Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced

A Calcu
ulations

OPTIC
CAL PROPERTIES OF
F GLAZINGS
Radiatioon passing fro om one medium m into anotherr is partly trannsmitted τ, andd partly reflectted ρ, at the innterface
between thee two media. Further, as thhis radiation paasses through either media, an additionall fraction is abbsorbed
because of thhe volume abssorptivity α. Materials
M that doo not strongly absorb
a radiatioon, such as air or glass, are cllassified
as translucennt. Materials thhat are stronglyy absorbing aree classified as opaque.
o
Radiatioon incident on n a surface haas a distributioon over a rangge of wavelenngths or spectrrum. The wavvelength
dependence of radiometric quantities iss denoted withh a subscript λ, whereas the wavelength dependency d off optical
properties iss denoted by fuunctional notatiion, as α(λ), ρ(λ), τ(λ), and e(e λ).
The optical propertiees of a materiaal are also deppendent on thhe direction off incident or emitted e radiatiion. For
example, thee angular depen ndence of radiometric and opptical propertiees are denoted by b α(θ), ρ(θ), τ(θ), and e(θ).
The conncept of a solid d angle is needded to understannd angular deppendence. A soolid angle is deefined and enclosed by
all rays joiniing a point to a closed curve.. For a closed curve
c R the solid anggle ϖ is the ratiio of the
on a spheere of radius R,
projected area A on the sph here to the squuare of R. A spphere has a soliid angle of 4π steradians (4π sr); a hemisphhere has
a 2π sr solidd angle.
Radiatioon incident on a point in a suurface comes too that point from many directtions in some solid s angle. Forr a cone
of half anglee α, the solid angle
a defined by the circular top
t and point bottom
b of that cone
c is given by
b

(1)
In measurinng transmittancce or reflectannce, a sample is illuminatedd over a speccified solid anngle. The refleected or
transmitted flux is then coollected withinn another solid angle. The sizze of a conicall solid angle annd the directioon of its
axis need to be specified too obtain meaniingful results. A conical solidd angle is bounnded by a right circular cone.
For most thermal or HVAC
H design calculations, only the total flux transmitteed into a hemiispherical solidd angle,
because of thet direct solarr beam incidennt in a small conical
c solid angle,
a is of inteerest (called coonical-hemisp pherical
measuremennts). All transsmitted solar irradiance
i is considered
c heeat gain in theese applicationns, regardless of the
directional distribution
d of the
t transmittedd radiation.
For com
mplex fenestrattions (those wiith nonspeculaar components)), for many dayylighting appliications, and foor some
passive solaar space-heatingg applications, the directional distribution of
o transmitted radiation
r is of interest.
i In such cases,
it is importaant to know thee biconical traansmittance an nd reflectancee of fenestratioon systems, deffined for coniccal solid
angles of inccidence and emmergence, as shhown in Figuree 1.

Fig. 1 Geometryy for Definition

n of Biconical Transmittancce and Reflecttance

Optical Prooperties of a Siingle Uncoateed Glazing Layyer

If solar radiation incid
dent on a glaziing is considerred, the transm
mittance T, reflectance R, annd absorptancce of
the layer coontain the effeccts of multiplee reflections beetween the tw
wo interfaces off the layer as well as the efffects of
absorption during
d the passage through the t layer of eaach interreflection (Figure 2).
2 The layer hash thickness d and is
characterized by τ, ρ, and α for each off the two surfacces (denoted f and b). For raadiation incidennt on the frontt side of
the glazing, the reflectance is called the front reflectaance Rf. The back
b reflectance Rb (not show
wn in Figure 2)2 is the
reflectance of
o the layer forr radiation inciddent on back siide b.

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

Fig. 2 Optical Properties

P of a Planar Mateerial

The trannsmittance, refflectance, and absorptance

a off a layer are foormally definedd as the fraction of incident fluxf that
transmit, refflect, and are ab
bsorbed by thee layer, respectiively, includinng the effects off interreflectionn. Together, thheir sum
is unity.
(22)
In general, τ and ρ are characteristiccs of the interfface between thhe material andd the adjacent medium; theyy may in
principle bee different for the
t two surfacces (e.g., for a coated surfacee, or where a material
m layer is adjacent to another
hysical argumeents, however,, dictate that Tf and Tb for thee layer be the same (and the f and b
material othher than air). Ph
superscripts are therefore omitted).
o Rf annd Rb, howeverr, are different in this case, annd Equation 1 shows that f and b
may be diffeerent as well. Uncoated
U glass will have the same front andd back properties.
An addiitional relationnship among the optical propeerties is of interrest and imporrtance. It is callled Kirchhoff’ss law:

(3)
where θ annd φ are anglees defining thee directional dependence
d off the spectral absorptance (λ) and the spectral
e λ). A consequ
emissivity e( uence of Equattions (2) and (33) is that, for opaque materialls, a good absoorber is a goodd emitter
and a poor reflector (thee reverse is also true), but only on a waavelength-by-w wavelength bassis or over a defined
wavelength interval. A surrface appearingg to be an exceellent reflectorr in the visible portion of the spectrum mayy have a
high emissivvity (and low reflectance) oveer most of the infrared
i spectrrum; the reversse is also true.
For nonn-normal inciddence, surface reflectances
r arre generally different for the two possible polarizations of o light,
conventionaally denoted s (TE) and p (T TM), and indiicated by a suubscript μ (= s,p) s on the surrface reflectannce. The
transmittancce and reflectan
nces are given by

(4))

(5)

(6)
where ζ is the
t angle at which
w radiation incident at anngle θ propagaates within the glazing layer (the refractedd angle).
Because sunnlight is unpolaarized, the transmittance and reflectances off an isolated gllazing layer aree then calculateed from

(7)

(8)

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

(9)
It follow
ws from conserrvation of enerrgy that the average absorptaance of the layeer must be deffined as the fraction of
the incidentt radiation thatt is neither traansmitted nor reflected by thhe layer. Notee that when thhe layer surfaces have
different prooperties, this results
r in diffeerent absorptannces for front and back inciidence. It alsoo produces an angular
dependence in the layer ab bsorptance a thhat is not presennt in the absorpptivity α:

(10a)

(10b)
and, becausee these are lineear relations,

(11a)

(11b)
for the unpoolarized quantities. A lowercase symbol is used here in anticipation
a of the discussionn of multilayer glazing
systems.
vities ρ of the tw
The inteerface reflectiv wo surfaces arre the same andd may be determ
mined from thee Fresnel equaations:

(12a)

(12b)
where ζ is thhe refracted an
ngle and may be
b calculated frrom Snell’s law p of the refraactive index n relative
w and the real part
to air:

(13)
mal incidence, the
At norm t two polarizzations are indiistinguishable, and Equation (12) reduces too

ρ(0, λ) =
(n(λ) − 1)2 (14)
(n(λ) + 1)2
and becausee

(15)
for any surfface, a measurrement of the spectral transm mittance and reeflectance at normal
n incidennce may be used with
Equations (44) and (5) to deetermine the reefractive indexx and absorptannce as a functioon of wavelenggth. Note that n is also
wavelength dependent, alth hough for mosst glazing materials the depenndence is weakk over the solar spectrum. Oncce these
quantities arre known, the equations
e may be used to calcculate the propperties at all anggles.

