantum system might change
over time or space. The Hamiltonian operator, which includes both the kinetic
and potential energy, naturally captures these changes. By including the
Hamiltonian in the Assumed wave equation, the wave equation is able to
reflect the effects of varying potentials on the system. This leads to a wave
equation where changes in potential energy directly affect the particle's
kinetic energy and momentum, and therefore its wavelength, unlike classical
wave equations that assume constant wave parameters.
We set some rules or conditions for our wave equation, and it must satisfy all
of them at once. These rules make sure the equation is physically and
mathematically sound. We use plausibility arguments, or logical reasoning,
to come up with these conditions, ensuring the model works correctly.
Plausibility Arguments:
[Link] must be consistent with the de Broglie-Einstein Postulates.
[Link] must be consistent with the energy equation for a particle.

𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑉 Where 𝑇 = & 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡)

[Link] must be linear in 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡),if 𝜳1(𝑥, 𝑡) & 𝜳2(𝑥, 𝑡) are two different
solutions then any arbitrary linear combination:
𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) = c1𝜳1(𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑐2𝜳2(𝑥, 𝑡) must hold as another solution, as the
wave must obey the superposition which is the fundamental hallmark of
wave phenomena through which several other phenomena like interference,
diffraction etc occur.
[Link] a constant potential, the desired differential equation will have a
sinusoidal travelling wave solutions of constant wavelength and frequency.
Formalism of the wave equation:
we write the 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑉 in terms of the de-Broglie-Einstein relations;
ℎ
ℎ𝑓 = + 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡)
2𝑚𝜆
using the wave propagation and angular frequency relations;
ℏ 𝑘
ℏ𝜔 = + 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) … (1)
2𝑚

the 𝑘 & 𝜔 terms suggests that we can assume the wave function is of the
form 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 ( )

by taking the second derivative with respect to position and first derivative
with respect to time we get the relation between the second derivative w.r.t
x and 𝑘 and first derivative w.r.t to t and 𝜔,so that we can plug these values
back into the equation (1).

𝜕 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡)
= −𝑘 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) & = −𝑖𝜔𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

1 𝜕 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑖 𝜕𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡)
− = 𝑘 & 𝜔=
𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕𝑥 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕𝑡
Putting these relations in (1) and rearranging terms gives;
𝜕𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) −ℏ 𝜕 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑖ℏ = + 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡)𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) … (2)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
Equations (2) is called as the Schrödinger’s Wave Equation.
We can write this in a more compact form using the operator form,
𝜕𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑖ℏ = 𝐻𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) … (3)
𝜕𝑡
ℏ
Where 𝐻 = + 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) is called as the Hamiltonian operator.
Now we derive the Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation which deals with
the stationary states of the system where the potential is not a function of
time.
Solving Schrödinger’s Equation using the separation of variables method:
we assume the solution to wave function to be a product of the time
dependant function 𝜙(𝑡) and position dependant function 𝜓(𝑥), i.e
𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡) … (4)
#This assumption is only valid if the potential is independent of time.
Substituting this expression for 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) in equation (2),we get;
𝜕𝜓(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡) −ℏ 𝜕 𝜓(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡)
𝑖ℏ = + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
Since 𝜓(𝑥) is independent of time, it can be factored out of the partial
differentiation term w.r.t to time. And similarly, 𝜙(𝑡) can be factored out of
the partial differentiation term w.r.t to position. Doing so and rearranging the
terms give,
1 𝜕𝜙(𝑡) 1 −ℏ 𝜕 𝜓(𝑥)
𝑖ℏ = + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓(𝑥) … (5)
𝜙(𝑡) 𝜕𝑡 𝜓(𝑥) 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
In equation (4), since the RHS doesn’t depend on x and the LHS doesn’t
depend on t, the common value cannot depend on x or t, there it must be a
constant 𝐾
1 𝜕𝜙(𝑡) 1 −ℏ 𝜕 𝜓(𝑥)
𝑖ℏ = + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐾
𝜙(𝑡) 𝜕𝑡 𝜓(𝑥) 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
We solve 2 equations involving 𝐾,

The Time Dependant equation:

1 𝜕𝜙(𝑡)
𝑖ℏ =𝐾
𝜙(𝑡) 𝜕𝑡
The solution for the time dependant equation is,
 𝜙(𝑡) = 𝑒 ℏ

Writing the above expression in terms of Eulers form for complex

exponentials and expanding the reduced Planck’s constant, we get,
2𝜋𝐾𝑡 2𝜋𝐾𝑡
𝜙(𝑡) = cos + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
ℎ ℎ

We know that = 𝜔𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

Substituting the values give us the result,

𝐾 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸
Where 𝐸 is the total energy of the system.
Therefore,

𝜙(𝑡) = 𝑒 ℏ

Substituting this expression in (4) gives,

𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓(𝑥)𝑒 ℏ … (6)

