TOPIC 1
POWER SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
1. Electrical Power System .......................................................................... 2
1.1 Power Generation System .................................................................... 3
1.2 Power Transmission System ................................................................ 5
1.3 Power Distribution System.................................................................... 5
2. Connected Voltages ................................................................................. 7
3. Control and Protection of Electrical Power System & Cybersecurity .. 7
4. Network Configuration of HV Power System.......................................... 8
4.1 Basic Network Configurations............................................................... 8
4.2 Radial System ...................................................................................... 9
4.3 Ring System ....................................................................................... 11
4.4 Mesh System ...................................................................................... 10
4.5 Application of Network Configurations ................................................ 12
4.6 Consumers’ Power Distribution System.............................................. 13
5. Components of an Electrical Installation .............................................. 17
5.1 Supply Policies and Electrical Licensing System ................................ 17
5.2 Duties and Responsibilities of Licensed Electrical Workers (LEWs)... 18
6. Statutory Acts & Regulation, Code of Practices in Singapore............ 20
6.1 Electricity Regulations and Other Statutory Requirements ................. 20
6.2 Relevant Singapore Standards (SS) for The Electrical Industry ......... 20
7. General Design Procedures for An Electrical Installation ................... 23
8. Difference Between Single-Phase &Three-Phase Supply Systems.... 23
8.1 DC & AC Supply ................................................................................. 23
8.2 OHM’s Law ......................................................................................... 24
8.3 Electrical Earthing System .................................................................. 24
9. Cable Colour Code.................................................................................. 25
10. Electrical Hazards and Safety .............................................................. 26
10.1 Safety from Electric Shocks .............................................................. 26
10.2 How an Electric Shock May Occur ................................................... 27
10.3 Safety from Thermal Effects ............................................................. 28
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11. References............................................................................................. 29
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1. Electrical Power System
The Singapore electricity industry had traditionally been vertically
integrated and Government-owned. Tremendous progress has been
made since 1995 to liberalise the electricity industry for greater
efficiency and innovation. The electricity generation and retail business
was separated from the natural monopoly of electricity transmission at
the ownership level in 2001.
The National Electricity Market of Singapore (NEMS) commenced
operation on 1 Jan 2003. In the NEMS, which is essentially a real-time
electricity trading pool, generation companies compete to sell electricity
every half-hour. In addition to electricity, trading of operating reserves
to maintain system security and reliability also takes place in the NEMS
on a half-hourly basis. Electricity retailers buy electricity from the
NEMS and offer packages to sell electricity to contestable consumers.
In 2019, the Open Electricity Market describe in Figure 1-1, marks the
final phase of market liberalisation efforts where all consumers in
Singapore are able to choose who they wish to buy electricity from.
Their options are to buy electricity from:
• An electricity retailer at a price plan that best meets their needs;
or
• The wholesale electricity market at half-hourly wholesale
electricity prices through SP Group; or
• [Default] SP Group at the regulated tariff.
Figure 1-1: Model of electricity market.
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The structure of an electrical power system is usually very large and
complex. Figure 1-2 shows a typical electrical power system and it can be
divided into three basic subsystems as follows:
• Power generation system
• Power transmission system
• Power distribution system
400kV or 230kV (EHV)
Substation
13.2kV / EHV
Figure 1-2: Typical generation, transmission and distribution system.
1.1 Power Generation System
In the power generation system, electrical power is generated from different
energy sources. The energy sources may include:
• Fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas or fuel oil
Coal, natural gas and fuel oil are used to generate heat for the boiler, which
then produces pressurized steam to run the steam turbines.
• Fissionable materials such as nuclear
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Nuclear power uses nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to
generate heat, which is then used to run steam turbines.
• Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind and hydro
Renewable energy sources involve the use of natural processes that are
continuously replenished to generate electricity. Radiation and heat energy
from the sun is converted to electrical energy using solar photovoltaic panels
and solar thermal collectors respectively. Kinetic energy in wind and flowing
water is harnessed using wind turbines and hydro turbines respectively to
generate electricity.
Combined Cycle Power Plants (CCPs)
In conventional open cycle power plants, the hydro turbines and steam
turbines are coupled to generators to generate electrical power at voltage
levels ranging from 10kV to 30kV.