Determinin ng the Propertties of Uncoateed Glazing Laayers from Normal Incidencce Measuremeents
For unccoated glazingss, the front andd back transmisssivities, reflecctivities, transm
mittances, refleectances, and issolated-
layer absorpptances are equ
ual; at normal incidence
i anglle, the two polaarizations are indistinguishab
i ble, and Equatiions (4)
and (5) becoome

(16)

(177)

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

and Equation (15) becomees

(18)
These thhree equations can be solved to yield ρ(0, λ)
λ and α(λ):

(199)
where

P = [T ( 0, λ ) ]2 + [R( 0, λ ) ]2 + 2 R( 0, λ ) + 1 (200)

(21)
The refr
fractive index (rrelative to air) is then calculaated by solvingg Equation (14)):

(22)
Thus, given
g spectrosccopic measurem ments of the trransmittance annd reflectance at normal inciidence of an uncoated
u
glazing layeer, one can deteermine the basiic parameters needed
n for a coomplete calculaation of the optical propertiess of that
layer.
Example 1. Consstruct an approximate model of the optical properties
p of a single layer off uncoated 3 mm
m clear
glaass (see Figure 3), suitable foor use in calcullations involvinng selective glazings that havve different prooperties
in the
t visible and NIR regions. Use U this modell to calculate thhe properties att an incident anngle of 68.7°.

Fig. 3 Tran
nsmittance and
d Reflectance of Clear 3 mm
m Glass Approoximated by a 2-Band Mod
del of
Specctrally Weigh
hted Transmitttance and Refflectance

Sollution: From Figure

F 3, it cann be seen that the variation with
w wavelenggth is not very great, and althhough a
singgle average traansmittance annd reflectance would
w be adequuate, for use with
w spectrally selective
s glazinngs it is
bettter to construcct the “2-band”” model also shhown in the figgure, which chharacterizes thee properties sepparately
for the visible reg gion (320 to 780
7 nm waveleength) and the NIR region (7780 to 2500 nm m). About 99% % of the
ASSTM solar speectrum lies within these twoo regions. Thee correspondinng normal inccidence properrties are
T(00,vis) = 0.876, R(0,vis) = 0.0881, T(0,NIR) = 0.791, and R(0,NIR) = 0.0699.

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

From Equatiion (20), calcculate P(vis) = 1.923 and P(NIR) = 1.759. Equationn (19) yields surface
flectances of ρ((0,vis) = 0.0444 and ρ(0,NIR)) = 0.041, and Equation (22)) gives refractivve indices for the two
refl
wavvelength regio ons of n(vis) = 1.531 and n((NIR) = 1.508. From Equatiion (21), obtain the values α(vis) α =
0.00147 and α(NIR R) = 0.0506. Thhese are the paarameters necessary for calcuulating the opticcal properties.
At an incidennt angle of 68.7°, Equation (13) gives refraacted angles off ζ(vis) = 37.5° and ζ(NIR) = 38.1°.
s Equation (122a) gives ρs(688.7°,vis) = 0.2992, ρs (68.7°,N
Forr polarization s, NIR) = 0.282, anda for polarizzation p,
Equuation (12b) giives ρp(68.7°,vvis) = 0.0310, and
a ρp(68.7°,N NIR) = 0.0320. Putting these values into Eqquations
(4) to (6) givess for the trannsmittances annd reflectancees for each polarization:
p s
T
T(68.7°,vis) = 0.514,
s
R(668.7°,vis) = 0 .433, s
T(68.7°,,NIR) = 0.449
9, s
R(68.7°,NIRR) = 0.387, p
T
T(68.7°,vis) = 0
0.889, p
R(68.7 °,vis) =
0.0046, pT (68.7°,N
NIR) = 0.773, and
a pR(68.7°,N NIR) = 0.044.
Note that thhe reflected raddiation is almmost completelyy polarized. The T unpolarizeed quantities are a then
calcculated from Equations
E (7) and (8): T(68.7°°,vis) = 1/2(0.5514 + 0.889) = 0.701 and R(668.7°,vis) = 1/22 (0.433
+ 0.046)
0 = 0.240, and, similarlyy, T(68.7°,NIR)) = 0.611 and R(68.7°,NIR)
R = 0.215.

Optical Prooperties of a Siingle Coated Glazing

G Layerr
Althouggh in principlee the equationss in the precedding sections could be used to t calculate thee properties off coated
glazings, this is not curreently practical. To obtain thhe necessary basic b informatiion about the structure of complex
c
coatings woould require sp pectrophotomettric measuremeents at angles other than norrmal incidencee. The instruments for
making succh measuremen nts are not widely
w availablle nor are theere yet standaardized proceddures for makking the
measuremennts and extractiing coating prooperties from thhem.
Until suuch capabilitiess are available,, the following approximate procedure
p shouuld be used to model
m coated glazings
g
(Finlayson and
a Arasteh 19 993). Coated glazing
g propertties should varry from these estimates
e by no
n more than ±20%
± at
60° incidencce (Rubin et al. 1999).
The speectral transmitttance and reflectances at any incident anglee are approxim mated from thosse at normal inncidence
by

(23)

(24)
where

(25)
and

(266)
The connstants in Equaations (25) andd (26) are seleected from the entries in Tabble 1 appropriaate to the valuee of the
spectrally averaged
a transm
mittance at noormal incidencce, T(0). Becaause Equationss (23) and (244) make waveelength-
independentt modificationss to the propertties at normal incidence, the spectral
s averagging may be doone first, yieldinng

(27)

(28)

Tablee 1 Polynomia
al Coefficients for Calculatioon of Referencce Angular Fu
unctions for Coated
C Glazinggs
m
Condition 0 1 2 3 4
A
TA –0.00015 3.355 –3.840 1.460 0.02288
T(0) > 0.6455
RA
A 0
0.999 –0.563 2.043 –2.532 1.0054
A
TA –00.002 2.813 –2.341 –0.05725 0.5599
T(0) ≤ 0.6455
RA
A 0
0.997 –1.868 6.513 –7.862 3.2225
5

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

Example 2. Construct an approoximate modell of the opticaal properties off a single layerr of 3 mm clear glass
witth a selective lo
ow-emissivity coating on surrface 2 (see Figure 4). Use thhis model to caalculate the prooperties
at an
a incident ang gle of 68.7°, annd given that T((0) is 0.379.