The Time Independent/Space dependant equation:
1 −ℏ 𝜕 𝜓(𝑥)
+ 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐾
𝜓(𝑥) 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
As we have obtained the value of 𝐾,we can put this in the time independent
equation and by rearranging the 𝜓(𝑥) for linearity to get an expression in
terms of 𝐸,we get,
−ℏ 𝜕 𝜓(𝑥)
+ 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥) … (7)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥

Solving equation 7 for any kind of specific Potential, gives 𝜓(𝑥),which are
called as the eigen functions or characteristic functions.
Once we know these functions, we can construct the wave function 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡)
from the Time dependent and Time independent equations.
Now that we have a good understanding of Schrödinger’s equation, we will
solve it for a type of potential called the infinite potential well. This potential
often appears in quantum mechanics when dealing with confined particles,
like electrons in a box. By solving the Schrödinger equation for this situation,
we can learn about important quantum behaviours, such as how energy
levels are quantized and how particles behave in confined spaces.

The Infinite Square Well Problem:

Consider a particle of mass m confined to a 1D ‘potential well’:
V(0) = ∞ 𝑉(a) = ∞

0 𝑎 𝑥
𝑉(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎
𝑉(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥
Outside the Box. When the 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 , 𝜓(𝑥) = 0 , because probability
of finding the particle in this region is zero. The potential at the boundaries
having the values ∞, mean that the particle requires infinite force to leave
the box.
As we have the necessary boundary conditions, we can start to solve the
Schrödinger’s equation to obtain the characteristic function/Eigen function
inside the box/well. Since the potential term is zero inside the boundaries,
equation (7) reduces to the form,
−ℏ 𝜕 𝜓(𝑥)
= 𝐸𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
This is a second order partial differential equation and its general solution is
√
of the form, 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥) + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 =
ℏ
Taking differentiation for the general solution twice gives us,
𝜕 𝜓(𝑥)
= −𝑘 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥) − 𝑘 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥) = −𝑘 𝜓(𝑥)
𝜕𝑥
To determine the constant 𝐴 & 𝐵 ,we use the boundary conditions
𝜓(𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑥 & 𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑥
𝜓(𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑥
The wave function is zero even at the boundaries because the function itself
is a continuous at the boundaries.
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝜓(0) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(0) + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠(0) = 𝐵 = 0
When 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝜓(0) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑎) , since 𝐴 can’t be zero, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑎) = 0
ka = ±nπ for n = 1,2,3 …
nπ √2𝑚𝐸
k= =
a ℏ
Rearranging this for the energy 𝐸,
𝑛 𝜋 ℏ
𝐸 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … (8)
2𝑚𝑎
The equation above indicates that the energy of a particle confined within a
potential well is quantized, meaning it can only exist at discrete energy levels.
This phenomenon is known as energy quantization.
In classical mechanics, the lowest energy level of a system can be zero;
however, in quantum mechanics, the lowest energy level (the ground state)
is never zero due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This principle
implies that there is an inherent uncertainty in the particle's position and
momentum. Consequently, this uncertainty in momentum leads to an
uncertainty in energy, ensuring that the ground state energy is always greater
than zero.

Now using our results, if we substitute the expression for 𝑘 in the eigen
function, we get the nth eigen function as 𝑘 is dependent on n, i.e.
𝑛𝜋x
𝜓 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 … (9)
𝑎
The Wave function looks like a standing wave in a string length a for different
values of n. The lowest energy state referring to 𝜓 (𝑥) is called as the Ground
state and all the other states are called as the excited states.
We can now substitute the characteristic function [equation (9)] in equation
(6) to get the complete description of the time and space dependant wave
function for specific n.
𝑛𝜋x
𝜳𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑒 ℏ
𝑎
Here 𝐸 is the energy of nth eigen state.
However, to fully determine the constant 𝐴, we apply the Born rule, which
relates the probability density of finding a particle to the square of the
wavefunction.
We know that the probability of finding the particle located in the region 0 ≤
x ≤ a is 1,i.e

|𝜳𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡)| dx = |𝜳𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡)| 𝑑𝑥 = 1

nπx
|𝜳𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡)| = 𝜳𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡)𝜳∗𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡) = A sin ( )
a

∫ 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝐴 = ⇒ 𝐴=

Therefore, the Wavefunction for the nth Quantum state is given by,

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜳𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑒 ℏ
𝑎 𝑎

This is a wavefunction that describes a stationary state, as the probability

density function does not depend on time, these stationary states have a
sharp and define energy corresponding to each value of n.
If we plot the |𝜓𝒏 (𝑥)| for each value of n and x,then we can visualise
Where we are more likely to find the particle in the box.