In 2020, Singapore’s electricity is produced by Combined Cycle Power Plants
(CCPs). These CPPs are fired by natural gas (95.76%) & petroleum products
(4.24%) to run the steam turbines. Figure 1-3 shows the diagram of a natural
gas CCP. CCPs are more efficient (60% for CCP compared to 40% for
conventional open cycle) because of their heat recycling capability. Waste
heat from the spinning gas turbines is recycled and is channeled to fire up
Figure 1-3: Natural gas combined cycle power plant [1].
another plant’s boiler which generates steam used to run another steam
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turbine as well. One block of CCP normally comprises of two gas turbines and
one steam turbine.
1.2 Power Transmission System
The electrical power generated by the gas and steam turbines is stepped up
to 400kV or 230kV known in Extra High Voltage (EHV) via step-up
transformers located in EHV substations before sending to the transmission
network. In this way, the power loss in the long-distance transmission lines is
minimized to about 6% and greater transmission efficiency is achieved.
The transmission of electrical power at EHV is also necessary in order to
interconnect the power generating stations. The interconnection increases the
reliability of the electrical power system and provides necessary pooling of
generator plants to enhance the standby capacity of the power generation so
as to achieve the optimum production cost at various power stations.
The electrical power at EHV cannot be directly used by domestic consumers.
Therefore, the electrical power is stepped-down by step-down transformers
located in another transmission substation at 66kV before sending to the
distribution network for distribution to different consumers.
1.3 Power Distribution System
The main function of the power distribution system is to distribute the bulk
electrical power received from the transmission substations to meet the power
demand of different consumers. At 66kV substations, voltage will be stepped
down to lower distribution voltages of 22kV and 6.6kV High Voltage (HV), and
400V / 230V Low Voltage (LV) for distribution of electrical power. The lower
distribution voltages are used for connecting to general consumers because
the cables and equipment have lower insulation properties which are more
economical and viable to use.
A HV power distribution system will therefore consist the following
components:
• HV substation and HV switchgear
• HV and LV power cables
• 22kV / 6.6kV distribution transformers of Star/Star/Delta winding
connections (with a Delta tertiary winding), i.e. Υ/Δ/Y
• 22kV / LV or 6.6kV / LV distribution transformers of Delta / Star winding
connection, i.e. Δ/Y
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2. Connected Voltages
The voltage levels used in the power distribution system vary from countries
to countries and are dependent on the policies of the power utility companies
and government authorities. The voltage levels are usually categorized into
High Voltage (or Tension), Medium Voltage and Low Voltage. There is no
standard voltage range in each category. The following definitions will be
used:
(a) Low Voltage – up to and including 1000 Volts
(b) High Voltage – above 1000 Volts
Singapore’s electricity supply frequencies are 50 Hz.
SP PowerAssets Ltd, a member of SP Group is the Transmission Licensee in
Singapore and owns the electricity transmission and distribution networks of
Singapore [2]. SP PowerAssets Ltd appoints SP PowerGrid Ltd to manage
the distribution network as well as maintain both the transmission and
distribution networks. The transmission network is operated by Energy
Market Authority (EMA).
The electrical grid system in Singapore comprises of the:
• Transmission network 400kV, 230kV and 66kV
• Distribution network 22kV, 6.6kV and 400 / 230V
3. Control and Protection of Electrical Power System &
Cybersecurity
The functions of the control equipment in a power supply system are:
• Ensure that the amount of power is sufficient to meet the load demands.
• Maintain the supply frequency within the stated limits (generators only).
• Maintain the voltages within the stated limits.
• Ensure that the power factor is as high as economically viable.
• Provide means of switching on / off a circuit or a sub-circuit with minimal or
no interruption of the electricity supply to consumers.
The protection equipment in a power supply system helps to maintain the
reliability of the power supply system by disconnecting faulty parts of the
system or faulty equipment.
It also ensures the safety of the operational and maintenance personnel as
well as the life of the consumer. The protection equipment may be built into
the control equipment, e.g., circuit breakers & control panel, e.g., switchgear.
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Control equipment can be operated locally or remotely. The modern remote-
controlled system is a microprocessor based one known as the Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA).
SCADA system monitors all the electrical parameters of the power supply via
optic fiber cables, microwave transmitters (for very long distances) etc. On
sensing a fault, it can immediately open the appropriate circuit breakers and
to close the necessary circuit breakers to restore electricity supply after
removal of the fault.