Fiig. 4 Transm
mittance and Reflectance
R at Normal Incid
dence of a Seleective Low-e Glass
G Approxiimated
y a 2-Band Model of Spectrrally Weighted
by d Transmittan nce and Reflecctance

Sollution: The spectral transmitttance and refleectances of sellective 3 mm glass

g at normall incidence are shown.
Thee 2-band mod del shown in thhe figure has the followingg normal-incideence spectral properties:
p T(00,vis) =
0.6657, Rf(0,vis) = 0.132, Rb(0,vvis) = 0. 122, T(0,NIR)
T = 0.0088, Rf(0,NIR) = 0.614, and Rb(0,NIR) = 0.830.
0 It
cann be seen fromm Figure 4 that this model crrudely represennts the differennce in glazing optical properrties for
the two spectral regions.
For the crudee optical modeel available for coated glass,, the angular dependence
d enters only throuugh TREF
andd R REF. Becausse T(0) is less than
t 0.645, coonstants for commputing these two functions using Equatioons (23)
andd (24) are takenn from the lowwer two rows ofo Table 1. At ana incident anggle of 68.7°, thhese functions are TREF
(688.7°) = 0.718 and RREF (68.77°) = 0.139. The transmittannce and reflecttances are thenn calculated for f each
wavvelength region n using Equatiions (27) and (228):
T(68.7°,vis) = 0.472, Rf(68.77°,vis) = 0.252, Rb(68.7°,vis) = 0.244,
T(68.7°,NIR) = 0.063, Rf(688.7°,NIR) = 0.6668, and
Rb(68.7°,NIR)) = 0.854
Optical Prooperties of Rea
al Glazings
Figure 5 (McCluney 1993) shows thhe normal inciidence spectrall transmittancees of several coommon comm mercially
available glazings. Many window glaziings do not haave strong spectral selectivitty over the sollar spectrum, so their
6

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

spectral optiical properties can be consideered constant, even

e if the souurce spectrum changes
c substaantially. In thesse cases,
the transmittted spectral irrradiance can bee determined by b multiplying the incident irrradiance by thhe solar transm mittance.
Figure 6 (M
McCluney 1996)shows the norrmal incidencee spectral transsmittances and exterior reflecctances of a vaariety of
additional cooated and tinteed glasses, indiicating the stroong spectral sellectivity that iss now availablee from some gllass and
window mannufacturers.

Fig. 5 Spectrall Transmittancces of Commeercially Availaable Glazings

(MccCluney 1993)

Fig. 6 S
Spectral Tran
nsmittances an
nd Reflectancees of Strongly Spectrally Seelective Comm
mercially Availlable
Glazings
(M
McCluney 19966)

The opttical propertiess of a single shheet of clear glaass depend on the angle of inncidence (Figurre 7). This variiation is
small for inccident angles below
b 40° but becomes
b signifficant at larger angles.
Figure 8 compares thee properties of glasses of diffferent thickness and composition. As the inncident angle inncreases
from zero, transmittance
t diminishes,
d refflectance increeases, and absoorptance first increases
i becauuse of the lenggthened
optical path and then decrreases as more incident radiaation is reflecteed. Although thhe shapes of thhe property currves are
superficiallyy similar, note that both the magnitude
m of the
t transmittannce at normal inncidence and the
t angle at whhich the
transmittancce changes sig gnificantly varyy with glass tyype and thicknness. The threee curves all haveh slightly different
d

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

shapes. For coated glassees or for multtiple-pane glazzing systems, this differencee is more pronnounced. One cannot
assume that all glazings orr glazing system
ms have a univversal angular dependence.
d

Fig. 7 Transmiittance and Reeflectance of Plane,

P Parallell, Glass Plate
m, absorptivity α = 0.01/m
refractive index n = 1.55, thickkness t = 3.2 mm

Fig. 8 Variations with

w Incident Angle
A of Solarr-Optical Prop
perties for (A)) Double-Stren
ngth Sheet Glass, (B)
Clear Plaate Glass, and (C) Heat-Abssorbing Plate Glass
G
Optical Prooperties of Mu ultiple-Layer Glazing
G System
ms
For thee optical propeerties of glazinng systems coonsisting of muultiple glazingg layers, interrreflections mayy occur
between layyers, which meeans that the efffect of a particular layer on the overall prroperties may depend
d on its position
p
within the assembly
a m therefore expand
as weell as on the traansmittance annd reflectances of the particullar layer. We must
the glazing layer considerations above too apply to the overall properrties of system ms and subsysteems of glazingg layers.
The notationn for doing thiss is illustrated in
i Figure 9.

Fig. 9 Multiilayer Glazinggs Considered as Systems an

nd Subsystemss
In the following
f section, polarizatioon indices are omitted
o from the
t equations. In principle, thhese equationss should
be used to make
m separate calculations
c off the optical prooperties of the glazing system
m for each of thhe two polarizaations, s
8

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

and p, and the

t results shou uld be averageed using Equatiions (7) to (9).. This should be b done if a higghly accurate result
r is
desired (andd data are available). Howeveer, because accurate data on coated c glazingss are lacking annd polarizationn effects
are relativelyy small, the poolarization-aveeraged quantitiees will be usedd for each layeer. This is the approximation
a used in
commonly available
a compputer calculatioons such as LBL L (2003) and Wright
W (1995b)).
The possition of each layer in a multiilayer glazing system
s consistiing of L layers is characterizeed by its layer number
n as shown in Figure 9. (By conventionn, layer 1 is thhe layer closestt to the sun.) The T individuall layer transmiittances,
reflectances, and absorptan nces for the nthh layer (the prooperties of the layer when isoolated in air) arre denoted by adding
a a
single subsccript to the propperty symbol: Tn, Rfn, Rbn, afn and abn. The properties of a subsystem
s connsisting of the layers
l n
through m, inclusive
i (n an
nd m may be written
w as capitaal letters N andd M to avoid coonfusion and emphasize
e theirr role in
specifying a subsystem), are a denoted byy symbols withh two indices for transmittaances and refleectances and by script
capital letterrs for absorptan
nces ( ):