The peaks in the eigenfunction represent the locations where the particle is
more likely to be found. As the quantum number n increases, the number of
peaks (nodes and antinodes) increases as well, and the peaks become more
closely spaced. In the limit where n becomes very large, the oscillations in
the eigenfunction become so compressed that they can no longer be resolved
experimentally. In this case, the particle will have nearly equal probability of
being found anywhere in the box. Additionally, as n increases, the energy
levels become densely packed, and the separation between eigenvalues
approaches zero. This leads to the system behaving more classically, as the
probability distribution |𝜓 (𝑥)| begins to resemble a continuous
distribution.
Interestingly, except for the ground state (n=1) and when n approaches
infinity, the particle cannot be found at the centre of the box in any of the
excited states. This is due to the presence of a node at the centre in all excited
states, where the eigenfunction value is zero, implying zero probability of
finding the particle there. This feature underscores the wave-like nature of
the system, which contrasts sharply with classical behaviour.
These eigenfunctions are mutually orthogonal and can be demonstrated as
follows:

∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥)𝒅𝒙
𝜓𝒎 𝒏 =0 𝑚≠𝑛

This integral shows that the inner product of two different eigen functions
vanishes, indicating orthogonality. And it is proved below;
 1 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
2sin ( 𝑥)sin ( 𝑥)𝒅𝒙 = 0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

It’s important to note that this expression is closely related to the

normalization condition, except for the fact that when 𝑚 = 𝑛, the integral
does not vanish. Instead, it gives 1. This condition ensures that each
individual eigenfunction is normalized, meaning the total probability of
finding the particle somewhere is [Link] condition is also known as the Born
Rule.
Thus we can combine the normalisation and Orthogonality into one single
equation using the Kronecker delta function.

∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥)𝒅𝒙 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝜓𝒎 𝒏 =𝛿
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

Therefore, we successfully proved that they are orthonormal to each other.

Now, we turn to the concept of completeness when representing a
wavefunction as a summation of its constituent definite states. At first, it
might seem arbitrary to discuss the completeness of a wavefunction in this
context. However, it becomes clear when we recognize that any wavefunction
can be expressed as a superposition of infinitely many definite states. This
can be recognised as the Fourier sum of infinite definite states. Whenever we
deal with such infinite sums, it is essential to examine whether the
summation converges. This ensures that the wavefunction accurately
represents the physical state of the system. The conditions for a function to
converge are given by Dirichlet and they are:
1. Periodicity: In Fourier analysis, periodicity ensures that a function can
be decomposed into harmonics. In quantum mechanics, the
wavefunction can often be periodic in time (e.g., systems with discrete
energy levels like the infinite square well). The eigenfunctions 𝜓𝒏 (𝑥)
represent "harmonics" or fundamental modes of the system, similar to
how a Fourier series decomposes a periodic function into harmonics.
2. Finite Discontinuities: Just as a function with finite discontinuities can
still be decomposed into a Fourier series, a quantum wavefunction can
be composed of eigenstates even if it has sudden changes (such as after
a measurement). The summation of eigenstates forms the
 wavefunction, despite any sharp changes in measurement results,
because these eigenstates together describe the full quantum
behaviour.
3. Finite Number of Maxima and Minima: In quantum mechanics,
eigenfunctions 𝜓𝒏 (𝑥) often have nodes (points where the probability
amplitude is zero) and peaks (where the probability is high). The
wavefunction's oscillatory nature can be captured as a sum of such
eigenfunctions, just like how a Fourier series captures the oscillations
of a periodic function.
4. Absolutely Integrable: The quantum wavefunction must be
normalized, i.e., the total probability of finding the particle in all space
must be 1:

|𝜳𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡)| 𝑑𝑥 = 1

This condition is analogous to the integrability condition in Dirichlet's

theorem. Just as the Fourier coefficients exist only if the original function is
integrable, the coefficients 𝐶 in quantum mechanics exist because the
wavefunction is normalizable.
Therefore we first determine the Coefficients for the converging function
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜳(𝑥, 0).

2 𝑛𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐶 sin ( 𝑥)
𝑎 𝑎

To find the coefficient 𝐶 , we compute the overlap (inner product) of the

converging function with the eigenstate 𝜓𝒏 (𝑥). Mathematically, this is
expressed as:

∗
𝐶 = ⟨𝜓𝒏 |𝑓(𝑥)⟩ = 𝜓𝒎 (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)𝒅𝒙

Using the obtained 𝐶 ,we can construct the Wavefunction 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡);

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 ℏ
𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐶 𝜳𝒏 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑒 … (10)
𝑎 𝑎
Using the wavefunction 𝜳(𝑥, 𝑡), one can compute any dynamical quantities
like momentum, energy, or position by applying the corresponding quantum
operators.
The same general procedure applies to different types of potentials.
However, for each potential, the functional form of the eigenfunctions
𝜓𝒏 (𝑥) and the equation for the allowed energy levels 𝐸 will change based
on the specific shape of the potential. In some cases, these solutions are
analytically solvable (e.g., infinite square well, harmonic oscillator), but for
more complex potentials, numerical techniques may be needed to find the
eigenstates and energy spectrum.
With this I conclude my assignment on the infinite square well problem.
Comments:
 I have referred to "Introduction to Quantum Mechanics" by D.J.
Griffiths & "Principles of Quantum Mechanics" by R. Shankar, and the
images and equations illustrated are my own work.
.