Electrical substations have become a primary target for cyberattacks. In fact,
it is believed that power facilities are targets for modern cyber warfare.
Cybercriminals look for components and services within electrical substations
that can be easily modified, degraded, or even disabled. When cybercriminals
are successful, entire populations dependent on electricity, including
government agencies, military, and other utilities, are left without their major
power source.
4. Network Configuration of HV Power System
4.1 Basic Network Configurations
A typical power system comprises a number of substations connected
together with cable feeders. The substations which are connected to the
supply sources are called primary substations. The substations that are
taking supply from the primary substations are called secondary
substations.
There are three basic network configurations in which the substations
can be arranged in order to meet the required reliability:
• radial system
• ring system & broken ring system
• mesh system
4.2 Radial System
Figure 1-4 shows the configuration of substations in a radial system.
There is only one supply source supplying electrical power to a number
of substations (primary and secondary substations).
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Figure 1-4: Radial system
Radial system commonly found in distribution networks offer the
following advantages:
• Simple to design
• Easy to estimate fault level
• Easy grading of protection relays
The main disadvantage of the radial distribution system is that there is
only a single route of power supply to all the consumers. When a fault
occurs on a feeder, the consumers that are connected after the fault
location on the feeder will suffer from power outage.
4.3 Ring System
Figure 1-5 shows the configuration of substations in a ring system.
There are two supply sources at two primary substations supplying to a
number of secondary substations.
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Figure 1-5: Ring system
Ring system commonly found in distribution networks offer the following
advantages:
• There are two separate routes of supply to any load
• A faulty feeder is easily disconnected and supply can be re-routed to
the affected load
The disadvantages of the ring distribution system are:
• It cost more than a radial system with the same number of secondary
substations and serving the same consumers
• Coordination of the protection relays is also more difficult as
compared to a radial distribution system
• Estimation of fault level is relatively more difficult when compared
with a radial system
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4.4 Mesh System
Figure 1-6 shows the configuration of substations in a mesh
transmission system which consists of a number of ring systems
interconnected together.
Figure 1-6: Mesh system
Mesh system commonly found in transmission networks offer the
following advantages:
• Very flexible in load transfer
• No interruption of power supply if faulty equipment or section is
isolated quickly
• A faulty feeder is easily disconnected and supply can be re-routed to
the affected load
The disadvantages of the mesh transmission system are:
• Extremely difficult in grading of the protection relays
• Extremely difficult to estimate fault level
• Implementing the mesh transmission system is costly
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4.5 Applications of Different Network Configurations
Radial Distribution Network
The radial system is widely used for the electrical installations of
commercial or industrial buildings. In a typical high-rise building, where
the load centers are often localized within the building, high voltage
power supply receiving switchroom with transformer rooms located
near the load centers are designed as shown in Figure 1-7. The busbar
is divided into 2 sections with a bus coupler in the middle of the two
sections to provide flexibility for network operation in event of any
failure of one incoming supply.
Figure 1-7: 22kV radial supply system [3].
Ring and Mesh Distribution Network
In a premise where the load centers are wide spread and scattered in
broad areas such as water treatment plants, MRT stations, etc., high
voltage distribution network involving the following two basic network
circuits as shown in Figure 1-8 may be considered:
• Ring circuit
• Mesh circuit
The circuit may be operated in radial circuit with a circuit breaker ‘open’
in the ring circuit or in parallel connection with maximum number of 2
source transformers in parallel.
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Figure 1-8: 22kV distribution network (ring and mesh system) [3].
4.6 Consumers’ Power Distribution System
Figure 1-9 shows a typical 22kV distribution system in a high rise
building and Figure 1-10 shows a 400V / 230V distribution system.
Electricity is supplied to a consumer through switchboards. The
equipment in the switchboards include:
• Circuit Breakers – A circuit breaker is a switch which can be open
or closed manually or automatically to connect or disconnect the
electricity supply from the power supply company or electricity to the
various loads.
• Busbars – A set of copper (or aluminum) bars for distributing the
electricity to the various loads.
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• Indicating and measuring instruments – Includes indicating lights,
voltmeters, ammeters, kilowatt meters, power factor meters,
kilowatt-hour meters and current transformers.