= isolated--layer transmitttance of the nthh layer (in an L-layer

L system))
= transmitttances of the suubsystem conssisting of layerss N through M (in an L-layer system)

and similarlly for reflectan

nces, whereas

= isolated--layer front abssorptance for thhe nth layer (inn an L-layer system)
= actual front absorptancce for the nth laayer in the subssystem consistting of layers N through M (inn an L-
layer sysstem); the fracttion of the radiiation incident on layer N thatt is absorbed inn layer n, incluuding
effects of
o multiple refleections from laayers N throughh M
= actual baack absorptancce for the nth laayer in the subssystem consistiing of layers N through M (inn an L-
layer sysstem); the fracttion of the (bacckward-going) radiation inciddent on layer M that is absorbbed in
layer n, including
i effeccts of multiple reflections from layers N through M

A quanntity such as refeers to the tottal overall system propertyy. Note that and
. (A subsyystem consistinng of one layerr is the same ass an isolated laayer.)
The prooperties of any subsystem cann be calculatedd using the folloowing recursioon relations andd proceeding from
fr left
to right in Fiigure 9 (Finlay
yson and Arasteeh 1993):

(299)

(30)

(31)
where it is always
a the casse that m ≥ n, and
a a subsysteem consisting of a isolated layer [e.g.,
o one layer iss the same as an
]. These equations alloow one to buildd up the propeerties of the L--layer system by
b beginning with
w the
isolated propperties of the first
f layer and successively adding
a additionnal layers. Thee absorptance of
o the nth layeer in the
system is theen calculated from
f

(32)
or

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

(33)
Note thhat in Equations (32) and (33)), combinationns of subscriptss will arise for the first and last layer absorrptances
that refer to nonexistent laayers (the layerr before the firsst or after the last). Rather thaan write separaate equations for
fo these
special casess, we define th
he nonexistent layers
l to have transmittance
t o one and refllectance of zeroo:
of

(344)
Example 3. Calcu ulate the propeerties of a doubble-glazed unitt having the cooated glass of Example
E 2 as an
a outer
glaass and the cleaar glass of Exammple 1 as an innner glass, at ann incident anglle of 68.7°.
Sollution: From Example 1, the t optical prooperties of the outer glazinng, which is layer l 1, at 688.7° are

T1(668.7°,vis) = 0.472,
0 (688.7°,vis) = 0.2252, and (
(68.7°,vis) = 0.244 for thee visible regiion and

T1(668.7°,NIR) = 0.063, (688.7°,NIR) = 0.667,

0 and (68.7°,NIR) = 0.854 for thhe NIR regionn. From
Exaample 2, the co
orresponding (uunpolarized) values
v for the innner glazing (laayer 2) are T2(668.7°,vis) = 0.7702 and
(68.7°,vis) = (68.7°,viss) = 0.240 foor the visiblee region, and T2(68.7°,NIR
R) = 0.611 annd
(688.7°,NIR) = (68.7°,NIR) = 0.215 for the NIR region.
Inserting theese values innto Equation (29) gives thhe following for the glaziing system’s overall
trannsmittance:
T1 (68.7°, vis)T2 (68.7°, vis)
6 .7°, vis) =
T1,2 (68
1 − R1b (68.7°, vis) R2f (68.7°, vis)
(0.472)(0.702)
= = 0.352
1 − (0.244)(0.2400)
andd
T1 (68.7°, NIR )T2 (68.7°, NIR )
T1,2 (68.7°, NIR ) =
R ) R2f (68.7°, NIR )
1 − R1b (68.7°, NIR
(0.063)(0.611)
= = 0.047
1 − (0.854)(0.215)

Sim
milarly, Equation (30) gives (68.7°,viss) = 0.252 + (00.472)2 × (0.2440)/[1 – (0.2444)(0.240)] = 0.3309 and
(68.7°,NIR) = 0.669 for thhe front reflecttances in the two
t spectral reegions, and Eqquation (31) giives the
bacck reflectancess, (68.7°,vvis) = 0.240 + (0.702)2 × (0.244)/[1 – (0.244)(0.240))] = 0.367 annd
(688.7°,NIR) = 0.6
605. In order too calculate the layer absorptaances in the glaazing system, we
w must first calculate
the isolated-layer absorptances for
f both glazinngs using Equattions (11a) andd (11b):

a1f (68.7°, vis) = 1 − 0.472 − 0.252

2 = 0.276
a1b (68.7°, vis) = 0.284
a1f (68.7°, NIR ) = 0.269
a1b (68.7°, NIR ) = 0.083
a2f (68.7°, vis) = a2b (68.7°, vis) = 0.059
a2f (68.7°, NIR ) = a2b (68.7°, NIIR ) = 0.174

Wee then use Equaations (32) andd (34) to calculate the layer frront absorptancces in the glaziing system:
10

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

A1:f(1,2) (68.7, vis ) = a1f (688.7, vis )

T1 (688.7, vis )R2f (68.7, vis )a1b (68.7, vis )
+
1 − R1b (68.7, viss )R2f (68.7, vis )
(0.472)(0.240)(0.284)
= 0.2844 + = 0.310
1 − (0.2444)(0.240)

T1 (68.7, vis )a2b (68.7, vis )

A2f:(1,2) (68.7, vis ) =
1 − R1b (68.7, viss )R2f (68.7, vis )
(0.472)(0.0599)
= = 0.030
1 − (0.244)(0.240)

A1:f(1,2) (68
6 .7, NIR ) = 0.273
2
A2f:(1,2) (668.7, NIR ) = 0.013
0

andd Equations (32)

( and (34) to calculate the back absorptances: (68.7°,viis) = 0.212,
69,
(688.7°,vis) = 0.06 (68.7°,NIR) = 0.0662, and (68.7°,NIR) = 0.244.

