Human Organs and Organ System
The Endocrine System
❖ network of glands that produce hormones to help cells communicate and
regulate body processes
❖ it controls metabolic functions, growth, development, reproduction,
immunity, and homeostasis
❖ regulates these processes chemically, causing slow changes in the body since
hormones move slower than nerve impulses
Major Glands:
1. Pituitary Gland
● hormone - growth hormone
● function - regulates growth and controls the functioning of their endocrine
glands
2. Thyroid Gland
● hormone - thyroxine
● function - controls metabolism and ensures balanced growth
3. Parathyroid Gland
● hormone - parathormone
● function - regulates calcium balance in the body
4. Adrenal Glands
● hormone - adrenaline
● function - prepares the body for emergencies (fight or flight response)
5. Pancreas
● hormone - insulin
● function - regulates blood glucose levels
6. Testes (in males)
● hormone - testosterone
● function - controls growth and development of the male reproductive
system
7. Ovaries (in females)
● hormones - estrogen, progesterone
● function - controls growth and development of the female reproductive
system
Common Diseases of the Endocrine System
➔ Hypothyroidism
- a disorder affecting the thyroid gland, where a deficiency in thyroxine
causes a slow heart rate, low metabolic rate, sluggishness, and slow
movement.
➔ Hyperthyroidism
- a condition where the thyroid gland overproduces thyroxine, resulting
in a high metabolic rate. this causes the body to use oxygen at a faster
rate, leading to rapid heartbeats and increased energy consumption.
➔ Osteoporosis
- a condition where bones become fragile and prone to fractures due to
excessive loss of protein and minerals, especially calcium. it involves the
thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, and reproductive glands.
➔ Type 1 Diabetes
- also known as juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes, is a
chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little to no insulin,
affecting the body’s ability to regulate blood sugar levels.
➔ Dwarfism
- the most common type known as achondroplasia, is a condition linked to
the pituitary gland’s production of growth hormone. individuals with
dwarfism typically exhibit features such as a long trunk and shortened
upper limbs, a large head with prominent forehead, a flattered bridge of
the nose, a protruding jaw, crowded and misaligned teeth, forward
curvature of the lower spine, bowed legs, and flat, short, broad feet.
➔ Gigantism
- condition caused by an adenoma, a tumor of the pituitary gland, which
leads to excessive production of growth hormone during childhood.
this overproduction of GH results in significant physical changes and
abnormal growth throughout the body.
Hormones in Reproduction
- sex hormones drive sexual development during puberty, leading to sexual
maturity and reproductive capability
- reproductive hormones are primarily produced in the ovaries in females and
testes in males
- puberty is a period when adolescents undergo physical and hormonal changes
that prepare them for reproduction
● Female Reproductive Hormones
➢ the primary female reproductive hormones are estrogen and
progesterone, which develop and maintain female sex characteristics
➢ these hormones are crucial for the menstrual cycle, fertility,
pregnancy, with estrogen being chief pregnancy hormone
➢ a woman produces more estrogen during pregnancy than during her
entire life when not pregnant, supporting the uterus and placenta
Increased Estrogen during Pregnancy:
★ improves vascularization (formation of blood vessels)
★ facilitates nutrient transfer
★ supports developing baby
other key hormones:
★ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - promotes the maturation of egg in
the ovary
★ Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - stimulates the release of the egg
● Male Reproductive Hormones
➢ the entire male reproductive system relies on hormones that stimulate
or regulate cell and organ activity
main hormones involved in male reproductive:
★ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
★ Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
★ Testosterone
➢ FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary gland, located at the base
of the brain
➢ FSH is essential for sperm production (spermatogenesis)
➢ LH stimulates the production of testosterone, which is crucial for the
continuation of spermatogenesis
why is testosterone important for the development of male characteristics:
★ muscle mass and strength
★ fat distribution
★ bone mass
★ sex drive
Role of Hormones in the Female Reproductive
Cycle
- the pituitary gland, ovaries, and uterus
work together to control the menstrual
cycle, illustrating the body’s ability to
maintain homeostasis
Phases of the Menstrual Cycle:
a. Follicle Stage
● hormone - FSH is secreted by the pituitary gland
● function - FSH stimulates the growth of a follicle in the ovary,
which produces estrogen
● effect - estrogen promotes mitosis in the urine cells, thickening
uterine walls. high estrogen levels inhibit FSH production
b. Ovulation Stage
● hormone - LH is produced by the pituitary gland after FSH levels
decrease
● function - LH triggers changes in the ripe follicle, leading to the
release of of the egg (ovum)
c. Corpus Luteum Stage
● hormone - after ovulation, the old follicle transforms into the corpus
luteum, which produces progesterone
● function – progesterone prepares the uterus for the implantation of
an embryo
d. Menstrual Flow Stage
● process - high progesterone levels decrease LH secretion, causing
the corpus luteum to degenerate
● effect - progesterone production drops, leading to the breakdown
of the uterine lining, resulting in menstrual flow (tissues, blood, and
mucus discharge)
If the fertilization occurs, the menstrual cycle is interrupted. The zygote implants
the uterus, and placenta stimulates the corpus luteum to continue producing
progesterone until birth.
How does a hormone maintain internal balance (homeostasis)?
Negative Feedback Mechanism
- most hormones are regulated by negative feedback, where the hormone reduces
its own production to bring the body back to normal when conditions become too
extreme
Example: Blood Sugar Regulation
★ process - when blood sugar levels rise, receptors detect the change
★ response - the pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into the blood
★ effect - insulin lowers blood sugar levels
★ homeostasis - once normal blood sugar levels are restored, the pancreas stops
insulin production.