• Protection equipment – Includes current transformers, over-current
relays and earth-fault relays.
If there are two or more supply sources, a circuit breaker known as the
bus-tie or bus-coupler is used to connect two adjacent sets of busbars.
The bus-coupler is normally open and is used only if there is no
electricity supply from one of the incoming sources
High Voltage consumers must install their own distribution transformers
for reducing the intake voltage to the level required for operating their
electrical equipment. With axillary protection equipment and control
systems.
A diesel engine driven generator set provides electricity to essential
equipment when there is a breakdown in the normal electricity supply.
This is known as emergency electricity supply. This is commonly known
as Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).
The consumer’s distribution system can also be remotely monitored
and controlled by a microprocessor system – in this case, it is usually
part of the complex’s building automation system.
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Figure 1-9: Typical consumer’s 22kV distribution system [4].
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Figure 1-10: 400V / 230V low voltage distribution switchboard [4].
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5. Components of an Electrical Installation
Electrical Installation refers to any electrical wiring, fitting or apparatus
used for the conveyance and control of electricity in any premises.
An Electrical Installation is defined as an assembly of associated
electrical equipment having a certain coordinated characteristic to fulfil
specific purposes. (Source: SS 638:2018, page 30)
5.1 Supply Policies and Electrical Licensing System
a) Voltage levels of supply to users:
Depending upon a customer’s load requirements, electricity supply will be
provided as follows:
• 230 V, 50 Hz, single phase, 2 wire, up to a maximum of 23 kVA, 100 A
• 400 V, 50 Hz, 3 phase, 4 wire, up to a maximum of 2 MVA
• 22 kV, 50 Hz, 3‐phase, 3‐wire for a Contracted Capacity of:
o between 1,700 kW and 12,750 kW for 2 HT 22 kV services
o between 12,751 kW and 25,500 kW for 4 HT 22 kV services
• 66 kV, 50 Hz, 3‐phase, 3‐wire for connection with minimum Contracted
Capacity of 25,500 kW
• 230kV, 50Hz, 3-phase, 3-wire for connection with minimum Contracted
Capacity of 85,000kW
• The supply voltage level is maintained at +/- 6%
b) Types of Services
• Electricity supply to domestic premises e.g. HDB flats, condominium
and other residential properties,
• Electricity supply to non-domestic premises e.g. Shops, factories,
schools, offices.
• Temporary supply to construction sites, exhibitions and other short-
term electrical installations.
An EMA licence is required to use or operate an electrical installation of
approved load exceeding 45 KVA used for non-domestic purposes.
A licensed electrical worker of the appropriate grade has to be engaged to
do the design of the electrical installation and make the submission for
supply.
c) Service Connection
SP Services Ltd will supply electricity at low voltage (230V/400V) to
customers whose load requirement are less than 45 kVA. Where the
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supply requirement exceeds existing capacity, the customer will have
to provide, at his own expense, electrical equipment room to house SP
PowerGrid's equipment as a sub-station.
d) Tariffs
The types of tariffs available are:
• Low Tension – for electricity supply at 230/400 V, 50 Hz;
• High Tension – for 6.6 kV and 22 kV;
• Extra High Tension – 66 kV and above.
Tariffs are subject to change every quarter and announce will be made.
Source: How to Apply for Electricity Connection Handbook by SP‐Group
5.2 Duties and Responsibilities of Licensed Electrical Workers
(LEWs)
Electrical workers are licensed to ensure that only competent persons are
allowed to design, install, repair, maintain and operate electrical installations.
There are three grades of licenses for electrical workers, namely:
a) Electrician License an Electrician LEW is required to
• hold a National Technical Certificate which curriculum is relevant to
the electrical work which an electrician is authorised to perform or
such other qualifications as may be acceptable to the Authority; and
• have not less than 2 years' practical experience relevant to the
electrical work which an electrician is authorised to perform
b) Electrical Technician License an Electrical Technician LEW is required to
• hold a technician diploma majoring in electrical power engineering
relevant to the electrical work which an electrical technician is
authorised to perform or such other qualifications as may be
acceptable to the Authority; and
• have not less than 2 years' practical experience relevant to the
electrical work which an electrical technician is authorised to perform
c) Electrical Engineer License an Electrical Engineer LEW is required to
• be a registered professional engineer in electrical engineering under
the Professional Engineers Act (Cap. 253); and
• have not less than 2 years' post-graduate experience in electrical
power engineering relevant to the electrical work which an electrical
engineer is authorised to perform.