Spectral Avveraging of Gllazing Propertties

The sollar-optical prop perties of a maaterial are the wavelength-inntegrated (or tootal) transmittaance, reflectannce, and
absorptance of the glazing g to incident solar radiation. If
I the spectral optical
o propertiies [T(λ), R(λ)), (λ)] of the glazing
and the specctral irradiance E(λ) incident on the glazingg are known, thhe solar optical properties cann be calculated from

(35)
where p staands for transsmittance, reflectance, or abbsorptance, annd the limits of integrationn are those vaalues of
wavelength outside of wh hich the solar spectral
s irradiaance is negligibbly small. Beccause the solar spectral irradiiance E
has zero vallue outside som me spectral rannge, the limits of integration can be replaced with the acctual limits of nonzeron
values for E .
If E(λ) in Equation (335) is a standarrd solar spectraal irradiance diistribution, thenn the optical prroperty resultinng from
this equationn is called the solar optical property. If thhe spectral prooperties p(λ) arre available onnly at a set of discrete
wavelengthss λk, with k ranging
r from 1 to the integger M, (e.g., measured
m data), then the foollowing discreete sum
approximatiion of Equation n (35) can be calculated:

(366)

where = the spectrall weight for thee wavelength λk and where Δλ λk = 1/2(λk +1 – λk –1).
For callculating fenesstration heat trransfer, it is generally
g suffiicient to use spectrally
s averraged glazing system
a defined in Equation
properties as E (35) or
o (36). Althouugh for speciaal combinations of climate annd location it may be
desirable to carry out this averaging usinng variant solaar spectra as weeighting functiions in these eqquations, as diiscussed
in Chapter 141 of the ASH HRAE Handboook—Fundamenntals, it is selddom either feasible or necesssary to carry out o heat
transfer calcculations using a detailed, tim
me-dependent solar spectrum and the spectraal glazing propperties.
For mulltiple-layer glaazing systems, the spectral avveraging of Eqquation (35) or (36) should inn general be appplied to
the system spectral
s properrties at each anngle [Equationns (29) to (33)]]. Because all glazing
g layer properties
p are to
t some
extent both angle and wav velength depenndent, and sincce these equations are nonlinnear in the glazzing propertiess, this is
the only proocedure that iss valid in princciple. In generral, when a glaazing property is used withoout a specific function
f

11

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

reference too wavelength, it

i assumes thatt this averaginng procedure has
h been carrieed out. For exaample, for a multiple-
m
layer glazingg,

(377)
θ, λ) has been
where Tn,m(θ n obtained from
m the individuual layer propperties and thee application of
o Equation (29). The
analogous definitions
d applly for , , , andd a the other wavelength-dep
and w pendent
quantities apppearing in thee section on Optical Propertiies of Multiplee-Layer Glazinng Systems. Unnless otherwisee stated,
the standardd spectrum, ESTDD(λ), used in thhe calculation is
i the ASTM Sttandard spectrrum.
Howeveer, as explaineed in this sectioon, many glazzings have propperties that vaary little over thet wavelengthh region
spanned by the solar specttrum. For systeems containingg only these glaazings, much computational
c labor can be saaved by
calculating the
t wavelength h-averaged prooperties (as a function of inncident angle) for each isolaated glazing layer and
using these properties
p in Equations
E (29) to (33). This procedure
p is lesss accurate, buut it may provee adequate for systems
involving clear and nearly clear glazingss. In using it, hoowever, examiine the spectrall properties of the glazings too ensure
that the poteential errors in the approximaation are undersstood.
The vallues of T1,m(θ), , and are taabulated for a number
n of com
mmon single (m m = 1), double (m ( = 2),
m = 3) glazing systems in Tabble 10 in Chaptter 15 of the ASSHRAE Handbbook—Fundam
and triple (m mentals, and theese may
be used in combination
c with
w the waveleength-averagedd versions of Equations
E (32), (33), (11a), annd (11b). One obtains
the wavelenngth-averaged equation
e by siimply droppingg the referencees to wavelenggth in the equaations. At the level of
accuracy immplied by the use of the table, it is sufficiennt to use the tabble’s wavelenggth-averaged properties
p for laayers or
subsystems in Equations (32)( and (33) to calculate thhe layer absorpptances in the system. For exxample, for a double-
glazed systeem with a tintedd and a clear glass,
g the table’s properties foor single-glazedd clear and singgle-glazed tinteed glass
could be useed for the layerr properties in calculating
c thee in-system layeer absorptancees.
Even when
w some glazzings have a siggnificant specttral dependencee, it may be poossible to simplify the calculaation by
evaluating Equation
E (35) over only a sm mall number of o selected waavelengths. Forr example, a common
c situation is a
glazing systtem consisting g primarily off clear glazingg layers but coontaining one “selective” orr “hot-climate”” low-e
glazing layeer. This layer will
w have very different
d propeerties in the vissible and near--infrared parts of the solar sppectrum.
One could, therefore, callculate its speectral average separately ovver the two sppectral regions and use thee center
wavelengthss of the two regions
r in Equuation (35): a “two-band” model. m If the other glazingss in the system m have
properties thhat can be considered constaant within eachh of the two sppectral regions,, a model of thhis type will geenerally
produce adeequate results.
Example 4. Calcculate the specctral average properties
p of thhe glazings in Examples 1, 2, 2 and 3. How w do the
resuults using a 2-band model coompare with thhose for a singgle-band modell? How do the results obtaineed from
the formulas com mpare with thosse obtained by linearly interpolating the vallues in Table 10 in Chapter 15 of the
ASH HRAE Handbo ook—Fundameentals?
Sollution: One must
m first calcuulate the spectrral weights to be applied to the 2-band model. This is done d by
inteegrating the ASSTM spectrum m (numerically)) to determine the
t fraction off energy containned in the visibble (320
to 780
7 nm) and NIR N (780 to 25500 nm) bandss. Energy outsiide of either band is neglecteed (about 1.4% % of the
solaar spectrum). These weightss are wvis = 0.5512 and wNIR = 0.488. The spectral
s averagge properties are
a then
calcculated using Equation
E (35). For the selectiive glazing of Example
E 2, thee spectral averaage properties at 68.7°

are T1(68.7°) = (0
0.512)(0.472) + (0.488)(0.0633) = 0.273, (68.7°) = 0.4555, (68.7°) = 0.541, (668.7°) =
0.2273, and (6
68.7°) = 0.1866. For the cleaar glazing of Example 1, the
t spectral avverage properrties are
T2(668.7°) = 0.657, (68.7°) = (68.7°) = 0.228,
0 and (
(68.7°) = (68.7°) = 0.115. For the doublee-glazed
ple 3, the speectral average properties aree T1,2(68.7°) = 0.203,
sysstem of Examp (68.7°) = 0.485,
(688.7°) = 0.484, (68.7°°) = 0.292, (68.7°) = 0.139, (68.7°) = 0.022, and
(688.7°) = 0.155.
To obtain thee results for a single-band model,
m we repeaat the calculations of Examplle 3 using the spectral
aveerage quantitiees for the two glazing layerss instead of thhe separate vallues for the viisible and NIR
R bands.
Whhen we do thiss, we obtain thhe spectral aveerage propertiees T1,2(68.7°) = 0.204, (
(68.7°) = 0.474,
12

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

(688.7°) = 0.495, (68.77°) = 0.286, (68.7°) = 0.140, (68.7°) = 0.036, and

(688.7°) = 0.149. As can be seeen, the results for the two methodsm are noot identical buut are relativelly close
toggether for this glazing
g system.
The exact glaazing system usedu in this exaample is not liisted in Table 10 (as will freqquently be the case in
praactice), so we must
m locate thhe glazing systtem that is closest in propertties. The emissivity of the selective
coaating on surface 2 of the outer glazing is 0.005, and the trannsmittance andd reflectances forf the insulatinng glass
uniit at normal inccidence are T(00°) = 0.331, Rf(0°) = 0.388, and a Rb(0°) = 0.396. The mosst similar unit listedl in
Tabble 10 is ID 25a,
2 which haas T(0°) = 0.337, Rf(0°) = 0..35, and Rb(0°°) = 0.39 (i.e., slightly loweer front
refl
flectance and thherefore higherr transmittance).
Near the requ uired angle off incidence, thee table values listed
l are T(600°) = 0.29, Rf(660°) = 0.40, Rb(60°) =
f b
0.443 and T(70°) = 0.22, R (70°) = 0.47, and R (70°) = 0.50. (The ( subscriptss 1,2 are undersstood from thee system
desscription.) Lineear interpolatioon in angle yieelds the values [T1,2(68.7°)]25a = 0.23, [ (68.7°)]25a = 0..46, and
[ (68.7°)]25a =0.49.
=
Because the normal incidennce transmittannce of ID 25a in the table waas about 0.04 higher
h than thaat of the
glaazing system of o interest (andd the front refflectance correespondingly 0..04 lower), thiis calculation may be
corrrected by mulltiplying by thhe ratio of the normal incideence value for the desired gllazing to that of o table
enttry 25a. This gives the valuues [T1,2 (68.7°°)]table = 0.23 × 0.331/0.37 = 0.21, [ (68.7°)] table
= 0.46 ×
0.388/0.35 = 0.51 1, and [ (68.7°)] table = 0.449 × 0.396/0.39 = 0.50. Thesse values are quite
q close to the
t ones
obttained above frrom use of the exact formulass.

Angular Avveraging of Gllazing Propertties

As stresssed in the preevious sectionss, the solar-optical properties of glazings depend
d on the incident anglee of the
radiation paassing through the glazing. Itt is relatively simple
s to account for this deependence in thhe case of beaam solar
radiation, beecause at any particular
p time the radiation can
c be considerred to be incideent from a singgle direction, annd from
this directioon the inciden nt angle can be calculatedd as describedd in Chapter 14 of the ASHRAE A Handdbook—
Fundamentaals. However, for the diffuse solar and grround-reflectedd radiation, thee situation is more m complicaated. In
principle, thhe energy flow through the glazing should be b a sum over thet individual energy
e flows resulting from incident
i
radiation froom each directtion; for exampple, the radiannt flux directlyy transmitted thhrough an L-laayer glazing frrom sky
and ground radiation
r woulld be

q trans =
∫ ∫ ∫ Esky, ground ( θ, φ, λ )T1, L ( θ, λ )(( cos θ ) dϖ dλ
λ hem
(38)
Although suuch calculations can be carrieed out for speciific sky conditiions using detaailed sky data or
o models, the labor
l of
such a calcuulation is worthhwhile only foor very specificc purposes. Moore generally, a drastic simpplifying assumpption, is
made. Bothh the sky and ground radiattion are assum med to be idea ally diffuse (ii.e., to have a sky radiance that is
independentt of direction). In addition, thhe spectral deppendence is asssumed to be thhe same as for beam solar raadiation.
These simpllifications are implicit in thee use of the quuantities Ed andd Er. To calcullate these quanntities from onee of the
detailed skyy or ground moodels mentionedd in that sectioon (or from dettailed data), ratther than from the simpler eqquations
given elsewhhere in this chaapter, use the following
f equaations:

(399)

(400)
Becausee these are asssumed to be direction-indep
d endent quantitties, and for veertical glazinggs the sky and ground
subtend equual solid angles, in most casses the fact thaat these quantiities originate from distinct solid angle reggions is
ignored. Moore careful connsideration muust be given too these quantitties for tilted glazings or foor direction-deppendent
shading (succh as overhang
gs and venetiann blinds) when high accuracy in the results isi desired.

13

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

The opttical propertiess to be used wiith these quanttities are then the hemispherrical averagess of the correspponding
angle-depenndent properties. For examplee, for an L-layeer unshaded glaazing, the averrage transmittaance, front refleectance,
and layer-sppecific overall front
f absorptannce would be

(41)

(422)

(43)
and similarlly for the back
k reflectance and
a layer-speciific absorptancces. The simpllified expressioon at the end of each
equation follows from the fact that the quuantities being averaged are independent
i off the angle φ.
Table 2 Angular Weig
ghting Functioon and Double-Glazing Sysstem (Examplee 3) Transmitttance for Anggular
Mesh Used too Calculate Heemispherical Average
A Transsmittance
θº An
ngular Weight T1,2(θ)
0 0.000 0.331
10 0.060 0.329
20 0.113 0.325
30 0.153 0.318
40 0.174 0.309
50 0.174 0.294
60 0.153 0.260
70 0.113 0.194
80 0.060 0.094
90 0.000 0.000

Example 5. Calcculate the hem mispherical aveerage propertiees for the two glazings and the t glazing syystem in
Exaamples 1, 2, anda 3, and com mpare the resuults with Tablee 10 in Chapter 15 of the ASHRAE A Handdbook—
Funndamentals.
Sollution: Equatio ons (41) to (433) are used, annd the integrattion is done nuumerically, usiing an angular grid of
10°° intervals exteending from 0° to 90°. To carrry out this calcculation, all off the properties in the three exxamples
muust be recalcullated at each angle. A sinngle-band moddel rather thann a 2-band iss used to reduuce the
calcculational laboor. Values of T1,2(θ) used inn calculating area shown in Tablee 2, together with
w the
anggular weighting g functions useed in the numerrical integratioon. The angularr weighting funnctions are thee values,
at each
e angle, of 2(cos
2 θ)(sin θ)Δθ at that anglle, where Δθ iss the grid intervval (10°) expreessed in radianss.