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Category Authorisation Voltage Level
Design Maintain / Operate
Electrician 45 kVA 45 kVA 1,000 V and below
Technician 150 kVA 500 kVA 1,000 V and below
Electrical Engineer No limit Subject to licence Subject to licence
conditions conditions
Figure 1-11: Authority conferred on the various grades of license.
Electrical installations are licensed to ensure that they are operated and
maintained by licensed electrical workers and are safe to use.
Consumer is required to appoint an appropriate class of licensed electrical
worker to take charge of his electrical installation and submit application for
electrical installation license through his appointed licensed electrical
worker.
Source: Energy Market Authority
[Link]
Activity
In electrical installation design, we need to determine the incoming supply
voltage in order to complete the single line diagram. What are the expected
incoming supply voltages for the following electrical installations? Explain
your answer.
(i) A three stories terrace house with a maximum demand of 16 kW.
(ii) A shopping center with an estimated maximum demand of 2.5 MVA.
Assume overall power factor of 0.85 for each of the above installations.
Solution:
Based on the Supply Authority’s guidelines, the incoming voltage supply is
derived from the customer load requirements.
Type of Installation Load Requirement Voltage supply
(i) A three-storey terrace house with a 𝑀𝑀.𝐷𝐷. = 16kW/0.85 230 V AC 50 Hz,
maximum demand of 16 kW =18.82 kVA single phase, 2 wire
(ii) A shopping center with an estimated M.D. = 2.5 MVA 22kV, AC 50 Hz, 3
maximum demand of 2.5 MVA phase, 3 wire
Figure 1-12: Load requirement calculation.
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6. Statutory Acts & Regulation, Code of Practices in
Singapore
6.1 Electricity Regulations and Other Statutory Requirements
The regulator of the electricity industry is the Energy Market Authority (EMA)
which was set up on 1 April 2001 to drive the liberalised electricity and gas
industries in Singapore and facilitate fair play in the industries. It will also
regulate the district cooling monopolies. The powers of the EMA are
provided under the Energy Market Authority Act 2001, Electricity Act 2001,
Gas Act 2001 and District Cooling Act 2001.
6.2 Relevant Singapore Standards (SS) for The Electrical
Industry
a) SS 638: 2018 – Code of practice for electrical installations Applies to
the design, erection and verification of electrical installations other than
those specifically excluded under its scope. Includes requirements for:
(i) circuits supplied at nominal voltages up to and including 1000V a.c.
or 1500V d.c. For a.c., the preferred frequency which is considered in
this Code is 50 Hz;
(ii) circuits, other than the internal wiring of equipment, operating at
voltages exceeding 1000 V and derived from an installation having a
voltage not exceeding 1000 V a.c., e.g. discharge lighting, electrostatic
precipitators;
(iii) wiring systems and cables not specifically covered by the standards
for appliances;
(iv) all consumer installations external to buildings;
(v) fixed wiring for information and communication technology,
signaling, control and the like (excluding internal wiring of equipment);
(vi) additions and alterations to installations and also parts of the
existing installation affected by an addition or alteration.
Does not apply to installations such as systems for the distribution of
electricity to the public, equipment of motor vehicles, mobile and fixed
offshore installations, aircraft or on-board ships, radio interference
suppression equipment (except so far as it affects safety of the
electrical installation), lightning protection systems for buildings
b) SS 550: 2009 Code of Practice for Installation, Operation and
Maintenance of Electric Passengers and Goods Lifts Covers the
design, construction, installation, testing, inspection, operation and
maintenance of permanently installed new electric lifts, with traction or
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hydraulic drive, serving defined landing levels, having a car designed
for the transportation of persons or persons and goods, suspended by
ropes and moving between guide rails inclined not more than 15% to
the vertical.
c) SS 551: 2009 Code of Practice for Earthing Gives guidance on the
methods which may be adopted to earth an electrical system for the
purpose of limiting the potential of current-carrying conductors forming
part of the system, and non-current-carrying metalwork associated with
equipment, apparatus and appliances connected to the system.