14

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

The resulting
g values are = 0.335,, = 0.4001, = 0.496,
0 = 0.264, and =
0.169 for the seleective glazing of Example B; = 0.7661, = = 0.137, and = =
0.101 for the cllear glazing of
o Example A; = 0.277, = 0.405, = 0.4442, and
= 0.2
271, = 0.138, = 0.0036, and = 0.141 for
fo the double--glazing
sysstem of Example 3.
The correspo
onding values listed
l for system
m 25a in Tablee 10 are = 0.31,, = 0.39,
andd = 0.42. Wheen we correct them as in Exxample 4 for the
t differencess between the glazing
sysstem of interesst and ID 25a at normal inccidence, we obtain = 0.31 × 0.331/0.37 = 0.28,
= 0.39 × 0.3888/0.35 = 0.43, and = 0.422 × 0.396/0.39 = 0.43. Thhese are
reaasonably close to
t the values we
w obtained froom the calculation using the more
m detailed equations.
e
SOL
LAR HEAT GAIN COE
EFFICIENT
T
The conncept of the sollar heat gain cooefficient is beest illustrated foor the case of a single glass pane
p in direct sunlight.
Let ED = EDNNcosθ be the direct solar irradiance incidennt upon a singlee pane of glasss, T be its solaar transmittance, be
the solar abssorptance, and N be the inwa ard-flowing fraction of the absorbed
a radiattion. In this case, the total soolar gain
qb that enterss the space from
m incident solaar radiation is:
(44)

in units of ennergy flux per unit area, W/m m2.

The inwward-flowing fraction
f is therm
mal in origin; it depends on the heat transffer properties ofo the assemblyy rather
than on its optical
o propertties. Absorbedd solar radiation, including ultraviolet,
u visibble, and infrarred radiation from
fr the
sun and skyy, is turned intoo heat inside thhe absorbing material.
m In a window,
w the gllazing system temperature rises as a
result to somme approximaately equilibriuum value at whhich the energgy gains from absorbed radiaation are balannced by
equal lossess. The absorbed solar radiaation is dissipated through the mechanism ms of conducttion, convectioon, and
radiation. Soome heat goes outside the buuilding, and thhe remainder gooes inside, addding to the direectly transmitteed solar
radiation. Thhe magnitude of the inward--flowing fraction depends onn the nature off the air bounddary layers adjaacent to
o the glazing, including any gas between the
both sides of t panes of a multiple-panee glazing system m (Ni is often used to
distinguish the inward-flo owing fraction from the outw ward-flowing fraction, No. However,
H becaause only the inward-
flowing fracction is used heere, the subscrippt i is droppedd for clarity).
The quaantity in parennthesis in Equaation (43) is caalled the solarr heat gain co oefficient or SH HGC. The tottal solar
gain (from direct
d beam raddiation) can theerefore be com mputed using

(455)
The SHHGC is needed to determine thet solar heat gain
g through a window’s glazzing system, annd should be inncluded
along with U-factor
U and other
o instantaneeous performaance properties in any manuffacturer’s descrription of a wiindow’s
energy perfoormance.
Calculationn of Solar Heat Gain Coefficcient
Becausee optical propperties andd T vary with the angle off incidence annd wavelength, the solar heeat gain
coefficient is w the solar heat gain q(θ ) , and the SHG
on of these varriables. In the most general way,
i also a functio GC(θ , λ )
are defined as
a

(466)

where
ED(λ) = incident solar spectral irradiance
T(θ, λ) = spectral transmittance ofo the glazing system
(θ, λ) = total speectral absorptannce of the glaziing system

15

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

Here, the anngle- and wavellength-dependeent solar heat gain

g coefficiennt is given by
(47)

When combbined with Equaation (35), thiss becomes the wavelength-av

w eraged solar heeat gain coefficcient:

(488)

Equatioons (46) to (48)) indicate the preferred

p way of determiningg the solar gainn of glazing syystems and calcculating
the solar heeat gain coeffiicient. Compuuter programs such as WIND DOW (LBL 2003)2 are avaiilable to assistt in the
calculation. In WINDOW W, the overall system opticaal properties at a a given inciident angle aree calculated for f each
wavelength and the resultss averaged folllowing Equatioon (48). The ASTMA Standardd spectrum is used
u in the aveeraging.
The wavelenngth-averaged properties (at a given incidennt angle) can thhen be used in Equation (45)..
When a glazing systeem is not stronngly spectrallyy selective, thee solar-weighteed spectral brooadband valuess of the
optical properties can be used,
u and the inntegral over waavelength show
wn in Equations (46) and (48)) is not neededd. In this
case, each glazing
g layer haas its own indiividual inward--flowing fraction of the absoorbed radiation for that layer. Let the
glazings be numbered
n from
m the outside innward, and k be the glazing inndex. Then, thhe SHGC is givven by

(499)
where

= front tran
nsmittance of the
t glazing sysstem
L = number of glazing layeers
= absorptaance of layer k
Nk = inward-fflowing fraction for layer k

The inw
ward-flowing frractions can bee calculated froom simplified heat
h transfer models,
m using thhe following eqquation:
1
N k = U ∑ R j −1, j (50)
j =k

This eqquation is essen

ntially the U-fa mes the thermal resistance froom the kth layeer to the
factor of the feenestration, tim
outdoors. Inn more compliccated multilayeer glazing systeems, it is advissable to perform
m a detailed heeat transfer anaalysis of
the system tot determine thhe values of Nk, since the efffective heat traansfer coefficiients and U deepend (weakly)) on the
glazing layeer temperaturees and other environmental
e conditions [e..g., Finlayson and Arasteh (1993); LBL (2003);
Wright (19995a)].

Diffuse Rad diation

For inciident radiation that is diffusee, the hemispheerical average solar
s heat gainn coefficient must
m be used. Thhis may
be calculatedd by integratin
ng Equation (488) hemisphericcally as followss:

(51)

Equivalentlyy, T and in Equation

E (49) can
c be hemisphherically averaaged so that

16

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

(522)

In any casee, Nk is unaffeected in the avveraging process, because it

i does not deepend on the incident anglee or the
wavelength.