d) SS 531 Part 1: 2006 – Code of practice for lighting of work places –
Indoor SS 531 Part 2: 2008 – Code of practice for lighting of work
places – Outdoor SS 531 Part 3: 2008 – Code of practice for lighting of
work places – Lighting requirements for safety and security of outdoor
work spaces. This SS specifies the lighting requirements which will
contribute to the visual needs for safety and security of outdoor work
places.
e) CP650: Part1: 2001- Temporary electrical installations – Construction
and building sites This CP deals with temporary electrical installations
for construction and building sites. Also deals principally with temporary
electrical installations for building operation and work of engineering
supply during the execution of new building construction; repair,
alteration, extension or demolition of buildings; engineering
construction; earthworks and other similar works. Does not apply to
installations in construction site offices, meeting rooms, canteens,
dormitories, toilets, etc., where the general requirements in SS638
shall apply. Although some temporary installations at these sites may
receive supplies at voltages higher than 1000 V, such parts of the
installations are outside the scope of this code. Also does not cover
those aspects of installations in a compressed air environment and
potentially explosive atmospheres.
f) CP650: Part 2:2001– Temporary electrical installation – Festive
lighting, trade fairs, mini-fairs and exhibition sites. Deals principally with
temporary electrical installations that are installed outdoor for festive
lighting, trade-fairs, mini-fairs and exhibition sites. Specifies the
minimum electrical installation requirements to facilitate the safe
design, installation and operation of mobile and temporarily installed
electrical machines and structures, which incorporate electrical
equipment. The machines and structures are intended to be installed
repeatedly, without loss of safety, temporarily or permanently, at
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fair/exhibition sites, amusement parks or any other similar sites. Does
not cover decorative lighting within.
g) CP 83 - 2: 2000 – Code of practice for construction computer-aided
design (CAD) – CAD symbols Recommends a common set of symbols
to be used by all parties in the building industry in the preparation of
drawings. Provides a standard set of 2D graphical symbols to
represent entities of building components for the building industry.
Facilitates common understanding and interpretation of information in
drawings by different users of the building industry and easy and
efficient exchange of information.
h) SS 555 – 4: 2018 Code Of Practice For Protection Against Lightning –
Part 4: Electrical and electronic systems within structures Provides
information for the design, installation, inspection, maintenance and
testing of electrical and electronic system protection (SPM) to reduce
the risk of permanent failures due to lightning electromagnetic impulse
(LEMP) within a structure. Does not cover protection against
electromagnetic interference due to lightning, which may cause
malfunctioning of internal systems. However, the information reported
in Annex A can also be used to evaluate such disturbances. Provides
guidelines for cooperation between the designer of the electrical and
electronic system, and the designer of the protection measures, in an
attempt to achieve optimum protection effectiveness. Does not deal
with detailed design of the electrical and electronic systems
themselves.
i) TR25: 2020 Technical Reference for electric vehicle charging system
Applicable to on-board and off-board equipment for charging electric
vehicles in public or private car parks, public places and private
residential premises at standard a.c. supply voltages up to 1000 V and
at d.c. voltages up to 1500V. Covers the requirements for electrical
installation, functional needs and safety, and connection to the electric
vehicle. States the safety requirements to protect person and property
against electrical hazards.
Where to find Singapore Standards:
[Link]
[Link]
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7. General Design Procedures for An Electrical Installation
1. Perform electrical load estimation calculations
2. Decide on supply voltage based on load requirements
3. Licensed Electrical Worker submits application to SP Services
4. Design of sub-stations and switch-rooms
5. Determine load centers and risers locations
6. Perform detailed design calculations
7. Complete the layout and single-line drawings
8. Difference Between Single-Phase and Three-Phase Supply
Systems
8.1 DC & AC Supply
Figure 1-13: Waveforms between AC and AC.
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8.2 OHM’s Law
The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is proportional to
the current
Figure 1-14: Voltage / Current graph.
8.3 Electrical Earthing Systems
Figure 1-14: Electrical earthing system in Singapore.
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Useful formulae for obtaining kW, kVA and horsepower.
Figure 1-15: Single / 3 Phase calculation
9. Cable Colour Code
The cable colour code for fixed electrical wiring stipulated in SS 638: 2018
has been revised to align with international standards such as BS 7671: 2008
and A3: 2015. More information of this revision can be found in Annex B(L)
and Appendix 7(L) of SS 638: 2018. The revised cable colour code requires:
• Cable colours of brown, black, grey (for line),
• Cable colours of blue (for neutral) and green-and-yellow (for earth)
• Cable markings of L1 – Brown; L2 – Black; L3 – Grey; N – Blue
Starting from 1 Mar 2009, the new cable colour code shall be used in all new
electrical installations, as well as addition and alteration to existing electrical
installations.
Figure 1-16: Change in cable colour coding.
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As more and more countries adopting the new cable colour code, there is no
advantage for a small country like Singapore with much lower demand of
electrical cables than many other countries to keep the old cable colour code
that is different from that of the international community. With the decreasing
demand in electrical cables under the old cable colour code around the world,
the cost of electrical cables under the old cable colour code may become less
competitive and the delivery may become more unreliable in the future. As
such, it would make more economic sense for Singapore to adopt the new
cable colour code.
People in the trade need to know the new cable colour code, the differences
between the old and new cable colours for line and neutral cables, how to
provide appropriate colour markings and warning notice when both old and
new versions of cable colour code exist in an electrical installation.
Consumers are not required to replace the existing electrical wiring or
appliances to align with the new cable colour code. However, all new
electrical wiring shall comply with the new cable colour code with effect from 1
Mar 2009.
Activity: With reference to SS638, what warning notice is needed if wiring
additions or alterations are made to an installation such that some of the
wiring complies with 514.4 but there is also wiring to previous version of these
clauses, a warning notice shall be affixed at or near the appropriate
distribution board with?
10. Electrical Hazards and Safety
Since the effects of electricity can be felt but not seen, it is important that
special consideration must be given to electrical safety. When designing and
using electrical installations, safety considerations for protection against
electric shocks and thermal effects must be taken.
10.1 Safety from Electric Shocks
The human body is made up of a high proportion of water. Water is a
conductor of electricity. The resistance of the human body is different for
different people. This value ranges from between 1,000 Ω and 10,000 Ω.
The current flowing through a body will depend on the voltage and the body
resistance at that time. There are three main results in current passing
through the human body. These are firstly, burning, particularly where the
current enters and leaves the body. Secondly, muscular paralysis, which may
temporarily halt breathing. Thirdly, electric shock may cause cardiac arrest;
this ventricular fibrillation results in the pump chambers and valves of the
heart going out of synchronisation, with the result that blood ceases to be
pumped around the body.
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The following chart gives a guide on the effects on a person when "shock"
current flows through the body.
Figure 1-17: Effects of current injected into a human body.
10.2 How an Electric Shock May Occur
A person may receive an electric shock in many different ways. In all cases, a
person must act as a connecting path between two points of different
potential. To form a path, the body must simultaneously touch two points
which could be:
• any two of the three live wires of a three-phase supply (shock
between line-to-line)
• the live and the neutral (shock between line to neutral)
• the live and the earth wire of an electrical installation (shock between
line and earth)
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The figures below show these three possibilities.
Figure 1-18: Path take across the body.
10.3 Safety from Thermal Effects
Electricity flows through cables from its source to the final equipment. Heat
generated in the cables becomes very high during abnormal conditions e.g.
during overcurrent, short circuit and earth leakage faults. The cable insulation
beings to melt and release flammable gas which will catch fire when the
temperature reaches its flash point. If the cables are in contact with
combustible materials, these materials will catch fire when the temperature
reaches its ignition point. The fire will spread quickly resulting in serious
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damages to the electrical installation and anything in contact with the
installation.
11. References
[1] M. Louise, “Marisa’s Digital Portfolio: Joint Scientific Statement.” Internet:
[Link] [Feb. 20, 2016].
[2] Singapore Power, “Singapore Power.” Internet:
[Link] 2014 [Mar. 28, 2016].
[3] Y. C. Tan, Design and Specification of Power Distribution and Protection in
Buildings. Singapore: Amos Technologies Pte Ltd, 2003.
[4] K. S. Wong and P. Y. Lee, Power Distribution and Protection. Singapore:
Pearson Custom Publishing, 2011.
[5] Open Electricity Market, “Market Overview” Internet:
[Link] [Nov. 04,
2021
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