CALCU
ULATION OF SOLAR
R HEAT GA
AIN
The glaazing solar enerrgy flux can bee split into thatt due to incidennt beam radiatiion (b) and incident diffuse raadiation
(d ), which includes
i both diffuse
d sky radiiation and radiation scatteredd (reflected) froom the ground:
(533)

One cann see that the glazing

g m beam radiation consists of two parts:
solar ennergy flow from
(544)

where
qbt = glazing solar
s energy fluux due to transsmitted incidennt beam radiatioon
qba = glazing solar
s energy fluux due to inwaard flow heat fllow of absorbeed beam radiatiion

The glaazing solar enerrgy flux due too incident beam

m radiation is caalculated from
(55)

If instead onne desires the solar radiant and

a heat fluxess separately, onne can calculate the glazing transmitted soolar flux
(which is solar radiation trraveling in the incident directtion) from

(56)

and the inwaard-flowing ab

bsorbed solar fllux (which is heat)
h from

(57)

Values of and in these equuations can be found in Tablle 10 in Chapter 15 of the ASHRAE
Handbook—
—Fundamentalss, and determinnation of Nk is discussed
d in thhe previous secction.
For difffuse radiation:
(588)

where
qdt = glazing solar
s energy fluux due to transsmitted incidennt diffuse radiattion
qda = glazing solar
s energy fluux due to inwaard flow heat fllow of absorbeed diffuse radiaation

The glaazing solar enerrgy flux due too diffuse incideent radiation is calculated from
m
(59)

The solar radiant and heat fluxes can be separately

s calcculated from
(60)

which is diff
ffusely distributted solar radiattion (note that effects of finite glazing size and
a thickness are
a neglected),, and

(61)

17

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

Example 6. Calculate the solar energy flux thhrough the glazzing system off Example 3 , at a an incident angle
a of
68.7° using (a) Table
T 10 in Chhapter 15 of thee ASHRAE Haandbook—Funddamentals andd (b) the equatiions for
opttical propertiess. EDN = 325 W//m2, Ed = 32 W/m
W 2, and Er = 32 3 W/m2.
Sollution:
(a) The exact glaazing system used in this exaample is not lissted in Table 10 1 (as will freqquently be the case in
praactice), so we must
m locate thhe glazing systtem that is closest in propertties. The emissivity of the selective
coaating on surface 2 of the outeer glazing is 0.005, and the traansmission andd reflectances for
f the insulatinng glass
uniit at normal inccidence are T(00°) = 0.331, Rf(0°)
( = 0.388, annd Rb(0°) = 0.3396. The most similar unit is ID 25a,
whhich has T(0°) = 0.37, Rf(0°) = 0.35, and Rb(0°) = 0.39 (i.e., slightly loower front refllectance and thherefore
higgher transmittaance). Near thee required anggle of incidencce, the table values
v listed foor the solar heeat gain
coeefficient are [SHGC(60°)]25a = 0.34 and [SH HGC(70°)]25a = 0.27, and from m the diffuse column of the table
t we
obttain = 0.36. Linear
L interpolaation in angle yields
y the valuue [SHGC(68.77°)]25a = 0.34 + (0.27 –
0.34)/(70° – 60°)) × (68.7° – 60°)
6 = 0.28. This
T value can then be approoximately corrrected for the (small)
diff
fference betweeen the glazing ofo interest and ID 25a in Tabble 10 as follow ws. We first note that entry 255a has a
trannsmittance thaat is 0.04 higheer than the glazing in questioon and a front reflectance thhat is 0.04 lower. This
means that the ab bsorptance of the
t two glazinngs is the samee to within thee accuracy of Table
T 10. We see that
witth the absorpttance held connstant, a channge in the traansmittance off the glazing producesp an additive
a
corrrection to the SHGC that is equal to the diifference in traansmittance. Referring to Exaamples 4 and 5 where
the transmittancess for this case are
a calculated, we make the correction:
c
[
SHGC(68.7°) = SHGC(68.7°) ]25a
T1,2 (68.7°)
{ [ ] }
+ T1,2 (0°) − T1,2 (0°) 25 a ×
T1,2 (0°)
0.21
2
= 0.28 + (0.33
3 − 0.37) × = 0.28 − 0.033 = 0.25
0. 33
andd

Note that these values

v are veryy close to those calculated beelow in part (bb) of the soluttion. The solarr energy
fluxx is then calcullated from Equuations (53), (555), and (59):
q s = qt + qa = E DN cos(68.7 )SHGC(68.7 ) + (E d + E r ) SHGC
S D

= (325)(0.3633)(0.25) + (32 + 32 )(0.33) = 50.6 W/m 2

(b) We use the prreviously calcuulated optical properties

p of thhe glazing to determine
d the SHGC. To do this we
neeed the inward-fflowing fractioons N1 and N2 for f the two glazing layers. Thhe simplest waay to obtain theese is to
do a heat transfeer analysis off the glazing and a determine the glazing temperatures
t u
under the appropriate
connditions. We asssume an exterrior temperaturre of 31.7°C, a wind speed off 3.4 m/s, and an a indoor tempperature
ti of 23.9°C. Usin ng methods preesented in the section on Dettermining Feneestration U-Facctors in Chapteer 15 of
the ASHRAE Han ndbook—Fundaamentals, the heat h transfer annalysis yields a central glazinng U of 1.22 W/(m W 2·K)
andd glazing layerr temperatures of t1 = 31.1°C C and t2 = 23.3°C. Because the temperatuure differences will be
prooportional to the
t thermal reesistances (whhich are inverrsely proportioonal to the efffective heat transfer
coeefficients), N1 = (t1 – to)/(ti – to) = 0.064 and N2 = (t2 – to)/(tti – to) = 0.821. We can then calculate
c the soolar heat
gain coefficient for
fo beam radiatiion incident at 68.7° using thhe results from Example 4, froom Equation (449):

SHGC(68.7) = T1,2 (68.7°) + N 1 A1:f(1,2) (68.7°) + N 2 A2f:(1,2) (68.7°)

= 0.203 + (0.064
0 )(0.292) + (0.821)(0.022) = 0.240

andd for diffuse radiation, using the

t results from
m Example 5, from
f Equation (52):

18

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.
 Fundamentaals, Ch 15: Feneestration Supplemental Section: Advanced
A Calcu
ulations

Thee solar energy flux is then callculated using Equations (53)), (55), and (599):
q s = qt + qa = E DN cos((68.7°)SHGC(68
6 .7°) + ( E d + E r ) SHGC D

= (3255)(0.3633)(0.2440) + (32 + 32)((0.324) = 49.1 W/m 2

19

ThisfileislicensedtoNagarajanChandran(cngrjn@[Link]).ASHRAEHandbookOnlinesubscriptionisforindividualuse.CopyrightASHRAE.